J uly 2013, Vol. 7, No. 7, pp.

732-741
J ournal of Life Sciences, ISSN 1934-7391, USA

Improving the Size and Market Value of an Underutilised
Yam (Dioscorea esculenta) in Ghana: Implications for
Crop Breeding and Production Choices
Kwamina Banson
1
and Kenneth Danso
2

1. Agricultural Economics BNARI-Technology Transfer Centre (TTC), GAEC- BNARI, Box Lg80 Legon, Accra, Ghana
2. GAEC-BNARI, Box Lg80 Legon, Accra, Ghana

Received: J uly 19, 2012 / Accepted: J anuary 24, 2013 / Published: J uly 30, 2013.

Abstract: Yam, Dioscorea esculenta which is a high value commodity is a threatened species in Ghana, due to several factors
including neglect on the part of science, technology, research and development. Different doses of radiation were use to improve the
size and market value of D. esculenta to promote it effective use and enhance effective conservation. We observed through repeated
experiments that irradiation of yam planting material at 40 Gy gave the best results producing a M1 generation with a decreased
number of tubers but with an increased tuber size per vine. Some yam characteristics are valued more than others, and prices vary
across species, time, and market sites. Tuber weight exhibits an increasing marginal value and price per kilogram increases above an
optimum size; therefore, yam producers and dealers derive additional reward from extra-large tubers. We conclude that, to effectively
access and benefit from urban markets, producers should focus on the improved size and conical shaped-tubers, which are easy to
process and meet the aesthetic qualities preferred by urban consumers. The implications for research on improved variety
development to reduce poverty and for crop and resource management practices are drawn.

Key words: Dioscorea esculentus, market, mutation, productivity, threatened species.

1. Introduction


Cultivation of indigenous agricultural varieties in
Ghana is characterized by low yield and productivity,
which are compounded in the long run by production
shocks due to environmental stresses such as drought,
pest and diseases. Coupled with international trade,
the demands for a particular variety of crop have
tended to favour only a few major crops which have
come to dominate agricultural production, processing
and commerce [1]. The demands for research and
hence funding have inevitably concentrated on these
same commodities. No attempt is made to improve
some of the traditional varieties. For example, most of
Ghanas indigenous vegetables and tubers have a

Corresponding author: Kwamina Banson, BSc, MSc, research
field: agricultural economics. E-mail: asskeroo@yahoo.com.
proven higher nutritive value than the exotic species.
However, since most of the indigenous varieties have
not been worked upon to improve yield potential,
palatability, flavour and general attractiveness, despite
their being highly nutritious they are still not widely
exploited commercially. As a result, not only are a
number of indigenous food species falling into disuse,
that can contribute fibre, medicine, fodder, etc but also
replaced by their exportable crops. However, these
neglected species are part of a rich economic, social
and cultural diversity, and many have the potential to
play a much more important role than they do today in
sustaining livelihoods and human wellbeing and in
enhancing ecosystem health and stability [2].
In spite of its huge economic potential and as a
source of food security, D. esculenta or Chinese yam
locally called oboaduonum or broni bayerestill
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
Improving the Size and Market Value of an Underutilised Yam (Dioscorea esculenta)
in Ghana: Implications for Crop Breeding and Production Choices

733
remains an underutilized and under seriously genetic
extinction threat in Ghana. Lack of planting materials,
neglect by both farmers and researchers, and more
importantly, their displacement by improved varieties,
mining activities, bush fires, infrastructure
development and over-grazing coupled with small
tuber size has resulted in the almost complete
extinction of this yam species in Ghana. Consequently,
the full potential of this crop for income generation
through the domestic and international export trade
has not been realized due to neglect in production,
handling and trading systems as a result of it poor
sizes that inhibit its use for food and agriculture in
Ghana [2, 3]. Varieties cultivated for the Ghanaian
markets includes; Pona and Dabriko Dente,
Nkani, Afasie, kokoase bayere, Nkanfuo
Ahabayere, Muchumudu Afuun, Apoka,
Asobayereand Ediamawoba with Pona being the
most popular landrace cultivar of yams on the
Ghanaian market [4].
The expected role of mutation in a sustainable
agriculture is to contribute to the development of new
varieties presenting mainly resistance to diseases,
environmental stresses, contribution to recuperation
and protection of the environment, decreasing the
need for agricultural supplies and producing important
metabolites of fundamental importance in the human
diet [5]. Mutation research offers a wide range of
possibilities to crop improvement. In the short term its
most important contribution is the increase of the
quantity and quality of global food, feed and fiber
production. A complex list of desirable benefits
expected from mutation research and its productive
use is an important parameter that should be carefully
analyzed as research results come to light and
production reaches the market. Impact evaluation is
the intellectual tool that should respond to the need of
the situation.
Ghana is one of the developing countries that made
significant progress in biotechnology during recent
years. The Biotechnology and Nuclear Agricultural
Research Institute (BNARI) affiliated with the
Ministry of Agriculture, and Universities are
producing the most important and more productive
work in agricultural biotechnology research. This has
placed Ghana as one of the developing countries that
is doing significant progresses in biotechnology
among the scientific community in the world. The
research on biotechnology aiming the development
and adaptation of products and processes of interest
for the Ghanaian agriculture and agribusiness has
developed considerably in the last few decades. Over
two decades of application of induced mutation
techniques toward crop improvement in Ghana have
led to the production of improved mutant varieties
especially in two crops, cassava and cocoa.
Production constraints such as cassava mosaic
disease, cassava bacteria blight, arthropod pests, and
other biotic and abiotic stresses leading to small tuber
sizes, low productivity, rapid post-harvest
deterioration and inadequate starch and protein
content in the roots have been reduced to the barest
minimal with mutant varieties. Also production
constraints in cocoa during the 1980s as a result of the
Swollen shoot disease, virus which is transmitted by
mealy bug vectors and eventually destroys cocoa trees,
has been minimised with the mutant varieties.
Conventional breeding efforts attempting to address
many of the constraints to cassava and cocoa
productivity have had some success such as the TEK
BANKYE, a mutant variety of cassava with high dry
matter content (40%) and good poundability and
Cocoa Swollen Shoot Virus resistant mutant variety.
Therefore this research focused on the use of mutation
breeding to improve the tuber sizes of D. esculenta.
The purpose of this study was to improve the tuber
size and market value of D. esculenta using different
doses of gamma radiation to promote the effective use
of these species and enhance effective conservation
and sustainable use for food, agriculture and industry.
The Biotechnology and Nuclear Agriculture Research
Institute of the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission in
Improving the Size and Market Value of an Underutilised Yam (Dioscorea esculenta)
in Ghana: Implications for Crop Breeding and Production Choices

734
collaboration with The Plant Genetic Resources
Research Institute (PGRRI) of the Crops Research
Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR) developed a breeding programme to
improve the size, weight and conical shape of the
underutilized yam Dioscorea esculenta The ultimate
aim of the breeding programme is to improve the
market demand and increase productivity and the
main focus is on meeting national food needs and
increased export opportunities.
In Ghana, tuber weight exhibits an increasing
marginal value and price per kilogram increases above
an optimum size; therefore, producers derive
additional reward from extra-large tubers.
The major objective of the study examined market
demand and productivity level in an underutilised
Yam (Dioscorea esculenta) in Ghana.
The specific objectives of this study were the
following:
To identify barriers that prevents producers from
adopting the cultivation of D. esculenta;
Improve tuber sizes using different doses of
radiation at 10, 20, 30, and 40 Gy;
Analyse the market value of D. esculenta before
and after using different doses of gamma radiation to
improve it sizes.
It was hypothesized that aged farmers shun away
from the cultivation or adoption of oboedunum variety,
farmers turn to cultivate or adopt cultivation of
oboedunum variety as household size increases and
Price per tuber increase with increasing weight.
2. Methodology
The study started with a detail literature review on
theoretical approaches, on the concept of mutation
breeding, their adoption and impact on economic
development. Furthermore literature on the Ghanaian
yam market was analysed.
Both primary and secondary methods were used for
data collection from forty yam producers mainly from
the Northern and Eastern Region of Ghana to
determine their level of knowledge and awareness of
the underutilised yam, D. esculenta. 115 people were
interviewed in a market survey in the Greater Accra
Region, the centre of yam marketing. The field survey
(ex-ante and ex-post) took place from October 2009 to
J anuary 2011 using standardized questionnaires. In
2009, the questioanire was designed to capture the
consumer and yam dealers level of knowledge and
awareness of the underutilised yam, D. esculenta.
Samples of indigenous underutilised Yam
(Dioscorea esculenta) were taken to all the yam
markets of Greater Accra region and yam producing
region to asked yam dealers, producers and experts
weather they have knowledge of the variety. Based on
the finding, experiment was design to improve the
variety using mutation. Radio-sensitivity analysis was
done to determine the LD50 of the seed yam and
based on the findings, dosage of 40, 30, 20, and 10 Gy
was emitted to the seed yam for the experiment. LD50
is the dose at which 50% of the seed yam to be
radiated will survive. The characteristic needed were
expressed in the subsequent generation of seed yams
from parent radiated yam harvested.
The survey districts were selected purposively in
the peri-urban areas of Greater Accra Region which is
a center for most yams produced in Ghana with largest
market segments. Communal leaders of farmer groups
and representatives of district governments were also
interviewed with unstructured questionnaires. This
helped gained insight into the policies that influence
the performance of the yam industry in Ghana.
Since the total number of yam producers and
exporters is not available for the design of a
probability sample, their selection was based on
snowball sampling in which interviewed farmers will
be requested to name other farmers.
In selecting the producers, care will be taken to
include farmers with different operational scales (i.e.
medium and large scale).
The surveys on market demand and productivity
assessment focus on ex-ante or ex-post
Improving the Size and Market Value of an Underutilised Yam (Dioscorea esculenta)
in Ghana: Implications for Crop Breeding and Production Choices

735
evaluations of the underutilized yam Dioscorea
esculenta. To improve the tuber size or weight (which
was 0.3 kg on the average before radiation) of
Dioscorea esculenta, repeated experiments with
different doses of radiation at 10, 20, 30, and 40 Gy
were used.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 The Findings of the Farmer/Consumer Surveys on
Shortcomings with of D. esculenta
3.1.1 The Characteristics of the Yam Market
A survey conducted through the selected yam
markets revealed that most of them lack identifiable
physical infrastructures while majority of them
constitute a subset of a main market where other
commodities are at display.
Some of the sellers, especially new entrants mostly
display their yams on sacks and mats on the ground
at the mercy of the weather and without any well
defined mode of preservation and sometimes under
makeshift barns or shed but the well established
sellers have proper shed to store the yams as shown in
Figs. 1 and 2. Fried groundnuts are sometimes used by
some of the traders as baits to wade off mice and other
rodents that destroy the yams when they are in storage
at the market.
Female adults constitute about 90% of the sellers
with young males assuming the remaining 10%. Most
of the sellers do not possess any level of formal
education and are mainly from the Northern part of
the country where yam production is known to be the
highest. A good number of them also claim their
husbands/relatives are the producers and they do the
marketing thereby limiting the activities of middlemen
in the value chain.
Prospective yam buyers have the luxury of
bargaining for the price of a tuber until the sellers
settle on a bottom line for their produce. Hence yam
prices at these selected markets as prevailing in other
markets are determined as a result of the interplay of
demand and supply but with the sole aim of profit

Fig. 1 Yam storage, on pallets and covered with straw mat.


Fig. 2 Yams under shed.

maximization. The survey also showed that yam
farmers within the precincts of Accra visit such
markets to purchase yam setts (seeds) for cultivation.
The markets are seemed to be perfectly competitive
in nature and characterised by the free entry and exit
policy. However, even though entry and exit are not
restricted, new entrants need to pay a nominal fee for
registration with the market leaders (AMA, FAO,
1998) [6]. Since the product on sale (yams) is
homogeneous in nature the practice of ex hypothesi is
completely absent.
3.1.2 The Farmers
47% of the farmers interviewed were 30 years and
above. The minimum household number was 1 and
the maximum was 9 with 23% of interviewed farmers
having an average household size of 4. 46% of
interviewee had high school education while 20% of
Improving the Size and Market Value of an Underutilised Yam (Dioscorea esculenta)
in Ghana: Implications for Crop Breeding and Production Choices

736
farmers had basic school education (Table 1). Most of
the farmers (64%) interviewed had been farming for
more than 15 years. 53% of the farmers (below 30
years) who had been farming for less than 15 years
were aware of oboaduonum but had never seen it.
All farmers cultivated at least more than three species
of yam and the important amongst them are
Laribako, Muchumudu, Kulunku Fuseini and
Nyumbo with Pona being the most popular
landrace cultivar for both local and the international
market. The average farm size is 3.7 acres, minimum
is 1 and maximum is 5.
92% of the farmers interviewed were aware of D.
esculenta but 43% of them are cultivating it on less
than 2% of the total land area. Tuber weight exhibits a
diminishing marginal value and price per kilogram
decreases below an optimum size; therefore,
producers do not derive additional reward from
cultivating oboaduonum small tubers.
Table 2 indicated that as household size increases,
farmers turn to cultivate or adopt cultivation of
oboaduonum variety and other varieties to feed
family. It also shows that as farmers aged, they shun
away from the cultivation or adoption of D. esculenta,
although it is the aged group that knows the crop. Our
survey indicated that young yam farmers below the
age of 30 do not known the crop while those above
have cultivated the variety before. The result indicated
that awareness of oboaduonum existence among
farmers is directly correlated with experience of
farmers and farming years (Fig. 3). This observation
poses serious genetic erosion threat to the crop.
Stata outputs analysis of variance (anova) results
along with the regression results: Table 2. Top left is
anova table, and bottom is regression results. The
dependent variable here is cultivation of Oboeduenum
(oboedu), and the variable name is shown at the left top
of regression results table. The coefficients for age of
farmer, household size and availability of yam seed are
shown in the Coef. Column. Std. Err. is Standard Error,
t: t test statistics, P > |t|: the P values, and 95%
Confidence Interval. The results can be written in

Table 1 Demographics and farming statistics.
Variable Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max.
Age 40 2.75 0.438529 2 3
Hhsize 40 4.692308 2.214234 1 9
Edu 40 2.725 1.679247 1 6
Frmyrs 40 3 1.281025 1 8
Oboedu 40 0.45 0.5038315 0 1
Aware 40 0.975 0.2761921 0 2
Farmsize 40 3.7 1.697661 1 5
Seedavai 40 0.5 0.5063697 0 1

Table 2 Stata outputs analysis of variance (ANOVA) results along with the regression results. Top left is the ANOVA table
and bottom regression results.
Source SS df MS Number of obs. = 40
Model 7.86605192 3 2.62201731 F (3.35) = 53.24
Residual 1.72369167 35 0.049248334 Prob >F = 0.0000
Total 9.58974359 38 0.252361673 R-squared = 0.8203
Adj R-squared = 0.8049
Root MSE = 0.22192
Oboedu Coef. Std. Err t
P >t
[95% Conf. interval]
Age -0.0661358 0.0919154 -0.72 0.477 -0.252734 0.1204623
Hhsize 0.0197063 0.0179957 1.10 0-281 -0.0168269 0.0562395
Seedavai 0.8902708 0.0765794 11.63 0.000 0.7348064 1.045735
_Cons 0.0911574 0.2303037 0.40 0.695 -0.3763841 0.5586988
Improving the Size and Market Value of an Underutilised Yam (Dioscorea esculenta)
in Ghana: Implications for Crop Breeding and Production Choices

737
UsageofD.esculentu
WhenwasthelasttimeyouusedD.esculenta?

Fig. 3 Aging and awareness of oboaduonum.

regression equation form as:
Oboedu =0.092 0.066age +0.019hhsize +
0.891seedavai
An R Square of 0.82 means that differences in age,
household size and seed availability can explain 82%
of the variation in adoption rates of oboaduonum
(Table 2).
Farmers were asked if they would adopt the
cultivation of oboedunum if improved seed were made
available to them and the result (seedavai, b =0.8903)
is statistically significant at least at 99% level (P =
0.000, it is less than 0.0005), and the coefficient is
positive which would indicate that if improve seeds are
made accessible to the farmers they would adopt the
cultivation of oboedunum variety -- which is what we
would expect (hypothesis).
Thus, to effectively enhance adoption of
oboaduonum variety, research focused on
improving variety to increase tuber size, low weight,
and it conical shaped-tubers, which are easy to process
and meet the aesthetic qualities preferred by urban
consumers. The implication for research to improve
variety development was to reduce poverty and
improve crop and resource management practices as
well as its nutritional content. The numerous tubers
produced by the plant already make it an ideal
candidate for adoption as shown in the Fig. 3.
3.1.3 The Consumers
Of the 115 consumers interviewed, showing them
sample of the indigenous or unimproved D. esculenta,
82% had not seen the variety before. Consumers were
asked how likely they would purchase this variety if
made available in the market and about 48% of them
indicated how unlikely to buy the variety (Fig. 4).
Some of the reasons attributed are that; the variety is
not available at the market, some said, it small sizes
will make it inconvenience to peel, others said due to
their large family size, it will require intensive work to
get it prepared for the table compared to large once.
They also said due to its small sizes, it will not store
Improving the Size and Market Value of an Underutilised Yam (Dioscorea esculenta)
in Ghana: Implications for Crop Breeding and Production Choices

738
longer in storage (Table 4).
3.2 The Breeding Program Designed to Increase
Tuber Size and Weight
Experimental design consisting of 50 Samples each
of the indigenous variety of D. esculenta seeds were
exposed to gamma irradiation at a dose of 0Gy
(control), 10Gy, 20Gy, 30Gy and 40Gy at the
Biotechnology and Nuclear Agriculture Research
Institute. These radiated samples were planted in
Greater Accra Region, BNARI research fields, and
also at Bonsu in the Eastern region at the Plant
Genetic Resources Research Institute (PGRRI) of the
Crops Research Institute of the Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR). These were harvested
after nine months. Tuber weight increased with
decreasing number of tubers per vine with increasing
irradiation dose compared to the control. Observation
through repeated experiments indicated that
irradiation of tubers at 40 Gy decreased the number
of tubers per vine and marginally increased the tuber
size at M1 generation suggesting a correlation
between tuber size and number of tubers per vine as
shown in Fig. 5.
3.3 Willingness to Pay for D. esculenta
According to the market respondents, after tasting
samples of the D. esculenta given to them, and also
according to sensory evaluation carried out by the
food science department of BNARI, have similar
properties as Pona which is the most preferred variety
of yam both at local and international market. Price
per kilogram is also relatively higher compared to all
the other yam varieties. The wholesale price of


Fig. 4 Chances of adoption of oboaduonum.

Table 3 Reasons for disliking this yam.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative percent
Valid not available 8 17.4 17.4 17.4
Small size makes it inconvenient to peel 21 47.8 47.8 65.2
Demand more work with preparation due to its size 12 26.1 26.1 91.3
Poor storage 4 8.7 8.7 100.0
Total 45 100.0 100.0

Improving the Size and Market Value of an Underutilised Yam (Dioscorea esculenta)
in Ghana: Implications for Crop Breeding and Production Choices

739
Control (0Gy) 10Gy
20Gy
30Gy

40Gy
Fig. 5 D. esculenta tuber sizes at M1 generation.

Ghanaian yam has also been increasing as export
quantities increase.
Yam tuber weight exhibits a diminishing marginal
value and price per kilogram decreases below an
optimum size; therefore, producers do not derive
additional reward from cultivating oboaduonum
small tubers before the experiment. The size and
weight of the tubers increased to an average of 1 kg
against 0.3 kg/tubers of the control (unirradiated
planting material). The maximum and minimum
weights of the 40Gy tubers are 1.5 kg and 0.8
respectively. Tuber weight exhibited an increasing
marginal value and price per kilogram increased
above an optimum size; therefore, producers would
Improving the Size and Market Value of an Underutilised Yam (Dioscorea esculenta)
in Ghana: Implications for Crop Breeding and Production Choices

740
derive additional reward from extra-large tubers.
According to the market survey, retail prices of yam
have increased from GH 0.20 per kg (2000) to GH
1.5 per kg (2012). Yam prices are highest in J une and
J uly when the most preferred variety of yam, the Pona,
is out of season and in low supply. Farmers are able to
get a higher price for other varieties such as
Laribako, Muchumudu, Kulunku Fuseini in
J une and J uly relative to other points in the year.
Demand is particularly high for quality yam during
the summer months when production is low and
exports can command a higher market price. D.
esculenta is not exceptional since its texture and taste
is similar to the Pona type.
Both the farm gate and wholesale prices of
Ghanaian yam have been steadily increasing in recent
years, with wholesale prices increasing at a higher rate.
About 52% of consumers are likely or willing to buy
D. esculenta at the local market next to Pona (Fig. 4).
As consumers willingness to pay a higher price for D.
esculenta yam increases, farmers will increase their
production. Local farmers and exporters indicate a
strong willingness to purchase seed yam if it were
more readily available. Access to seed yam would
expedite cultivation of D. esculenta tubers to meet
rising demand.
Observation through repeated experiments indicated
that irradiation of tubers at 40 Gy decreased the
number of tubers per vine and marginally increased
the tuber size at M1 generation suggesting a
correlation between tuber size and number of tubers
per vine as shown in Fig. 5.
4. Conclusions
The results of market survey indicated that
oboaduonum is nearing extinction and farmers are
willing to cultivate it if the size is improved and
planting materials made available. The size and
weight of the tubers increased to an average of 1 kg at
40 Gy against 0.3 kg/tubers of the control
(unirradiated planting material). Tuber weight
increased with increasing irradiation dose. The tubers
of 10 Gy, 20 Gy, 30 Gy had an average weight of 0.54
kg, 0.68 kg, and 0.74 kg, respectively. Tuber weight
exhibited an increasing marginal value and price per
kilogram increased above an optimum size; therefore,
producers derive additional reward from extra-large
tubers. We conclude that, to effectively access and
benefit from urban markets, producers should focus
on the improved size and conical shaped-tubers, which
are easy to process, meet the aesthetic qualities
preferred by urban consumers and can also fetch more
money as a vine can give more yams compare to the
pona with just a yam per vine. This will improve
productivity and food security. This also provide
avenue for investors to invest in seed yam production
in Ghana because: there is increasing Demand for
Yam, Quality and preferred taste of Ghana yam,
Access to World Markets, Good roads, seaports and
airports, Support of Government, Trusted partners in
MiDA and ADRA, Low labor costs for farm
operations, Warm and friendly people, Politically
stable democratic government, Positive business
enabling environment, and more (MiDA, 2011) [7].
Acknowledgments
The corresponding author would like to take this
opportunity to express very sincere thanks and
appreciation to the manager of the Biotechnology
Center of Biotechnology and Nuclear Agriculture
Research Institute for inviting me to undertake this
work, for providing me with appropriate background
information and for taking the time to discuss his
views with me. I would also like to take this
opportunity to express sincere thanks to Prof.
J osephine Nketsia-Tabiri, director of the BNARI for
providing her comments and views. I would also like
to thank all those who contributed either through
responding to the questionnaire or who gave up their
time to discuss the issues with me directly. In the
latter category I am particularly grateful to Ebenezer
Kondo for his assistance, and my family especially my
Improving the Size and Market Value of an Underutilised Yam (Dioscorea esculenta)
in Ghana: Implications for Crop Breeding and Production Choices

741
wife Irene Baaba Banson and all my children for their
support.
References
[1] D. Horna, M.R. Al-Hassan, S.W. Alhassan, O.K. Bonsu,
J . Falck-Zepeda, G. Guillaume, et al., Assessing the
Potential Economic Impact of genetically Modified Crops
in Ghana: Tomato, Garden Egg, Cabbage and Cassava,
PBS Report, October 2006, 2006.
[2] Li Longwe, Malawi country report to the FAO on plant
genetic resource, (Leipzig, 1996), FAO, Compiled by:
Malawi Governament, J une, 1995.
[3] G. Hawtin, Underutilized Plant Species Research and
Development Activities Review of issues and options,
A report submitted to the chairs of the GFU Steering
Committee and the ICUC Scientific Advisory Board, J uly,
2007.
[4] E. Otoo, R. Akromah, M. Kolesnikova-Allen, R. Asiedu,
Ethno-botany and morphological characterisation of the
yam pona complex in Ghana, 2009.
[5] M. Carneiro, Introduccin y Panorama General, in: M.
Carneiro, (Coord.) Estratgias de biotecnologia
agropecuria para el Cono Sur. Montevideo, PROCISUR,
2000, pp. 1-8. (in Portuguese)
[6] AMA, FAO, Food Supply and Distribution To Accra And
Its Metropolis Workshop Proceedings, Accra, Ghana,
13th-16th April, 1998.
[7] Millennium Development Authority (MiDA), Yam Seed
Production, Accessed on 23rd September 2011,
http://www.mcc.gov/documents/investmentopps/bom-gha
na-eng-yams.pdf.