Recent advances in building air conditioning systems

Clito F.A. Afonso

*
Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto R. Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
Received 10 March 2005; accepted 6 January 2006
Available online 9 March 2006
Abstract
Conventional cooling systems are responsible for large amounts of CO
2
release to the environment as well as for the use of harmful
refrigerants regarding the greenhouse eect and the ozone depletion potential. So research has been carried out in order to nd out new
cooling systems that are free of those problems. This work is a review of cooling systems discussing both classical and more advanced
technology emerging from recent research, with a respect to their general operating principles and their applications. Special attention is
paid to solar cooling. However focus will not be given to individual systems components as they change very often in design in order to
get even better eciencies. In this paper a classication of cooling systems is presented according to the nal energy used to operate them.
2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Air conditioning cycles; Review; Solar cooling; Electrical systems; Thermal systems; Hybrid systems
1. Introduction
Conventional systems for cooling and heating of build-
ings consume large amounts of energy produced by the
burning of fossil fuels. This results in vast quantities of
greenhouse gases being emitted to the atmosphere and
has serious consequences in terms of global warming, envi-
ronmental damage, e.g., acid rain and detrimental eects
on human health such as asthma. At Earth Summits in
Rio de Janeiro, Kyoto and recently Johannesburg, pressure
has gradually been brought to bear on national govern-
ments to act in an attempt to control greenhouse gas emis-
sions, and the Kyoto Summit secured a commitment from
EU countries to achieve an 8% reduction in CO
2
emissions
compared to the 1990 level by 20082012. So development
of new environmentally-friendly technologies will be vital
to achieve these targets.
On the other hand, chlorouorocarbons (CFCs) have
been used as working uids in conventional air condition-
ing systems for over 60 years. However, these refrigerants
are known to deplete the ozone layer and contribute to glo-
bal warming [1,2]. Environment concern about CFCs,
HCFCs and some of their replacements [3], has prompted
research to identify new technologies to provide an alterna-
tive to conventional vapor compression systems.
For refrigeration and building air conditioning there are
several available refrigeration systems. These systems can
be classied in three main categories according to the nal
energy used to operate them: electrical systems, thermal
systems and hybrid systems [4], as is shown in Fig. 1. While
in the rst category the input energy for operation of the
system is electricity (high grade energy), in the second
one the driving force can be any kind of thermal energy
(low grade energy). The third one is composed of several
energy forms that are used together in order to provide
increased system eciency as well as greater balance in
energy supply.
Recently the second group (thermal systems) has been
receiving increasing interest from both the commercial
market and research. This is mainly due to the fact that
thermal systems represents smaller ozone depletion poten-
tial and smaller contribution to greenhouse eects than
electrically operated refrigeration plants, using synthetic
refrigerants used in the systems operated electrically
1359-4311/$ - see front matter 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2006.01.016
*
Tel.: +351 2250 81746.
E-mail address: clito@fe.up.pt
www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng
Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 19611971
(leakage rates vary from 5% to 25% of the total charge).
Also as they are thermal operated instead of electrically
operated, the CO
2
emissions are lower. As an example,
for the same quantity of nal energy, burning natural gas
in a boiler releases 0.21 kg CO
2
/kW h to the environment
while electricity releases 0.68 kg CO
2
/kW h. Electricity pro-
duction in a traditional power plant powered by fossil fuels
involves several stages of power conversion, rst chemical
energy to thermal then mechanical and nally electricity.
There are losses associated to each conversion process as
well as to the grid connection and electricity transport
which all contribute to the higher emissions of CO
2
to
the atmosphere [5]. The International Institute of Refriger-
ation has estimated that approximately 15% of all electric-
ity produced worldwide is used for refrigeration and air-
conditioning processes of various kinds [6]. Due to this dif-
ference in CO
2
emissions, to regional shortage of electricity
that forces the price of electricity to high levels, there are
economic incentives in several countries to the replacement
of electricity, as nal energy, with thermal energy, which
makes more appealing the thermal operated refrigeration
systems. The third kind of systems is a symbiosis of several
form of energy supply to the refrigeration systems. There
are also some miscellany refrigeration systems that are still
under development.
This work presents a review of the classical systems for
cooling as well as the new ones that emerged from recent
research, discussing their general operating principles as
well as their applications. Focus will not be given to indi-
vidual components of the systems as they change very often
in design in order to achieve even better optimal eciency.
2. Electrical systems
The electrical systems can be subdivided according to
the working uid used for its operation e.g., vapor, air
and CO
2
(see Fig. 1). While the rst one is based on the
vapor compression cycle, the second one is based on the
inverse of the JouleBrayton cycle and the third one on
the trans-critical cycle. Besides these systems, there is the
thermoelectric refrigeration system that, unlike the other
ones, accomplishes its objective, the cooling, in a more
direct manner.
The major part of refrigeration systems operated electri-
cally are based on the vapor compression refrigeration
cycle [7,8], which is composed of four basic components:
evaporator, compressor, condenser and expansion valve,
as shown in Fig. 2.
Applying the rst law of thermodynamics to the whole
cycle, and to each of its components [9], neglecting changes
in kinetic and potential energy, and if _ m is the refrigerant
mass ow rate in the system, it is possible to calculate the
dierent energy uxes in the cycle by the following set of
equations:
rst law of thermodynamics:
_
Q
evap

_
Q
cond
_
W 0,
evaporatorrefrigeration eect:
_
Q
evap.
_ mh
1
h
4
,
compressorcompression power:
_
W _ mh
2
h
1
,
condensercondensation heat:
_
Q
cond
_ mh
3
h
2
,
expansion valve: h
4
= h
3
.
Refrigeration Systems
Electrically operated Thermally operated Hybrid
Vapour
Air
CO
2
Thermoelectric
Absorption
Adsorption
V. with thermal engines
Desiccants
Ejector
Heat / electricity
Metal Hybrid
Solar / Biomass
Solar / Biomass / Diesel
Solar / Gas
Chemical / Thermal
Fig. 1. Classication of active refrigeration systems according to the nal energy used to operate them.
Fig. 2. Basic vapor compression cycle.
1962 C.F.A. Afonso / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 19611971
The coecient of performance (COP) is then given by
COP
_
Q
evap.
_
W

h
1
h
4
h
2
h
1
where h
i
enthalpy (kJ/kg),
_
Q
evap
heat power extracted
from the evaporator (kW),
_
Q
cond
heat power released in
the condenser (kW),
_
Wcompressor mechanical power
(kW).
COP values are always positive and usually greater than
one, due to the fact that the refrigeration eect is greater
than the compression power. Typical values of COP for
the vapor compression system are in the range of 23. Even
if the evaporation temperature is held constant all over the
year, the COP is not constant due to changes in air or water
temperature feeding the condenser, which causes changes
in the condensing temperature and also in the enthalpies
aecting the COP equation.
Better performances can be achieved with some modi-
cations. There are several possible modications that can
be implemented, depending on the specic application. A
very common one is the use of multistage compression,
i.e., the use of more than one compressor, with intercooling
of the refrigerant between each pair of compressors [10].
Intercooling is carried out with the refrigerant at lower
temperature withdrawn from other parts of the system
which reduces the system total work input. There are three
levels of pressure, a low in the evaporator, the intermediate
between the two compressors and the high at the con-
denser. The multistage systems usually have higher COP
values when compared with the conventional compression
systems. This is due to the fact that there is a decrease in
compression work and an increase in the refrigerant eect.
There are several ways to implement this technique, e.g., to
couple the system with several evaporators, each one with a
typical operating temperature.
Other modications can be carried out in the whole sys-
tem. For instance, a simple radiation shield placed in the
rear side of domestic refrigerator-freezers, to avoid the heat
transfer by radiation on this surface from the condenser
and compressor. It can decrease the inside air temperature
of the refrigerator up to 2 C. Table 1 shows the maximum
and minimum inside air temperature in the refrigerator in
three dierent inside levels with and without radiation
shields [11]. This technique can also be applied on standard
air conditioning units.
Dry air may serve as a refrigerant in a mechanical com-
pression system. In these systems the refrigeration is accom-
plished by means of a non-condensing gas. The cycle is based
on the reverse of the Joule-Brayton cycle which have four
basic components: two heat exchangers, one compressor
and one turbine [9]. One of the heat exchangers absorbs heat
from the place to be cooled down, while the other one rejects
heat to the environment. For conventional refrigeration
requirements, the air cycle systems have too low coecient
of performance to compete with the vapor compression sys-
tems. These systems are of great interest in applications
where the weight of the refrigerant unit must be kept at a
minimum, for example, in aircraft cabin cooling.
The trans-critical cycle uses CO
2
as working uid and
operates over the critical point of the refrigerant. Due to
the thermodynamic properties of CO
2
, the vapor compres-
sion cycle and the components of the system should dier
from the ones with low pressure refrigerants. In fact, for
moderate ambient air temperatures, the pressure at which
the refrigerant rejects heat must be supercritical, with vari-
able uid temperature. Fig. 3 shows a typical trans-critical
cycle. As pressure and temperature are independent proper-
ties on the supercritical region, the system must have a high
side pressure adjustment. The COP is pressure dependent
and has a maximum value for a given high side pressure [12].
The high pressure (>100 bar), combined with the low
molar mass of CO
2
, reduces the volumetric ow and the
dimensions of the system components (compressor, valves,
piping).
The thermoelectric refrigeration system uses directly
electrical energy to achieve a refrigeration eect without
any intermediate conversion process [13,14], such as the
conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy to
drive the compressor. The electrical energy, rather than
the refrigerant serves as a carrier. It thereby avoids the cost
of having a compressor, condenser and evaporator (see
Fig. 4). Therefore, the system is compact, quiet, and needs
little maintenance. Like the conventional thermocouple,
the thermoelectric refrigeration is based upon the Peltier
eect (1834) in which two dissimilar materials, A and B,
are used. There are two junctions between these materials,
one located in the refrigerated space and the other in the
surroundings. When an electrical potential dierence is
Table 1
Minimum and maximum inside air temperature at dierent heights in the
refrigerator (C) for dierent locations of the radiation shield (rs)
Height
(cm)
Without
rs
Rear wall
with rs
Recess
with rs
Real wall
+ recess with rs
83.5 4.5/6.6 4.3/6.9 4.1/5.9 3.9/6.3
58 3.8/7.0 2.6/6.9 3.7/6.3 2.5/5.2
53 2.9/7.4 1.8/6.3 2.5/6.1 1.1/5.1
35 3.1/6.5 2.3/5.7 2.2/5.3 1.8/5.6
T
aver.
3.6/6.9 2.8/6.5 3.1/5.9 2.3/5.5
r 0.6/0.35 0.93/0.49 0.79/0.37 1.0/0.47
crit
evaporation
p
h
heat rejection
compression
expansion
Fig. 3. Trans-critical cycle.
C.F.A. Afonso / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 19611971 1963
applied on these materials, the temperature of the junction
located in the refrigerated space decreasesthe refrigera-
tion eectwhereas the temperature of the other junction
increases [1518]. The Peltier eect is one of the three ther-
moelectric eects, the other being known as the Seeback
eect and Thompson eect. Whereas the last two eects
act on a single conductor, the Peltier eect is a typical junc-
tion phenomenon [19]. The three eects are connected to
each other by a simple relationship [20].
Thermoelectric cooling oers many advantages when
compared to other methods. These includes the easy of
interchanging the cooling and heating functions, no wear
and noise from moving parts, no problem in containment
of refrigeration, easy of miniaturization for very small
capacities systems, easy of controlling capacity varying
applied voltage and ability to operate under zero gravity.
The main applications of thermoelectric systems have been
in portable refrigerators, water coolers, cooling of scientic
apparatus used in space exploration, and in aircraft.
3. Thermal systems
There are several kinds of heat driven refrigeration sys-
tems that can be generally classied as shown in Fig. 1.
In the next subsections, the principles of each one is
shortly described.
3.1. Vapor compression systems driven by thermal engines
These systems are based on the traditional vapor com-
pression cycle described in Section 2, but in this case the
electricity supply to the compressor comes from a thermal
engine, namely the Stirling engine, instead of coming from
the main electrical grid [21,22]. For ecient operation the
heat source should work between 650 C and 800 C. There
are a few of those engines running with parabolic solar
concentrators, but these systems are expensive and com-
plex, as they must track the sun.
If the electrical energy supply to the vapor compression
system comes from a Rankine cycle, it is called Duplex
Rankine system [23].
3.2. Absorption systems
Absorption cooling, as a method, is as old as the vapor
compression. However it has only started to gain signi-
cant importance recently. On one hand, because of the
undesirable eects of synthetic refrigerants on the environ-
ment and on the other hand, because of the increasing
energy prices [24]. An absorption unit diers from the
vapor compression system in the way how the compression
of refrigerant is carried out, while having in common the
other three components: the evaporator, the condenser
and the expansion valve.
Fig. 5 shows the dierent parts of the cycle, the thermal
compressor. In the absorption cooling the compression is
done using a secondary uid that has the capacity of
absorbing the main refrigerant owing in the other three
components. In the absorber outlet, heat is rejected to
the environment in order to carry out the absorption pro-
cess. The result is a homogeneous liquid solution that is
pumped to the generator. The objective is to separate the
two uids using external heat [25]. The work of compres-
sion in the absorption system is much lower than in the
vapor compression system due to the fact that a liquid
solution is pumped instead of vapor. However a large
quantity of heat at higher temperatures (typically over
100 C) must be supplied in the generator. These two eects
together, decrease the COP value of the absorption system,
when compared to vapor compression cooling, to values
below one, typically around 0.7. COP can be increased
using waste heat (found in many industrial processes) or
solar energy in the generator. Because of the need to supply
heat to carry out the compression process, this part of the
system is also called a thermal compressor in opposition to
the vapor compression system where a mechanical com-
pressor is applied. The absorption cooling is nowadays
very common in house and camping refrigerators as well
as in air conditioning equipment.
Absorption systems can be classied according to
Working uid. The most popular uids in the absorption
system are H
2
OLiBr (water as refrigerant and lithium
bromide as secondary uid) and NH
3
H
2
O (ammonia
as refrigerant and water as secondary uid). The rst
pair of uids are suitable for positive temperatures in
the evaporator (water freezes below 0 C at ambient
pressure) while the second one can also be used for neg-
Fig. 4. Thermoelectric refrigeration system [28].
Heat
supply
Absor-
ber
Genera-
tor
Refrigerant
From evaporator
Refrigerant for
condenser
Heat
rejection
pump
Liquid solution
(refrig. +absorbent)
Fig. 5. Compression in the absorption system.
1964 C.F.A. Afonso / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 19611971
ative temperatures. However the NH
3
H
2
O systems are
not very common, due to their low eciency (average
cooling COP = 0.6), high heat transfer areas and initial
cost. Research is being carried out in order do develop
dierent pairs.
Number of eects, that describes the number of cycles
that are connected in cascade. A single eect machine
is related to a single cycle, while a double eect unit uses
the heat released in the high pressure cycle to the low
pressure generator. Thus, the energy supply to the sys-
tem is used twice and the COP of the cycle is average
doubled (typically 1.4 against the 0.7 of the single eect
for the pair H
2
OLiBr). The single eect system can use
hot water at about 80 C while the double eect system
needs water or vapor over 120 C that must be produced
in a boiler. However, recently developed double eect
water chillers with the pair NH
3
H
2
O [26] have achieved
a COP of about 1. Results reported for a heat pump [27],
indicate that values as high as 1.9 can be reached.
In spite of a fast increase in use, absorption cooling is
still more expensive and huge than the classic vapor com-
pression systems.
A number of modications on the basic absorption cycle
have been recently published [28]. One of them, called Pla-
tenMunters system (after its Swedish inventors), the liquid
pump is replaced by a third uid, typically hydrogen. The
advantage of this solution is that it does not have any mov-
ing parts. Another one is the steam ejector recompression
absorption refrigeration system. It is similar to a single
eect lithium bromide absorption cycle, with the dierence
that there is a steam ejector for enhancing the concentra-
tion process [29].
A novel method, the electrochemical absorption refrig-
eration system was published in 2000, and consists of four
main components [30]:
An electrochemical cell is the heat absorber, equivalent
to an evaporator in conventional vapor compression
refrigeration.
A fuel cell rejects heat in a manner similar to a con-
denser in vapor compression refrigeration.
Heat exchanger between gas streams and water ow
stream.
Current pump for elevating the fuel cells voltage output
to a level sucient for driving the electrochemical cell.
There are other systems still under development [31].
3.3. Adsorption cooling
Adsorption systems are similar to the absorption ones
but they use a refrigerant/adsorbent solid pair instead of
a refrigerant/absorbent liquid pair. There are several avail-
able pairs however the ammonia/activated carbon and
water/zeolite are the most frequent ones. Recent develop-
ments in solar absorption and adsorption cooling systems
showed that they can be implemented with a comparatively
high eciency and low manufacture and operation costs
[32].
3.4. Desiccants systems
Desiccant cooling is based on an open cycle where the
cooling is done directly in the air by changing its humidity,
instead of being cooled trough evaporators as in the other
systems. A desiccant is a synthetic or natural hygroscopic
material that is able to absorb or release the humidity of
the surrounding air. The humidity absorption is followed
by an increase of the air temperature because of the latent
heat released by the condensing water. In an opposite way,
the humidity absorbed by the desiccant can be released to
the air by heating the desiccant to a suciently high tem-
perature. This results in a decrease of the surrounding air
temperature, because of the water evaporation [33].
In a typical desiccant cooler the air to be insuated in
the space is dehumidied as it passes through the desiccant.
The latent heat is transformed in sensible heat as the air is
becoming drier and warmer. The exhaust air from the
space goes then trough an evaporative cooler becoming
more humid and colder. These two air streams ow into
a heat exchanger where the supply air is cooled to a tem-
perature lower then the space air temperature. Energy sup-
ply is required to heat the exhaust air after the heat
exchanger and for the regeneration of the desiccant.
The most important advantage by using desiccant cool-
ing is that both air temperature and humidity can be simul-
taneously controlled (World Health Organization
recommends a maximum humidity of 7 g/kg for healthy
indoor air). Eciency and COP can be improved by using
solar or waste energy for the desiccant regeneration. Indi-
rect beneces are associated with low humidity levels,
including reduced corrosion and microbial growth.
3.4.1. Solid desiccant systems
Commercial solid desiccant systems are available with
typical COP values about 1 [34]. Several solid desiccant
materials can be found, such as silica gel, carbon, etc.
Fig. 6 shows a typical solid desiccant system as well the
psychometric chart of the air evolution. Typical values of
the proprieties of the thermodynamic air states shown in
Fig. 6 are represented in Table 2.
In some cases, the cooler (evaporator) mounted after the
thermal wheel, is replaced by an evaporative cooler in
order to avoid the use of refrigerants. In this case there is
an increase in humidity and a decrease in temperature after
state 3.
3.4.2. Liquid desiccant systems
The working principles of both desiccant systems is sim-
ilar, however there are some dierences in the equipment
design. For example, in a cooler using liquid desiccant,
the desiccant wheel is replaced by a spray chamber. This
is an important advantage, since desiccant wheels are
C.F.A. Afonso / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 19611971 1965
generally large in size in order to enhance heat and mass
transfer, but makes them relatively expensive.
A new liquid desiccant system where attention is paid
only to the dierences regarding the conventional ones is
shown in Fig. 7 [35]. In this new system, the classical ven-
tilators have been replaced by rotors with bers which act
as evaporator or absorber, Fig. 8, enabling an improved
heat and mass transfer by signicantly increasing the con-
tact surface area [36,37]. As liquid is injected in the center
of the ventilators owing over the bers, there is also an
eective removal of air particles promoting, in this way,
air cleaning. The thermal wheel was also replaced by a
more eective heat exchanger composed of heat pipes.
The absorbent used was lithium bromide. Potassium
formateHCOOKas absorbent is also under investiga-
tion since it has a negative crystallization temperature, it
is less corrosive and not as expansive as the others.
COP increases with inside temperature (T
i
), however
decreases with outside temperature (T
amb
) as shown in
+
-
Space
Desiccant
wheel
Thermal
Wheel
Cooler
Humyfier
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
1
2 3 4 5
6
7 8 9
10
H
u
m
i
d
i
t
y
Temperature
Fig. 6. Solid desiccant system.
Table 2
Typical thermodynamic properties of the air in a solid desiccant system
State T (C) w (g/kg) State T (C) w (g/kg)
1 28 11 6 23 6.8
2 44.4 6.1 7 15.81 9.76
3 22.9 6.1 8 32.27 9.76
4 15 6.1 9 70 9.76
5 16.5 6.1 10 46 16
Absorber
Heat pipes
Building
Evapora-
tor
Water
Water
Heat exchanger
Desiccant solution
Vapor
Generator
Heater
Evapo-
rator
R
1
3 2
S
A
T
2 3
1
I
S
A R
X
Fig. 7. New liquid desiccant system.
Fig. 8. Fiber rotor.
1966 C.F.A. Afonso / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 19611971
Fig. 9. These results were obtained for a relative humidity
of 50% and a heat pipe eciency of 70% [38].
3.5. Ejector
A very attractive feature of the ejector systems is that
they can provide heating and cooling simultaneously using
a single heat source, such as renewables (biomass, solar,
geothermal energy) or waste heat (exhaust gases for air
conditioning a vehicle).
For air conditioning applications, the most convenient
heat source is the solar energy [39,40]: it enables summer
cooling and winter heating. It is particularly interesting
for commercial buildings, where it is not necessary to use
air conditioning in the evenings, or in remote places where
there is no electricity or where hot euents are not avail-
able. In this system, the ejector replaces the compressor
of the vapor compression system. The ejector has a venturi,
a suction section, a converging section and a straight and
diverting section, Fig. 10.
Schematic representation of an ejector cycle is shown in
Fig. 11. Q
G
represents the primary heat source, which
would be, as mentioned before, a renewable (e.g., solar col-
lector) or a kombi system with a conventional boiler.
This system has no moving parts, which makes them
very reliable. There are ejector systems operating for more
than 20 years without any kind of problems.
A new prototype for combined heat and power has been
developed that consists of two circuits, a primary circuit
using n-pentane as working uid and a secondary circuit
with water (boiler and heat exchangers). Using n-pentane
as a working uid has advantages thermodynamic proper-
ties at relatively low temperatures therefore solar energy
can be applied as the heat supply. It is also a green refrig-
erant in contrast to CFCs. Schematic representation of
this prototype is shown in Fig. 12 [41], with 50% of solar
energy and 50% heat input from a natural gas boiler.
Global COP was 0.23. The estimated was 0.019/kW h
that is roughly half the price of a conventional system [42].
Other ejector systems have been applied in several build-
ings with dierent kind of refrigerants and good results
[4345].
3.6. Metal hybrid system
This is a state of the art refrigeration system developed
by a group of Japanese companies in the 90, capable for
26 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
T
amb
C
O
P
Ti=24C
Ti=26C
Fig. 9. COP as a function of outside air temperature for two dierent
indoor air temperatures.
Fig. 10. View of an ejector.
Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of the ejector system.
Boiler
1
Heater
2
Condenser
8
9
Evaporator
Ejector
3
Turbine
4 5
6
7
1
0
2a 2b
Fig. 12. Representation of the combined ejector/Rankine cycle.
C.F.A. Afonso / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 19611971 1967
cold storage below 30 C. The method is based on the
hydrogen absorption and desorption capability of metal
hybrid alloys in exothermic and endothermic reaction,
respectively. This phenomenon can be implemented in a
refrigeration cycle using a combination of two alloys, one
working at high and another at low temperatures. Some
of the advantages of this technique are that it is CFC free,
safe, no moving elements except for pumps circulating
water and brine and low noise [46].
3.7. Solar cooling
Heat and electrical driven refrigeration systems already
mentioned are suitable to operate with solar energy, which
can be converted either to heat (solar collectors) and either
to electricity (photovoltaic panels) [4750]. An important
advantage of operating a cooler using solar power lies
within the intrinsic connection between solar radiation
and cooling demand. Heating loads, and therefore cooling
demands are generally higher when solar intensity is high,
thus more energy is available for running the cooling sys-
tem. The appropriate refrigeration cycle depends on the
cooling demand, available form of energy input and tem-
perature level of the refrigerated objects and environment.
From an energy saving point of view, a solar cooling sys-
tem can save electrical energy in the range of 2540% when
compared to an equivalent cooling capacity of a conven-
tional water cooled refrigeration system [5153].
Solar driven absorption refrigeration was the rst solar
refrigeration system using solar thermal panels as heat
source for the generator. The COP of this system was
higher than the COP of other thermal operating systems,
typically around 0.60.8 and up to 1.35 for the two stages
process [5457].
Solar driven adsorption refrigeration is not as widely
used as the absorption systems. However, it can be inte-
grated with a low temperature solar collector, e.g., at
plate solar collectors. Ejector refrigeration can use also
solar energy to operate the generator, as already mentioned
before. It can work with a low temperature energy supply,
thus a solar collector can be used [58]. The vapor compres-
sion system can be also driven by electricity from photovol-
taic cells. However this system is quite expensive due to the
high installation cost and low eciency of the photovoltaic
panels. It is eective in areas far from the electricity grid,
where the cooling capacity is low [59].The duplex Rankine
cycle can also use thermal collectors to supply thermal
energy to the boiler. The solar energy is also suitable to
use on thermoelectric systems, through solar photovoltaic
panels.
4. Hybrid systems
An interesting solution, shown in Fig. 13, combines in a
single cycle the vapor compression and an absorption sys-
tem [60,61], operated on electricity and heat, with the fol-
lowing advantages:
Increase in COP values when compared with the absorp-
tion system.
Use of refrigerants of the absorption cycles.
Possibility of compression of the vapor owing out of
the generator and the use of its latent heat of condensa-
tion to reduce the necessary amount of thermal energy
for the operation of the generator.
As mentioned, the dierence between this system and
conventional absorption cooling lies on the generator.
The necessary thermal energy for comes from the conden-
sation of the refrigerant (process 23 in Fig. 13) previously
released in the generator and compressed to a pressure such
that the saturation temperature is higher than of the gener-
ator (process 12). COP values of this systems lies between
2 and 3.5 [62].
In order to intensify the heat transfer in the system, a
centrifugal eld was created [63], by placing all heat and
mass transfer equipmentevaporator, absorber, generator
and condenserin a rotating ensemble, Fig. 14.
The same kind of centrifugal eld was used on a gas
red absorption system, called ROTEX [64]. A solar/bio-
GENE-
RATOR
HEAT
EXCHANGER
ABSOR-
BER
EVAPORATOR
H. SOURCE
H.
4 5
3
2
1
SINK H.SINK
Fig. 13. Hybrid system.
Fig. 14. Hybrid system with a rotate ensembleevaporator view.
1968 C.F.A. Afonso / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 19611971
mass hybrid cooling systems was developed [65] that was
based on an absorption cycle. Measured COPs are around
0.5. With the same energy sources, an other adsorption sys-
tem was developed that uses ammonia/carbon pair as
working uid [66].
Solar/biomass/diesel energy was used on an absorption
refrigeration system (with cold storage) that uses water
lithium bromide as working uid [67]. COP values up to
1.2 were obtained. A solar/gas driven ejector refrigeration
cycle using methanol as working uid was also proposed
for a hospital in Mexico [44]. Another hybrid co-generation
system was recently proposed [68], combining a fuel cell
with an ejector. Electricity is produced in a fuel cell gener-
ator by reacting hydrogen with oxygen resulting steam that
drives the ejector [69,70].
Table 3 shows the typical values of COP of several
refrigeration systems so far analyzed.
5. Miscellany systems
The thermoacoustic refrigeration systems is considered
to be a new technology, attaining cooling without the need
for refrigerants. A loudspeaker creates sound in a hollow
tube which is lled with an ordinary gas. The process itself
utilizes standing acoustic waves in an enclosed cavity to gen-
erate the mechanical compression and expansion of a work-
ing uid needed for the cooling cycle. The technique has the
potential for high eciency operation without the need for
cooling liquids or mechanical moving parts [7173].
Flash cooling is also important commercially for obtain-
ing chilled water and for dry ice production. The ash
chamber is maintained under an extremely low pressure
by a compressor, usually a stem jet compressor. The advan-
tage of steam-jet-water-vapor systems is that they have
only few moving parts and therefore require little mainte-
nance. Flash coolers use cheap, non-toxic refrigerant
(water vapor) and have minimum power requirements.
6. Conclusions
In this overview, the main trends on air conditioning
systems were presented. They are related with the research
of new refrigerants environment friendly, with the develop-
ment of new thermodynamic cycles namely the desiccants
and hybrid and by the development of rotating devices to
enhance the heat and mass transfer.
Some of these innovations are still in research, however
they are expected to substitute the conventional systems in
short term. The implementation of new technologies will
enable to reduce the energy cost associated to operating
air conditioning, the negative environment impact as well
as the initial cost at installation.
Attention was also given to refrigeration systems that
can use solar energy turning them mote sustainable.
An increase in eciency, with lower costs, will allow for
the diusion of air conditioning systems in countries were
they are not widely spread.
The previsible decrease in dimension and costs of new
systems will have benets in the increase of competitiveness
of the air conditioning industry.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to Doctor Szabolcs Varga for his
valuable suggestions as well as to review the paper.
References
[1] IEA, Energy technologies for reducing emissions of greenhouse gases,
in: Proc. Seminar Paris.
[2] P.D. Fairchild, W. Fulkerson, Energy Technology R&D and Green-
house Eect, Saito, 1989, pp. 231241.
[3] Re`glement (CE) n 2037/2000 du Parlement europeen et du Conseil
du 29 Juin 2000 relatif a` des substances qui appauvrisent la couche de
ozone.
[4] A. Afonso, Refrigeration systems; classication, research and develop-
ment, 2 IBERAVACR, Encontro Iberico de Climatizacio n y
Refrigeracio n de las Escuelas de Ingenieria de Portugal y Espan a,
Malaga, Espanha, 2005.
[5] J.T. Smith, A comparison of the CO
2
emission rates of gas-red and
electrically driven chiller/heater machines under dynamic loading, in:
CIBSENational Conference, Eastbourne, England, 1995, pp. 151159.
[6] L. Lucas, IIR news, International Journal of Refrigeration 21 (2)
(1988), pp. 88.
[7] W.B. Gosney, Principles of Refrigeration, Cambridge University
Press, 1982.
[8] I. Dincer, Refrigeration Systems and Applications, John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd., 2003.
[9] Y. C engel, M. Boles, Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill Editions, 1994.
[10] W. Stoeker, J. Jones, Refrigeration & Air Conditioning, McGraw-
Hill International Editions, 1982.
[11] C. Afonso, J. Matos, The eect of radiation shields in the air
condenser and compressor of refrigerators on their thermal behavior,
International Journal of Refrigeration, in press.
Table 3
Typical values of COP of several refrigeration systems
Refrigeration cycle COP
Vapor compression Standard 23
PV cells 35
Duplex Rankine 0.30.5
Reverse JouleBrayton 1
Thermoelectric Standard 0.51
PV cells 0.5
Absorption Single eect 0.6
Double eect 1.2
Thermal collectors 0.61.3
Adsorption Standard 0.20.7
Thermal collectors 0.30.8
Desiccants Standard 1
Thermal collectors 0.51.5
Ejector Standard 0.7
Thermal collectors 0.30.8
Combined heat and power 0.250.45
Hybrid Heat/electricity 23.5
Solar/biomass 0.5
Solar/biomass/diesel 1.2
C.F.A. Afonso / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 19611971 1969
[12] J. Pettersen, Refrigerating, air conditioning and heat pump systems
based on CO
2
, IEA Annex 22 workshop on compression systems with
natural working uids, Trondheim, Norway, 1995.
[13] R. Kinsky, Applied Heat, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Sydney,
1977.
[14] R. Besancon, The Encyclopedia of Physics, third ed., Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, 1985, ISBN 0-442-25778-3.
[15] J. Creedon, Conversion of heat to electricity, US Patent 3175105.
[16] L. Durant, Thermal electric alternator, US Patent 2881384.
[17] C. Hansell, Heat-to-electrical energy converter, US Patent 2510397.
[18] G. Hatsopoulos, Conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy,
US Patent 2915652.
[19] R. Eichorn, Thermoelectric refrigeration, Refrigeration Engineering
66 (1958) 32.
[20] S. Godfrey, An introduction to thermoelectric coolers, Electronics
Cooling 2 (3) (1996) 3033.
[21] R. Sonntag, C. Borgnakke, G. Wylen, Fundamentals of Thermody-
namics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Edition, 1998.
[22] P. Lundqvist, Strirling cycle heat pump and refrigeration, Ph.D.
Dissertation, Trita Reference Report No. 13/9, Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, ISSN 1102-0245, 1993.
[23] W. Pridasawas, Solar cooling and sustainable refrigeration.
Available from: <htpp://www.egi.kth.se/proj/course/4A1623/les/
ARHPTSustainRefrig2005WP.pdf>.
[24] S. Riat, C. Afonso, A. Oliveira, D. Reay, Natural refrigerants for
refrigeration and air conditioning systems, Applied Thermal Engi-
neering 16 (1) (1997) 3342.
[25] F. Bosnjakovic, Technical Thermodynamics, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc. Edition, 1965.
[26] D. Whitman, J., Miriam, Gas air conditioning, British Gas publ.,
External Report MRS E 648, 1991.
[27] J. Bassols et al., First operation results of a gas-red 250 kW
absorption heat pump with plate-n heat exchangers, in: Interna-
tional Absorption Heat Pump Conference. AES-vol. 31, ASME,
1993.
[28] B. Bol, A novel vapour absorption refrigeration/heating system using
a membrane separation process, Ph.D. Thesis, Nottingham, 2002.
[29] W. Eames, S. Wu, A theoretical study of an innovative ejector
powered absorptionrecompression cycle refrigerator, International
Journal of Refrigeration 23 (2000) 475484.
[30] A. Newell, Thermodynamic analysis of an electrochemical refriger-
ation cycle, International Journal of Energy Research 24 (2000) 443
453.
[31] J. Turpin, New refrigeration technology poised to heat up the market,
engineered systems, October 2000.
[32] J. Wolpert, S. Riat, Recent developments in solar cooling systems,
Institute of Building Technology, Internal Report, University of
Nottingham, 2001.
[33] B. Warwicker, Low humidity and air conditioning, CIBSE Journal,
Technical File, 1995.
[34] K. Thompson, Technical trends in solar cooling, in: Proceedings
Seminar on Desiccant Cooling, CIBSE, 1997.
[35] C. Afonso, A. Oliveira, Ciclos Frigor cos Dessicantes para o
Condicionamento de Ar, 1 Congresso Luso-Mocambicano de
Engenharia, Maputo, 1999.
[36] A. Oliveira, C. Afonso, S. Riat, Thermal performance of a novel air
conditioning system using a liquid desiccantApplied Thermal Engi-
neering, Vol. 20, Pergamon Press, 2000.
[37] C. Afonso, A. Oliveira, Tecnologias Inovadores em Sistemas de Ar
Condicionado, Climatization Journal, no. 8, year II, 2000.
[38] A. Oliveira, C. Afonso, S. Riat, P. Doherty, Thermal performance of
a novel air conditioning system using a liquid desiccant, Applied
Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 12131223.
[39] R. Holmes, P. Holmes, Design of freon jet pump for use in a solar
cooling system, ASME Paper, no. 78 WA/SOL, 15, 1979.
[40] P. Tyagi, N. Murty, Ejector-Compression Systems for Cooling
Utilizing Low Grade Waste Heat Recovery Systems, Pergamon
Press, vol. 5, no. 6, 1985.
[41] A. Oliveira et al., in: A Combined Heat and Power System for
Buildings Driven by Solar Energy and Gas, HPN-2001 Conference,
CNAM, Paris, 2001.
[42] C. Afonso, J. Matos, A. Oliveira, Sistema H brido para a Producao
de Electricidade, Calor e Frio: Resultados Experimentais, 1
a
Jornadas Tecnicas de Primavera da EFRIARC: Climatizacao &
Refrigeracao em Portugal, Porto, 2001.
[43] J. Wolpert, S. Riat, Prototype for a novel solar powered ejector
air-conditioning system in Mazunte, in: Proceedings for the
International Solar Energy Society Congress, Goteborg, Sweden,
2003.
[44] J. Wolpert, Solar powered ejector air conditioning system for mexican
climate, Ph.D. Thesis, Nottingham, 2003.
[45] S. Aphornratana, S. Chungpaibulpatana, P. Srikhirin, Experimental
investigation of an ejector refrigerator: eect of mixing chamber
geometry on system performance, International Journal of Energy
Research 25 (2001) 397411.
[46] JNT, Safe CFC-free refrigeration system using hydrogen absorbing
alloys, CADDET Energy Eciency Newsletter 4 (1996) 47.
[47] C. McVeigh, Solar Cooling and Refrigeration, Ambient Press Ltd.,
UK, 1984.
[48] R. Best, N. Ortega, Solar refrigeration and cooling, Renewable
Energy 16 (1999) 685690.
[49] M. Gordon, High eciency solar cooling, Solar Energy 68 (1) (2000)
2331.
[50] J. Bonnin, W. Karaki, Refrigeration Solaire, Editions SCM, Paris,
1980.
[51] I. Dincer, Heat Transfer in Food Cooling Applications, Taylor &
Francis, Washington, DC, 1997.
[52] W. Pridasawas, P. Lundqvist, Technical options for a solar driven
cooling system, in: ISES Solar World Congress, Sweden, 2003.
[53] W. Pridasawas, P. Lundqvist, Feasibility and eciency of solar driven
refrigeration systems, in: 21st IIR International Congress of Refrig-
eration, USA, 2003.
[54] M. Gordon, High-eciency solar cooling, Solar Energy 68 (1) (2000)
2331.
[55] I. Dincer, E. Ture, Design and construction of a solar powered
absorption cooling system, in: Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Energy Saving and Energy Eciency, Ankara, 1993,
pp. 198203.
[56] I. Dincer, M. Edin, E. Ture, Investigation of thermal performance of
a solar powered absorption refrigeration system, Energy Conversion
and Management 37 (1996) 3157.
[57] I. Dincer, S. Dost, A simple model for heat and mass transfer in
absorption cooling systems (ACSs), International Journal of Energy
Research 20 (1996) 237243.
[58] M. Sokolov, D. Hershgal, Solar powered compression-enhanced
ejector air conditioner, Solar Energy 51 (3) (1993) 183194.
[59] World Health Organization (WHO), Conclusions and Recommenda-
tions on Solar Energy and Health from the World Solar Summit,
Paris 1993, World Health Organization, Global Programme for
Vaccines and Immunization.
[60] S.B. Riat, N.J. Shankland, C.W. Wong, Rotary absorption-recom-
pression heat pump, Building Services Engineering Research Tech-
nology 15 (1) (1994) 2730.
[61] S. Riat, R. Webb, C. Afonso, A. Oliveira, K. Siren, A. Karola, An
ecient rotary absorption recompression heat pump for air-condi-
tioning, in: Absorption Heat Pump Conference 96, CANMET,
Montreal, 1996.
[62] C.F.A. Afonso, A.C.F. Oliveira, Absorptionrecompression cycle for
refrigeration systems, in: Second International Thermal Energy
Congress, ITEC 95, Agadir, Marrocos, 1995.
[63] C.F.A. Afonso, A.C.F. Oliveira, Energetic analysis of an environ-
ment-friendly absorptioncompression refrigeration cycle, in: III
International Congress on Energy, Environment and Technological
Innovations, Caracas, Venezuela, 1995.
[64] Rotex, Eureka, Project EU 758, Gas Fired Absorption Heat Pump
for Heating and Cooling.
1970 C.F.A. Afonso / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 19611971
[65] Shinghal et al., Performance evaluation of 3-ton solar assisted hybrid
refrigeration plant for sub-zero operating temperature, International
Journal of Energy Research 14 (1990) 293303.
[66] R. Critoph, Rapid cycling solar/biomass powered adsorption refrig-
eration system, Renewable Energy 16 (1999) 673678.
[67] T. Berlitz et al., Cooling machine with integrated cold storage,
International Journal of Refrigeration 21 (2) (1998) 157161.
[68] C. Wongkhorsub, Hybrid fuel cell/ejector heat pump system, Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Nottingham, 2005.
[69] J. Appleby, R. Foulkes, Fuel Cell Handbook, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1989.
[70] P. Homan, Tomorrows Energy, MIT Press, 2002.
[71] L. Garret, J. Hoer, Thermoacoustic refrigeration, ASHRAE Journal
34 (1992) 2836.
[72] J. Wheatley, Acoustic heat pumping engine, US Patent 4,398,398,
1993.
[73] L. Garret, S. Backhaus, The power of sound, American Scientist
(NovemberDecember) (2000).
C.F.A. Afonso / Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 19611971 1971