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EXPANDING ROLE OF MICROBIOLOGY IN

METALLURGICAL PROCESSES
"For his extensive and pioneering contribution to the use and
understanding of biotechnology for metals recovery."
Recipient of the 2000 Milton E. Wadsworth Award

Introduction

The author has known Professor Wadsworth since the 1960s, when interest
in the application of microbial technology for metallurgical processes was
beginning its rapid rise. The development of bioleaching and mineral
biooxidation was advanced, in part, by Wadsworth's belief in the potential
for its application, as


well as by his numerous contributions to the understanding of the
fundamentals of hydrometallurgy. Wadsworth is recognized for fostering
research and development of the field and adding credibility to
microbiological-based metallurgical processes, now often referred to as
biohydrometallurgy. This Wadsworth Award is recognition of the field of
biohydrometallurgy. It is an honor to serve as a representative for all those
individuals involved in research and commercial development of this
technology. Modern commercial application of biohydrometallurgy began
with the bioleaching of copper from submarginal-grade, run-of-mine
material. Kennecott Copper successfully developed this process in the 1950s
at the Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah. Other mining operations around the
world followed Kennecott's lead. Today, dump bioleaching remains a very
low-cost process for scavenging copper from rock that cannot be
economically processed by any other method. Despite the commercial
success of dump bioleaching, little effort has been made to enhance the
microbiological component of this leach process. Expansion of
biohydrometallurgy into recovery of other metals did not occur until the
mid- 1980s, when the first commercial plant for the pretreatment of
refractory gold-bearing concentrate was commissioned at the Fairview
operation in South Africa. Now, processes for copper bioleaching and
refractory gold pretreatment are engineered specifically to promote the
activity of the microorganisms. This paper reviews the current state of
commercial applications of biohydrometallurgy. It examines potential future
developments and portrays the role of the microbiologist in facilitating
continued growth and commercial acceptance of the technology. The
commercial examples in this paper illustrate the expansion of microbial
processing in the mining industry during the last 20 years.
Copper bioleaching
Early commercial applications of bioleach technology involved processing
submarginal-grade, copper- bearing, run-of- mine rock in dumps. Recent
applications of the technology use engineered bioleach heaps. Currently, all
of these operations are in the Southern Hemisphere. It is noteworthy that
the pioneering research and development work in North America was not
advanced to commercial application at home. Eleven copper bioheap leach
plants and one in situ bioleach operation have been commissioned since
1980 (Table 1) (Brierley, C.L., 1997; Brierley, J.A., and Brierley, C.L.,
1999). All of these operations are outside of North America. An excellent
example of a current commercial bioleach application is the Quebrada
Blanca operation in northern Chile (Schnell, 1997). This bioleach plant is
located on the Alti Plano at an elevation of 4,400 m (14,400 ft). This
operation has negated the criticism by some operators that the leaching
bacteria cannot function under the cold temperatures and low oxygen
partial pressure of high altitudes. At Quebrada Blanca 17.3 kt/d (19,000
stpd) of secondary copper ore are crushed to 100% passing 9 mm (0.35
in.), agglomerated with sulfuric acid and hot water and stacked to form 6-
to 6.5-m- (20- to 21-ft-) high heaps. Bacterial activity is facilitated by
aeration using an array of air lines installed beneath the heap and low-
pressure fans. Bacterial process monitoring includes on-site measurements
of respiration as a measure of active biomass and sulfide oxidation (Lizama,
in press). The Quebrada Blanca bioleach process illustrates the successful
"evolution" of biohydrometallurgy in the mining industry. The plant design
at Quebrada Blanca and other similar operations incorporates the bacterial
requirements of the process. Research findings on improving bacterial
activity are now applied in commercial operations Data available for the
operating plants (Table 1) indicate that bioleaching is used to process 117.8
kt/d (129,160 stpd) of copper ore. Inclusion of dump-leach operations
would substantially increase this process rate. Bioleaching is now a
significant process for the recovery of copper. Bioleaching of copper from
chalcopyrite concentrate has been successfully demonstrated. Chalcopyrite
bioleaching is based on the use of thermophilic microorganisms, a process
disclosed in 1978 (Brierley, J.A., and Brierley, C.L., 1978). Recent studies
have expanded the knowledge for use of thermophiles to bioleach
chalcopyrite (Dew et al., 1999; Howard and Crundwell, 1999). This
bioleaching technology has now been developed to commercial pilot-plant
testing (Miller et al., 1999). Commercial bioprocessing of chalcopyrite
concentrates will soon be a reality.
Cobalt bioleaching
The first commercial plant for the bioleaching and recovery of cobalt was
commissioned in 1999. BRGM commercialized a bioleach process for cobalt
recovery for the Kasese Cobalt Co. in Uganda. A cobaltiferous pyrite
concentrate, grading 1.38% Co, was produced from the Kilembe Mine and
stockpiled during the last 30 years. The stockpile contains 1.1 Mt (1.2
million st), dry basis, containing about 80% pyrite. Bioleaching is conducted
in the largest stirred-tank reactors in operation using an inoculum of
mesophilic iron-oxidizing bacteria. Three 1,350 m
3
(3.6 x 105 gal) primary
reactors and a single secondary reactor are used for bioleaching about 241
t/d (266 stpd) of concentrate at 20% pulp density. Cobalt recovery is
reported to be 92%. The flowsheet for cobalt recovery is complex, requiring
iron removal and separate recovery schemes for copper and zinc (Briggs
and Millard, 1997; d'Hugues et al., 1999), which are also present as sulfide
minerals in the concentrate.
Biooxidation pretreatment for gold recovery

Eight plants have been commissioned for biooxidation pretreatment of
sulfidic-refractory gold concentrates (Table 2) (Brierley, C.L., 1997,
Brierley, J.A., and Brierley, C.L., 1999). As with the copper bioleach plants,
these, too, are all outside of North America. These plants use large,
aerated, stirred-tank reactors for biooxidation of pyrite and arsenopyrite
minerals that lock the gold values. The Youanmi plant, now closed due to a
low gold price, coupled with high mining costs, employed the BacTech
(Australia) Pty Ltd. technology. It uses a moderately thermophilic bacterial
culture similar to Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans. Biooxidation takes
place at temperatures between 45 and 50 C (113 to 122 F) (Brierley,
C.L., and Brans, 1994). Beaconsfield is a BacTech/Mintek plant using
mesophilic bacteria. The other six sulfidic refractory, gold concentrate plants
use the Gold Fields' BIOX process, which is a mixed culture of
Acidithiobacillus and Leptospirillum operating at 40 to about 45 C (104 to
about 113 F) (van Aswegen, 1993). Harbour Lights is no longer in
operation because the stockpiled concentrate has been depleted.
Biooxidation pretreatment in tank reactor systems has only been
commercially practiced for high-value flotation concentrates.
Whole-ore biooxidation in tanks generally cannot support the associated
costs of power for aeration. Operation of all eight plants would process a
total of about 1.6 kt/d (1,760 stpd) of gold concentrate. Biooxidation
pretreatment of lower-value, refractory, gold-bearing whole ores can be
conducted in heaps, similar to those used for bioleaching of secondary
copper ores. This bioheap process for gold ores is now practiced on an
ongoing commercial scale. Newmont Mining demonstrated the practicality of
biooxidation-heap pre-treatment on large-scale demonstration heaps
(Brierley, J.A., 1994, 1997a; Brierley, J.A., et al., 1995) and is now
operating a commercial-scale plant (Table 3). Biooxidation is carried out on
ore crushed to about 12.7 mm (0.5 in.). The heaps are ventilated and
pretreatment is conducted for 100 to as many as 270 days. The oxidized
ore is then removed from a pretreatment pad and cyanide leached in an
existing oxide mill facility. Gold recovery ranges from 60% to 70% of the
contained value with an ore grade range of 1.7 to 4.1 g/t (0.05 to 0.12
oz/st). The project is expected to produce more than $40 million in free
cash flow between 2000 and 2003, based on a $8.054/ g ($250/oz) gold
price (Anon., 1999). Biooxidation-heap pretreatment is generally considered
when the ore is low-grade, the economics cannot sustain the cost of making
a concentrate, the mineralogy is such that the refractory sulfides cannot be
concentrated or the project is too small to support a high-capital process.
The biooxidized ore can also be removed from the pad, neutralized and gold
recovered by a conventional heap-leach process.


Complex microbiology
The predominant microbial system for research, process development and
commercial application has been the members of the genus
Acidithiobacillus-A. thiooxidans and especially A. ferrooxidans. It should be
noted that the genus Acidithiobacillus is a new name that now includes
some previous members of the genus Thiobacillus (Kelly and Wood, 2000).
Leptospirillum ferrooxidans is also included in the stable of useful
microorganisms. A recently described Acidithiobacillus caldus has also
readily been isolated from bioleach processes and, in some cases, may be
the predominant microbe for oxidation of sulfur (Rawlings, 1997) (Table 4).
Future process developments will and must include thermophilic
microorganisms that will have an increasingly important role in biooxidation
of minerals (Brierley, J.A., and Brierley, C.L., 1986; Norris, 1997) (Table 4).
Exothermic pyrite oxidation in bioleach and biooxidation heaps increases
internal temperatures to the 60 to 80 C (140 to 176 F) range,
necessitating the use of thermophilic microorganisms (Beck, 1967, Brierley,
J.A., 1978, Shutey-McCann et al., 1997). Thermophilic Archaea, Sulfolobus
species, Acidianus brierleyi and Metallosphaera sedula, which grow at 60 to
85 C (140 to 185 F), are particularly adept in bioleaching of copper from
the highly refractory chalcopyrite, as well as refractory sulfidic gold ores and
concentrates. Recent published reports reflect the growing interest in
fundamental and practical application studies of thermophilic
microorganisms for bioleaching (Brierley, J.A., 1997b; Dew et al., 1999;
Gomez et al., 1999; Gonzalez-Chavez et al., 1999; Howard and Crundwell,
1999; Konishi et al., 1999; Rivera-Santillan et al., 1999). An extremely
acidophilic Archaeon microbe, with the suggested name Ferroplasma
acidarmans, was discovered growing in acid mine drainage (Edwards et al.,
2000). This microbe grows in the range of pH 0 to 2.5 and catalyzes the
oxidation of sulfide minerals. Although its activity contributes to acid mine
drainage, the microbe has potential beneficial use for mineral biooxidation
for ore or concentrates with high sulfide content, resulting in the generation
of extremely acidic conditions. Better understanding of the fundamental role
of the microbes in the biooxidation of mineral sulfides will lead to improved










bioleach processes. The mechanism of the iron- and sulfur-oxidizing
bacteria in bioleaching and mineral biooxidation is being defined. The
mechanism involves what has been called the "indirect-bioleaching"
process, that is, the microbes are responsible for maintaining oxidizing
conditions by oxidation of ferrous iron, and the ferric species oxidizes the
sulfide minerals (Fowler et al., 1999). The mechanism can be considered as
an "indirect-contact" process, which also involves ferrous-ferric cycling by
bacteria in direct contact with the mineral surface. The previously described
"direct- bioleaching" process does not yet have the necessary proof of
enzymatic oxidation of the sulfide minerals. The iron- and sulfur-oxidizing
microorganisms are not the only inhabitants of acidic environments, such as
in bioleach and mineral biooxidation process operations. There is likely a
complex microflora, also consisting of carbon using heterotrophic bacterial
species (Johnson and Roberto, 1997; Johnson, 1998) (Table 5). Carbon
used for growth by these bacteria may be added to biooxidation heaps as
recycled raffinate or other extraneous sources. The chemolithotrophic,
mineral-oxidizing bacteria may also be a source of organics, either by
leakage of carbon compounds from living cells or degradation of dead cells.
The contribution of heterotrophic bacteria to the bioleach and mineral
biooxidation processes is not well defined. Experimentation suggests that
these bacteria may facilitate detoxification of compounds that potentially
inhibit the iron-oxidizing, chemolithotrophic microor-
ganisms. For example, short-chain organic acids (e.g., acetic, pyruvic and
butyric) can be toxic to iron- oxidizing bacteria. These same organic
compounds can be metabolized by the heterotrophic bacteria, thereby
"detoxifying" the acidic environment. The microbe Ferromicrobium, which
oxidizes carbon compounds, will concurrently oxidize ferrous iron, a
beneficial activity to the mineral oxidation process. In oxygen-starved zones
of a heap, some of the heterotrophic microbes can use ferric iron in place of
oxygen for oxidation of the organic compounds for growth. This activity
would convert ferric to ferrous iron, thereby removing the key component
for oxidation of sulfide minerals, a detrimental microbial process for
oxidation of some sulfide minerals. However, a lower redox potential could
also be an advantage for chalcopyrite leaching in a heap or dump.

Future developments for advancement of biohydrometallurgy

Developments and a better understanding of the roles and uses of
microorganisms will occur with expanding application of
biohydrometallurgical technologies. Three areas offer potential for
improving the technology of biohydrometallurgy. One area for improved
bioleach performance is inoculation of heaps with appropriate microbial
populations. Study of microbial population distribution in a copper dump-
leach operation demonstrated spatial limitation of the bacteria to a narrow
zone only at the surface of the dump (Bhappu et al., 1969). Bacterial
colonization of a bioleach heap operation was shown to occur from the
surface down into the heap (Lizama, in press), when the only source of
inoculum is raffinate. Thus, the distribution of an active microbial population
throughout a heap or dump will be slowed or limited by a filtrationlike
mechanism of ore fines at the surface of heaps or dumps. Inoculation is the
basis of the Newmont Mining biooxidation-heap pretreatment process for
refractory gold ores. Inoculation of the ore during stacking distributes the
microbes throughout the heap and promotes rapid initiation of biooxidation
activity (Brierley, J.A., and Hill, 1993). Inoculation is also important for
heap systems with potential for internal high temperatures. Thermophilic
microbes can be added as a mix with conventional mesophilic bioleaching
bacteria for continuation of the oxidation process when temperatures
exceed the tolerance of the conventional bacteria. Biooxidation of refractory
sulfidic gold ores in alkaline conditions would greatly reduce the cost of
neutralizing the acidic ores and may decrease cyanide consumption.
Whether this can be accomplished depends on finding a way to promote the
oxidation of the sulfide mineral at the interface between the microbe and
mineral surface in a globally alkaline environment. However, this heretical
concept, contrary to conventional experience and wisdom, may be
completely wrong. Research to date shows the importance of establishing
acidic conditions of mineral biooxidation and bioleaching processes. A third
need is monitoring and control of bioleachand biooxidation-heap processes.
Monitoring a heap process by solution analyses provides some information
regarding the global characteristics of the process, but solution monitoring
alone cannot measure the extent of the oxidation process at specific
locations within a heap. Collecting ore samples from a heap presents
logistical problems to where and how to sample as well as the uncertainty of
what the sample represents. The induced polarization (IP) procedure from
mineral exploration offers potential for real time monitoring of the progress
of sulfide oxidation within a heap. The monitoring procedure under
development is nonlinear complex resistivity (NLCR). It can non-invasively
measure sulfide oxidation in a volume of ore. NLCR is sensitive to the
charge transfer as in redox reactions and may be useful in delineating the
oxidation of pyrite or other sulfides (Olhoeft, 1985). Advantages of using
NLCR include indication of occurrence of pyrite, sensitivity to charge
transfer in the oxidation process and a noninvasive measure of the bulk
response of the ore in a heap. Disadvantages of the technique are related to
the complexity in data interpretation and the early stage of practical
development for field use (Oshetski, 1999). Laboratory and field testing are
required to determine if NLCR provides a new technology for monitoring
biooxidation-heap processes. Alternatively, the progress of biooxidation in a
heap can be monitored using probes for measuring temperature and oxygen
concentration (Ritchie, 1997). Numerous probes can be placed in the heap
to monitor bio- oxidation at different locations and depths. The use of the
parameters of oxygen concentration, temperature and sulfide-sulfur
concentration with simulations from a mathematical model of a biooxidation
heap should provide an estimate of sulfide oxidation over time and at
specific heap locations.
Acknowledgments

The author is grateful for being recognized by members of the SME Award
Committee. The author also thanks Newmont Mining for the opportunity to
advance the application of biohydrometallurgy and, especially, Newmont
Carlin, NV, operations' staff for bringing lab research to operational reality.
The authors colleagues in the field of biohydrometallurgy, in particular, wife
and partner Corale Brierley, have been instrumental in the authors
continuing education and understanding of this technology and in the
encouraging the authors R&D efforts.
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