Performance analysis and comparison of concentrated evacuated tube heat

pipe solar collectors

Dan Nchelatebe Nkwetta
a,
, Mervyn Smyth
b
a
Sustainable Building Envelope Centre, Corus Colors, Tata Steel, Shotton Works, Deeside, Flintshire, United Kingdom
b
Centre for Sustainable Technologies, School of the Built Environment, Faculty of Arts, Design and Built Environment, University of Ulster, Newtownabbey, United Kingdom
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 21 October 2011
Received in revised form 16 January 2012
Accepted 21 February 2012
Available online 27 April 2012
Keywords:
Concentrated evacuated tube heat pipe
Single-sided coated absorber
Double-sided coated absorber and incident
angle modier
a b s t r a c t
Two proles of concentrated evacuated tube heat pipe solar collectors made of single-sided and double-
sided absorber have been analyzed and compared under control conditions and results presented in this
paper. These innovative concentrated evacuated tube heat pipe solar collectors were experimentally
tested at a tilt angle of 60 to the horizontal. Using in-door solar simulated experimental conditions tem-
perature response, collection efciency, heat loss coefcients and energy collection rates as well as the
incident angle modier (IAM) were recorded and compared at ve different transverse angles (040)
at 10 increments.
The use of concentrated single-sided and double-sided absorber evacuated tube heat pipe solar collec-
tors is seen to be feasible for integrating solar thermal energy into buildings for heating demands. The
concentrated double-sided absorber evacuated tube heat pipe proves better compared to the concen-
trated single-sided absorber evacuated tube heat pipe solar collector due to higher outlet temperature
with greater temperature differential and improved thermal performance. The integration of this innova-
tive system implies that the number of the evacuated tube heat pipe collectors needed to attain higher
temperature is reduced. Furthermore, the size of reectors and related reector losses are reduced due
to the truncated nature of the reectors providing a low concentration ratio.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
World energy demand and CO
2
emissions are expected to rise
by some 60% by 2030 and the EU energy import dependency is
forecasted to increase to about 70% by 2030 [1]. Greenhouse gas
emissions resulting from the accumulated use of fossil fuels are a
global societal issue needing to be addressed. Renewable energy
technologies must make a signicant contribution to global energy
production in order to reduce the accumulation of greenhouse
gases [2]. Energy related cooling demand is expected to increase
rapidly over the century due to global warming, with 1.16.4 C
rise in surface temperatures if emissions are not curbed [3]. Med-
ium temperature applications (75120 C) such as solar cooling or
industrial process heat can be potentially met by using current so-
lar technology but at additional cost [4].
In addition, solar cooling is likely to reduced greenhouse gas
emission and play a signicant role in meeting the demand as
there is good load matching of the available peak solar radiation
with the maximum cooling load [5,6]. In many cases, the applica-
tion of solar thermal cooling systems has been conditioned by
the lack of integration between cooling and heating systems [7].
Umberto et al. [8] reported that cooling demand has increased in
recent years, due to the increasing demand of higher comfort con-
ditions inside buildings. Solar thermal cooling systems are still in
their infancy regarding practical applications, although the tech-
nology is sufciently developed for a number of years [7]. The
increasing thermal comfort has led to a widespread use of cooling
systems based on compression technology, resulting in signicant
increase of electric power peak demand in summer reaching, in
many cases, the capacity limits of network and causing the risk
of blackouts [8].
Evacuated tube solar collectors have low heat losses compared
to convectional at plate collectors due to the vacuum envelope
around the absorber [911]. The evacuated tube heat pipe solar
collector operates by transferring thermal energy from the absor-
ber ns to the heat transfer uid (HTF) with only a small temper-
ature differential existing between the n absorber and the
condenser with conguration acting as a thermal diode (prevent-
ing reverse ow of heat) during non-operational periods [1214].
Freezing of the heat pipe is unusual and is generally not destruc-
tive. The heat pipe system operates independently of gravity, is si-
lent with no moving parts and thus needs minimal servicing [15].
The determination and optimisation of the conversion-
efciency of a line-focus parabolic-trough solar-collector, vertical
evacuated tubular-collectors utilising solar radiation from all
0306-2619/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.02.059

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44(0) 77 86013289; fax: +44(0) 12 44892345.

E-mail address: Dan.Nkwetta@tatasteel.com (D.N. Nkwetta).
Applied Energy 98 (2012) 2232
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j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ apenergy
directions and the experimental investigation of the transient ther-
mal performance of a bent heat pipe with grooved surface have
been reported by Bakos et al. [16]; Shah and Furbo [17] and Wang,
respectively [18]. Presently, solar cooling and other medium tem-
perature applications can be supplied by evacuated tube heat pipe
solar collectors. However, the lower uid output temperatures
with a smaller temperature differential and thus lower thermal
performance in the medium temperature range reduces the effec-
tive potential of these systems. Evacuated tube heat pipe solar col-
lectors can operate efciently in their design operational
temperature range of 7590 C to drive a single effect absorption
process [19] but this is economically detrimental and thus uneco-
nomical. This is also a constraint with the double-effect absorption
refrigeration systems operating in the temperature range of 90
120 C. Agyenim et al. [20], demonstrated experimentally that
increasing the inlet uid temperature of a solar air-conditioning
system increases the coefcient of performance (COP), necessitat-
ing the combined use of concentration and evacuation of solar col-
lectors for such medium temperature applications and beyond.
Medium supply temperatures benecial for solar cooling can be
attained using a combination of concentrating compound parabolic
concentrators and evacuated tube heat pipe solar collectors [5,6].
The development and deployment of non-tracking low concen-
trated evacuated tube heat pipe solar collectors is necessary as it
can further improve the performance, potentially making them
applicable for the solar heating as well as previously mentioned
medium to high temperature applications [5,6].
In-door testing, evaluation and comparison of temperature
improvement and thermal performance of solar collectors offer
an efcient method in providing collected data compared to out-
door test conditions. The in-door laboratory simulated conditions
such as ambient air temperature and wind speed in addition to
the solar intensity are controllable, less time consuming and avoid
difculties in changing boundary conditions compared to out-door
testing.
Neither compound parabolic concentrators (CPC) collectors nor
evacuated tube heat pipe collectors are novel in solar thermal engi-
neering terms. However, the integration of CPC reectors with sin-
gle-sided and double-sided absorber evacuated tube heat pipe
solar collectors as single collector is seen to be novel in solar ther-
mal engineering. Realising a size reduction and improved eco-
nomic potential, with higher operating temperature differentials
and a substantial overall improvement in thermal performance
these collectors offer an alternative for medium to high tempera-
ture applications. The at single-sided absorber within a CPC
(SSACPC) offers a higher utilisation area with possibility of greater
collection of direct incident solar radiation whereas the double-
sided absorber within a CPC (DSACPC) allows collection of incident
solar radiation on both surfaces of the absorber, eliminating back
losses. This paper focuses on the development of the collector com-
ponents and their experimental evaluation and involved;
Collector design and fabrication.
The techniques and methodology involved in their design and
fabrication.
In-door solar simulated experimental characterisation and anal-
ysis based on temperature response, energy collection rates,
collection efciency, heat loss coefcient and IAM.
2. Collector design and fabrication
The full and truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors were
generated using computer based simulation software Eazea and
Tecplot and the co-ordinates used in the design and fabrication
of the units at the University of Ulster. Computer generated coor-
Nomenclature
A area (m
2
)
A
ap
aperture area (m
2
)
Q
collected
thermal energy collected (MJ)
G
ave
average solar insolation (W/m
2
)
_ m mass ow rate (kg/s)
T
outlet
collector outlet water temperature (C)
T
inlet
collector inlet water temperature (C)
c
p
specic heat constant of water (kJ/kg/ C)
Dt time interval (minutes)
DT
inc
temperature differential increase (C)
g efciency (%)
g
optical
optical efciency (%)
g
collector
collector efciency (%)
Q
incident
incident solar radiation (W/m
2
)
T
amb
ambient temperature (C)
T
m
mean uid temperature (C)
Abbreviations
COP Coefcient of performance
HTF Heat transfer uid
IAM Incident angle modier
A Heat loss coefcient of collector (W/m
2
K)
ETHPC Evacuated tube heat pipe collector
DSACPC Double-sided absorber CPC
SSACPC Single-sided absorber CPC
CPC Compound Parabolic Concentrator
ASHRAE American Society of Heating and Air Conditioning
Engineers
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
117.9 51.1 51.1
1
9
0 8
2
.
0
45.0 45.0 130.1
220
2
7
6
.
4
Evacuated glass
tube
Single-sided
absorber
Reflector
F
u
l
l

H
e
i
g
h
t
-
T
r
u
n
c
a
t
e
d

H
e
i
g
h
t
-
Fig. 1. Side section view of the full and truncated SSACPC solar collector.
D.N. Nkwetta, M. Smyth/ Applied Energy 98 (2012) 2232 23
dinates for the full and truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar collec-
tors were transferred to AUTOCAD formats to draw the proles in
a dxf format enabling the proles to be printed to scale as printing
templates and used in the construction of the reector support and
proles as illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. The printed AUTOCAD de-
sign templates were then glued to the wooden supporting plates,
which were pre-cut with measuring length and height of
360 mm 360 mm, 360 mm 210 mm, 220 mm 260 mm and
220 mm 190 mm for the full and truncated DSACPC and SSACPC
proles, respectively. The respective proles were cut out using an
electric jig-saw and assembled in the laboratory. This technique
gave an accurate prole and structure supports.
Single-sided and double-sided absorber evacuated tube heat
pipes were integrated into two external CPC reectors both with
a design half-acceptance angle of 30 and a geometrical concentra-
tion ratio of 2 and 1.85 upon truncation. A 30 design acceptance
half-angle (h
a
) (in a northsouth orientation) was selected, as it
would allow optimal daily collection at a northern latitude with
no tilt adjustment. The single-sided absorber evacuated tube heat
pipe compound parabolic concentrator (SSACPC) had an effective
absorber width of 63.7 mm with an aperture width of 130.1 mm.
The reector prole for the full single-sided absorber evacuated
tube heat pipe collector had a total height of 168.4 mm.
Truncation of the upper part of the reector was conducted,
reducing the reector to a height of 92.8 mm with an aperture
width of 121 mm and concentration ratio of 1.9. The reector area
was reduced to 55.1% of the original surface area saving 44.9% of the
reector material. The height to aperture ratio decreased from 0.77
to 0.69. A further truncation to a total height of 82 mmresulted in a
reduction of concentration ratio to 1.85 with the reecting material
further reduced to 48.7% of the original reector surface area with
an overall saving of 51.3% of the reector material. The height to
aperture ratio of the full and truncated single-sided absorber
evacuated tube heat pipe with a compound parabolic concentrator
decreased from 1.29 to 0.77 and to 0.69, respectively with a total
aperture area of 0.107 m
2
.
The upper reector of the DSACPC solar collector was truncated
from a total height of 289.6 mm to 168.9 mm with the concentra-
tion ratio reduced slightly from 2.04 to 1.9. The reector area was
reduced to 58.3% of the original reector surface area, thus saving
41.7% of reecting material. A further truncation to a total height of
152.1 mm resulted in the concentration ratio being reduced to 1.85
while the reecting material was further reduced to 52.5% of the
original reector surface area with a saving of 47.5% of the original
reecting material. The height to aperture ratio of the full and trun-
cated DSACPC solar collector decreased from 1.11 to 0.69 and to
0.64, respectively with a total aperture area of 0.2004 m
2
. Trunca-
tion of the reectors resulted in 48.752.5% reduction in reecting
material for the SSACPC and DSACPC, respectively but with only
7.5% reduction in concentration ratio, which is of cost advantage
and provides compactness of the solar collector.
The selection of a 1.85 concentration ratio compared to 1.9 was
due to the fact that a further truncation of the reective material
from 1.9 to 1.85 resulted in a 6.4% savings in reecting material
with only a 2.63% reduction in concentration ratio. This cost saving
in reective material is also beneted by the compactness of the
solar collectors and the good reectivity of the aluminium sheet
(0.91) employed minimises optical losses.
Figs. 1 and 2 present the side sectional view of the full and trun-
cated single-sided and double-sided absorber evacuated tube heat
pipe with a compound parabolic concentrating solar collectors,
respectively (all dimension in mm) and the specication (physical
and geometric characteristics) for the solar collectors compared is
detailed in Table 1.
In each design conguration, a 3 mm gap was created between
the evacuated heat pipe tube and the bottom of the reector to
avoid thermal conduction between the hot absorber and the con-
centrator. The criteria for the selection and design of the single-
sided and double-sided absorber evacuated tube heat pipe with a
compound parabolic concentrator was based on their theoretically
calculated higher concentrations ratios, their lower material and
fabrication costs and the suitability for Northern European Mari-
times climates.
3. In-door experimental test facility and description of the in-
door experimental set-up
The in-door experimental characterisation of the single-sided
and double-sided absorber evacuated tube heat pipe solar collec-
tors was carried out using a state-of-the-art solar simulator test
2
8
9
.
6
49.9 49.9 260.1
360.0
1
5
2
.
1
235.7 62.2 62.2
F
u
l
l

H
e
i
g
h
t
-
T
r
u
n
c
a
t
e
d

H
e
i
g
h
t
- Evacuated glass
tube
Double-sided
absorber
Reflector
Fig. 2. Side section view of the full and truncated DSACPC solar collector.
Table 1
Geometric characteristics for the full and truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar
collectors.
Parameter (units) Collectors parameters
DSACPC SSACPC
Aperture area (m
2
) 0.2004 0.107
Absorber area (m
2
) 0.202 0.102
Absorber thickness (m) 0.0002 0.0002
Absorber width (m) 0.0637 0.0637
Absorber length (m) 1.700 1.700
Diameter of heat pipe (m) 0.008 0.008
Absorber absorptance 0.95 0.95
Emittance (coating) 0.14 0.14
Glass tube o.d (m) 0.065 0.065
Glass tube length (m) 1.93 1.93
Glass tube transmittance 0.88 0.88
Heat transfer uid pressurised water Pressurized water
Half acceptance angle () 30 30
Original concentration ratio 2 2
Original reector height (m) 0.289 0.168
Truncated concentration ratio 1.85 1.85
Truncated aperture width (m) 0.236 0.118
Truncated reector height (m) 0.152 0.82
Truncated height to Aperture ratio 0.64 0.69
Reector-absorber gap (mm) 3 3
Reector material Aluminium
Aluminium
Reectivity of reector 0.91 0.91
24 D.N. Nkwetta, M. Smyth/ Applied Energy 98 (2012) 2232
facility located at the University of Ulster. The merits of using a so-
lar simulator, compared to the actual solar conditions is based on
the fact that a controlled solar intensity can be created, steady
state conditions can be attained, allowing a range of repeatable
scenarios/parameters to be simulated [18]. However, the unifor-
mity of the intensity on the illuminated area, collimation and the
light spectral distribution from the solar simulator all require par-
ticular attention and thus the need for accurate pre-measurement
of ux distribution before testing. A schematic detail of the in-door
experimental test facility using a pressurised water heat exchanger
loop is illustrated in Fig. 3.
The single-sided and double-sided absorber evacuated tube
heat pipe solar collectors were mounted on a movable testing
frame and positioned at the centre of the simulator test plane. Each
concentrating collector was positioned such that the absorbers
were aligned in a northsouth orientation, facing the simulator
at a tilt angle of 60 to simulate a typical operation, but permitting
testing at different transverse angles (040).
The lamps of the solar simulator had lenses tted over them
with an overall light collimation of 8085% and were also at an
inclination of 60 from the horizontal facing parallel to the solar
collectors [21]. A 60 inclination was chosen for the optimum col-
lection of solar radiation at a latitude of 52N. A distance of 1.8 m
from the centre of the incline of the solar collectors to the centre of
tilted solar simulator was selected as the optimal length to ensure
uniformity of radiation distribution on the aperture of the solar
collectors. To determine the levels of insolation incident on the
aperture of the solar collectors, a series of measurements of inci-
dent solar radiation were performed across the aperture of the col-
lectors using a Kipp and Zonen pyranometer (rst class) [22]. Two
pyranometers were used to measure the simulated solar irradiance
on the aperture of each solar collector prior to testing. One of the
pyranometer was the feedback pyranometer (Kipp and Zonen
CM4) for the solar simulator and aided in regulating and stabilising
the solar radiation of the lamps to the set-up value of 800 W/m
2
.
The second pyranometer; (the Kipp & Zonen CM 11) with sensitiv-
ity of 4.39 10
6
Vm
2
/W and an uncertainty of 2% [22] was xed
on the plane of the solar collector aperture at mid-height to mea-
sure solar radiation thought out the experimental period. Both pyr-
anometers were free from obstructions and shading.
The following pre-test procedure was carried out each time be-
fore the testing of each solar collector. The in-line pump was
switched on and the uid ow rate stabilised via a variable speed
drive (VSD) inverter. The solar collector was covered with an opa-
que sheet to prevent any solar gain during the solar simulator
warm-up prior to testing. Pre-test stabilisation lasted for 30 min,
allowing uid to circulate through the system ensuring uniform
test conditions.
Air movement across the solar collectors was maintained
through a fan, producing an average air speed across the aperture
of the solar collectors of 2.2 m/s, veried through measurement
from an anemometer. The uniformity of the solar radiation inci-
dent on the aperture of the solar collectors was measured using
a grid measurement system. This task was carried out as follows;
A pyranometer was set at four pre-marked positions and four mea-
surement noted and averaged against a xed datum pyranometer
that was use to measure the solar radiation incident on the aper-
ture for each solar collector throughout the duration of the exper-
imental period. The 30-min pre-test stabilisation allowed the
lamps to warm up, achieving uniformity of intensity along with
Pressure Vessel
Drain valve
Flow
meter
Sight glass
Pyranometer
In-line
immersion
heater
Solasyphon
heat exchanger
Manifold
Data logger
PID temperature
regulator
Solar collector
Cooling
circuit
PC
Pump Isolation valve
Outlet fluid temperature
Sensor (PT
100
)
Inlet fluid temperature
Sensor (PT
100
)
Ambient air
temperature sensor
Automatic air
vent (AAV)
Fig. 3. Schematic detail of the in-door solar simulated experimental test facility using a pressurised water heat exchanger loop.
D.N. Nkwetta, M. Smyth/ Applied Energy 98 (2012) 2232 25
the constant uid ow. After the initial 30-min warm up period,
with the solar intensity and distribution on the aperture of the so-
lar collector measured, determined and recorded, the test was
ready to begin. The readings from the xed pyranometer on the
plane of the solar collector aperture were used to monitor any var-
iation in insolation values during the experiment and to determine
the correction factor in order to compensate any non-uniformity in
the simulated solar radiation. The solar collector units were evalu-
ated under the solar simulator for a period of 6 h at an insolation of
800 15 W/m
2
over a range of transverse angles.
In total ten experimental tests covering different transverse an-
gles (0, 10, 20, 30, 40) with 10 increment were conducted for
the truncated single-sided and double-sided absorber evacuated
tube heat pipe with compound parabolic concentrator solar collec-
tors. Water, pressurised to 3.5 bar to avoid boiling above 100 C and
to permit performance evaluation at temperatures of up to about
140 C was used as the heat transfer uid (HTF). The uid ow rate
was maintained at a constant rate of 0.0038 0.0002 kg/s through-
out each test period using an Oval Gear Wheel Nixon ow meters
(OG4-SU5-VHT-B).
The oval gear wheel nixon ow meter (OG4-SU5-VHT-B) was
characterised by a ow range 0.2550 lpm, NPN pulse output of
100 pulses per litre and an accuracy of 0.5%, FDS. The test se-
quence was repeated for each solar collector and can be summa-
rised as;
All sensors checked.
Data logging sequence started. The inlet and outlet uid tem-
peratures and ambient air temperatures, uid ow rates and
simulated solar radiation values are automatically sampled
every half minute and averaged every 1 min and recorded via
the Delta-T logger to the computer.
Removal of the opaque cover.
Six hour test period. During this period the test set-up was con-
tinually monitored to ensure the test was operating as required.
At the end of the 6th hour the test ended and the opaque cover
replaced.
Lamps and pump switched off, valves closed and the logger
stopped and the data retrieved.
The results from each experimental investigation period at dif-
ferent transverse angles have been reported using temperature
proles (inlet and outlet uid temperature variations, mean uid
and ambient air temperature changes), energy collection rate, opti-
cal efciency and heat loss coefcient and the incident angle mod-
ier (IAM).
4. Results and discussion
Experimental results and analysis for the single-sided and dou-
ble-sided coated evacuated tube heat pipe absorber integrated into
a compound parabolic concentrator solar collector were evaluated
using ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 93-2003 [23]. Critical analysis in-
volve determining the changes in uid temperature proles over
time (inlet and outlet uid temperatures, outlet and inlet uid
temperature differential, mean uid collector and ambient air tem-
peratures changes), energy collection rates, optical efciency and
thermal performance (heat loss coefcient) and the incident angle
modier as a function of transverse angles.
4.1. Temperature variation for the solar collectors
The temperature proles are presented in the form of the inlet
and outlet uid temperatures, uid temperature differential across
the solar collectors and mean uid temperature gain across the so-
lar collector.
4.1.1. Inlet and outlet uid temperature
The variation in the inlet and outlet uid temperatures for the
single-sided and double-sided coated evacuated tube heat pipe ab-
sorber integrated into compound parabolic concentrating solar col-
lectors over the 6 h experimental test period with solar radiation
perpendicular to the aperture of the solar collector using water
as the HTF is shown in Fig. 4.
The increasing inlet uid temperature over the experimental
time period illustrated in Fig. 4 resulted from the use of a closed
loop where the circulating heat transfer uid is heated continu-
ously. The maximum outlet uid temperature for the truncated
SSACPC was 55.9 C with an accompanying inlet uid temperature
of 51.2 C compared to 69.8 C and 60.4 C maximum outlet and in-
let uid temperatures, respectively recorded by the truncated
DSACPC after 6 h of testing (Fig. 4). The maximum uid tempera-
ture increase for the solar collector is determined from the mean
inlet and outlet uid temperatures and the ambient air tempera-
ture using Eq. (1). The mean uid temperature from Eq. (2) is used
rather than the inlet uid temperature as it takes into account the
heating effect across the solar collector. The maximum uid tem-
perature increase was determined to be 28.5 C and 41 C for the
truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors, respectively at
the end of the test. This represents an overall improvement of
12.4 C or 30.4% in mean uid and ambient air temperature differ-
ential realised by the truncated DSACPC solar collector compared
to the truncated SSACPC solar collector.
T
inc
T
m
T
amb
1
where
T
m
T
inlet
T
outlet
=2 2
From the uid temperature proles of the solar collectors, it is
evident that the truncated DSACPC solar collectors showed a more
rapid thermal response when initially exposed to incident solar
radiation compared to the truncated SSACPC solar collector. This
rapid thermal response is ultimately due to increase collection of
incident solar radiation resulting from the larger aperture collect-
ing area and the collection of more incident solar radiation on both
sides of the absorber, thus increasing the energy ux absorbed.
4.1.2. Outlet and inlet uid temperature differential
The outlet and inlet uid temperature differential for the trun-
cated SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors over 6 h of testing at dif-
ferent transverse angles was calculated using Eq. (3). The
temperature differential between the outlet and inlet of the solar
collectors were based on experimental data collected with a time
interval of 30 min as illustrated in Fig. 5. The average outlet and in-
let uid temperature differential with respect to different trans-
verse angles for all solar collectors are presented in Figs. 5 and 6,
respectively. The average outlet and inlet uid temperature differ-
ential for all the solar collectors decreases with increasing trans-
verse angle with some minor variation.
DT
inc
T
outlet
T
inlet
3
The maximum outlet and inlet uid temperature differential for
the truncated SSACPC over the 6 h of testing was calculated to be
5.2 C whereas 4.7 C was determined as the minimum outlet
and inlet uid temperature differential. The maximum outlet and
inlet uid temperature differential for the truncated DSACPC solar
collector was determined to be 9.4 C whereas 8.1 C was realised
as the minimum outlet and inlet uid temperature differential,
respectively. Maximum and minimum outlet and inlet uid tem-
perature differential improvements of 4.2 C (44.5%) and 3.4 C
26 D.N. Nkwetta, M. Smyth/ Applied Energy 98 (2012) 2232
(42.3%) were realised by the truncated DSACPC solar collector com-
pared to the truncated SSACPC solar collector. The overall averaged
outlet and inlet uid temperature differential at a transverse angle
of 0 was determined to be 8.5 C for the truncated DSACPC solar
collector compared to 4.9 C for the truncated SSACPC, represent-
ing a 3.6 C (42.4%) overall averaged outlet and inlet uid temper-
ature differential improvement for the truncated DSACPC solar
collector compared to the truncated SSACPC.
It is evident that the outlet and inlet uid temperature differen-
tial, that the overall average outlet and inlet uid temperature dif-
ferential decreased with time and with the increasing transverse
angle. This decreasing uid temperature differential can be attrib-
uted to the increasing inlet and outlet uid temperatures resulting
in increased heat losses and lower insolation on the absorber due to
the increasing path length of the incident solar radiation and the re-
duced projected absorber area with increasing transverse angles.
Based on the technical design guide reported by Kingspan Renew-
ables [24], the mean uid and ambient temperature differential
for the truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors experimen-
tally investigated with simulated solar radiation perpendicular to
aperture of the concentrating collectors were evaluated and
matched to various operation areas.
4.2. Useful energy collection
The amount of simulated radiation falling on the collecting sur-
face area of the truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors over
each test period at different transverse angles was calculated using
in the following equation
Q
incident
G
ave
A
ap
Dt 4
where
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Time (minute)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(

C
)
Toutlet-Truncated DSACPC [0] Tinlet-Truncated DSACPC [0] Ambient temperature
Toutlet-Truncated SSACPC [0] Tinlet-Truncated SSACPC [0]
Fig. 4. Inlet and outlet uid temperature prole for the truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors with solar radiation perpendicular to the aperture.
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Time (minutes)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
i
a
l
,
T
o
u
t
le
t
-
T
in
le
t

(
o
C
)
Truncated SSACPC [0] Truncated SSACPC [10]
Truncated SSACPC [20] Truncated SSACPC [30]
Truncated SSACPC [40] Linear (Truncated SSACPC [0])
Linear (Truncated SSACPC [10]) Linear (Truncated SSACPC [20])
Linear (Truncated SSACPC [30]) Linear (Truncated SSACPC [40])
Fig. 5. Outlet and inlet uid temperature differential for the truncated SSACPC over the test periods at different transverse angles.
D.N. Nkwetta, M. Smyth/ Applied Energy 98 (2012) 2232 27
G
ave

R
tstart
t
end
Gtdt

Dt
5
The amount of useful energy collected by each solar collector
during the experimental test period was determined using in the
following equation
Q
collected
_ mc
p
T
outlet
T
inlet
6
The energy collection rate for the truncated SSACPC and
DSACPC over the test period at different transverse angles using
water as the HTF is illustrated in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. The en-
ergy collection rates for the truncated SSACPC and DSACPC with
incident solar radiation perpendicular to the collector aperture
ranges from 88.82 W to 76.46 W and 171.13 W and 137.49 W at
the start and end of the investigation period, respectively. The
overall averaged energy collection rate was determined to be
82.11 W and 150.67 W over the 6 h experimental test period for
the truncated SSACPC and DSACPC, respectively with the incident
solar radiation perpendicular to the collector aperture.
This represents 68.56 J (45.50%) more energy on average col-
lected by the truncated DSACPC solar collector compared to the
truncated SSACPC solar collector over the 6 h experimental test
period. The decrease in the energy collection rate and overall aver-
age energy collection rate with increasing test time was similar at
different transverse angles. As expected, the energy collection rate
at the start of the experiment was higher than the energy collec-
tion rate after 6 h of testing and the overall averaged daily energy
collected. This is due to increased heat losses from increasing inlet
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Time (minutes)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
i
a
l
,
T
o
u
t
l
e
t
-
T
i
n
l
e
t

(
o
C
)
Truncated DSACPC [0] Truncated DSACPC [10]
Truncated DSACPC [20] Truncated DSACPC [30]
Truncated DSACPC [40] Linear (Truncated DSACPC [0])
Linear (Truncated DSACPC [10]) Linear (Truncated DSACPC [20])
Linear (Truncated DSACPC [30]) Linear (Truncated DSACPC [40])
Fig. 6. Outlet and inlet uid temperature differential for the truncated DSACPC solar collector as a function of transverse angles.
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Time (minutes)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

e
n
e
r
g
y

c
o
l
l
e
c
t
e
d

(
W
)
Truncated SSACPC [0] Truncated SSACPC [10] Truncated SSACPC [20]
Truncated SSACPC [30] Truncated SSACPC [40] Linear (Truncated SSACPC [0])
Linear (Truncated SSACPC [10]) Linear (Truncated SSACPC [20]) Linear (Truncated SSACPC [30])
Linear (Truncated SSACPC [40])
Fig. 7. Useful energy collection rate for the truncated SSACPC over the test period at different transverse angles.
28 D.N. Nkwetta, M. Smyth/ Applied Energy 98 (2012) 2232
and outlet uid temperatures. Energy collection rates at different
transverse angles also decreased with increasing transverse angles.
One exception, the truncated SSACPC realised a higher energy col-
lection rate at ten degree (10) than at zero (0) as illustrated in
Fig. 7.
The total energy collected by the truncated SSACPC and DSACPC
solar collectors over the test period at different transverse angles is
presented in Table 2. The total energy collected by the truncated
SSACPC solar collectors increased from 1.77 MJ to a maximum of
1.92 MJ from transverse angles of 010 but dropped to 0.77 MJ
at a transverse angle of 40. The total energy collected by the trun-
cated DSACPC solar collector decreased from 3.26 MJ to 1.03 MJ at
transverse angles of 040, respectively. The decrease in energy
collection rates with increasing transverse angle is as a result of re-
duced projected absorber area and increasing path length through
which the incident rays travel before getting to the absorber. It was
determined that the truncated DSACPC solar collector collected
1.5 MJ (46%) and 0.48 MJ (46.6%) more energy compared to the
truncated SSACPC solar collector at transverse angles of 0and
40, respectively. This resulted from incident rays hitting both
sides of the absorber and increase collection of diffuse radiations.
The total energy collected by the non-concentrated evacuated
tube heat pipe called the control ETHPC solar collector decreased
from 1.32 MJ to 0.23 MJ at transverse angles of 040, respectively.
The decrease in energy collection rates with increasing transverse
angle is as a result of reduced projected absorber area. The compar-
ison in energy collection for three different collectors at ve differ-
ent transverse angles is illustrated in Table 2. The truncated
DSACPC and SSACPC solar collectors collected 1.94 MJ (59.51%)
and 0.80 MJ (77.67%) and 0.44 MJ (25%) and 0.32 MJ (58.18%) more
energy compared to the control ETHPC solar collector at transverse
angles of 0and 40, respectively.
4.3. Instantaneous efciencies and thermal characterisation of the
solar collectors
Experimental efciencies and thermal performance were deter-
mined using the experimental test data to generate efciency
curves. These linear best curves were obtained by calculating
the instantaneous efciencies from the solar inputs, ow rates,
ambient air temperature and inlet and outlet uid temperatures.
Experimental determination of the efciencies of the SSACPC and
DSACPC solar collectors were based on the collector aperture area
(A
apt
) under constant incident solar radiation and were presented
using plots of efciency against ((T
m
T
amb
)/G
ave
).
Eq. (7) permitted the determination of the instantaneous collec-
tion efciencies for these solar collectors over the investigated
period.
g
collected

_ mc
p
T
outlet
T
inlet

G
ave
A
ap
7
Eq. (7) was used to determine the collection efciencies for
these solar collectors based on operational values, which can be
further expressed using the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss equation for solar
energy collection represented in Eq. (8) [25].
g
collector
g
optical
a
T
m
T
amb
G
n
A
ap

8
Fig. 9 illustrates the experimentally determined efciencies for
the SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors, respectively. Graphical
representation of efciencies against ((T
m
T
amb
)/G
ave
) permitted
the heat removal-factor (intercept on the Y-axis) and the heat loss
coefcient or slope of best-t line to be identied and aids in sys-
tem characterisation as well as long-term performance prediction.
The experimental optical efciencies for these solar collectors were
determined from the intercept on the Y-axis. These experimental
optical efciencies with the incident solar radiation perpendicular
to the collector aperture are 59.8% and 57.2% for the SSACPC and
DSACPC solar collectors, respectively.
Table 3 details the characteristic representation (optical ef-
ciencies, heat loss coefcients and statistical uncertainties) for
the solar collectors based on the aperture area over the test periods
with incident solar radiation perpendicular to the collector
aperture.
The truncated DSACPC solar collector had a lower optical ef-
ciency due to greater optical losses resulting from the larger reec-
tor and aperture area but had lower heat loss coefcients as
demonstrated by the shallow drop in efciency as the collector in-
let and outlet uid temperature increases. The illumination on
both sides of the absorber for the DSACPC solar collector also re-
duces heat losses (no back losses) compared to the back losses
for the SSACPC solar collector. The maximum mean uid and ambi-
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Time (minutes)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

e
n
e
r
g
y

c
o
l
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
W
)
Truncated DSACPC [0] Truncated DSACPC [10] Truncated DSACPC [20]
Truncated DSACPC [30] Truncated DSACPC [40] Linear (Truncated DSACPC [0])
Linear (Truncated DSACPC [10]) Linear (Truncated DSACPC [20]) Linear (Truncated DSACPC [30])
Linear (Truncated DSACPC [40])
Fig. 8. Energy collection rate for the truncated DSACPC solar collector as a function of transverse angles.
D.N. Nkwetta, M. Smyth/ Applied Energy 98 (2012) 2232 29
ent temperature differential realisable by the truncated SSACPC
was up to 89 C with abscissa values ranging from 0.06 to 0.11
(medium temperature range). This allowed it to be efcient for so-
lar heated DHW with solar assisted central heating and process
application including solar assisted cooling, space heating and
desalination. The use of the truncated DSACPC solar collector at ab-
scissa values ranging from 0.06 Km
2
W
1
to 0.11 Km
2
W
1
(med-
ium temperature range) is slightly less efcient compared to the
truncated SSACPC solar collector.
However, at abscissa values equal to and greater than 0.11
Km
2
W
1
and up to 0.18 Km
2
W
1
(much higher medium tempera-
ture range), the truncated DSACPC solar collector can attain a po-
tential maximum mean uid and ambient temperature
differential of up to 146 C. This makes the DSACPC much more
efcient for process application including solar assisted cooling,
space heating, desalination and other higher temperature applica-
tions compared to the truncated SSACPC solar collectors. The use of
the truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors for solar heated
DHW, solar assisted central heating and process application im-
plies that the truncated DSACPC solar collector had 57 C (39.1%)
better uid temperature operation compared to the truncated
SSACPC solar collector at higher abscissa values ranging from
0.11 Km
2
W
1
and to 0.18 Km
2
W
1
.
In the medium temperature range with abscissa values greater
than 0.065 Km
2
W
1
, the truncated SSACPC solar collector was
more efcient than the truncated DSACPC solar collector at abscis-
sa values up to 0.09 Km
2
W
1
. However, at abscissa values greater
than 0.09 Km
2
W
1
, the truncated DSACPC solar collector slightly
outperforms the truncated SSACPC solar collector. Thus at a much
higher medium temperature range, the truncated DSACPC solar
collector shows better thermal performance and would be a more
suitable choice compared to truncated SSACPC solar collectors for
powering double-effect solar absorption refrigeration systems,
needing much higher input temperatures (above 90 C) and other
process heat applications. The heat losses coefcients realised by
the truncated SSACPC solar collector was 1.3 Wm
2
K
1
(34.9%)
higher than that attained by the truncated DSACPC solar collector.
The lower thermal losses of the DSACPC solar collector resulted
from the effective use of the absorber (illumination and collection
of incident solar radiations on both sides of the absorber).
The external statistical uncertainty (based on measurement
equipment) and internal statistical uncertainty (based on experi-
mental data) for optical efciency and heat loss coefcient were
calculated based on the formulas reported by Shukla et al. [26]
and an overall statistical uncertainty of 5.42% was released. The
determination of the incident angle modier as a function of trans-
Table 2
Total energy collected by the control ETHPC, truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar
collectors as a function of transverse angle over the test period.
Transverse
angles ()
Total energy
collected by the
control ETHPC
(MJ)
Total energy
collected by the
truncated SSACPC
(MJ)
Total energy
collected by the
truncated DSACPC
(MJ)
0 1.32 1.76 3.26
10 1.26 1.92 3.07
20 1.24 1.37 2.41
30 0.83 1.09 1.72
40 0.23 0.55 1.03
y = -3.553x + 0.5981
R
2
= 0.8922
y = -2.306x + 0.5720
R
2
= 0.901
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.0000 0.0200 0.0400 0.0600 0.0800 0.1000 0.1200 0.1400 0.1600 0.1800 0.2000
(T
m
-T
amb
)/G
ave
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
-
)
Efficiency-Truncated SSACPC [0] Efficiency-Truncated DSACPC [0]
Linear (Efficiency-Truncated SSACPC [0]) Linear (Efficiency-Truncated DSACPC [0])
Fig. 9. Experimental efciencies and best t linear characterisation curves for the truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors with solar radiation perpendicular to the
collector aperture.
Table 3
Characterisation of the truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors based on the aperture area.
Solar collector Characteristic equation based on aperture area Performance
Optical efciency (%) Heat loss coefcient (Wm
2
K
1
) Statistical uncertainties (%)
Truncated SSACPC g = 0.5983.55 (T
m
T
amb
)/G
ave
59.8 3.55 5.42
Truncated DSACPC g = 0.5722.31 (T
m
T
amb
)/G
ave
57.2 2.31
30 D.N. Nkwetta, M. Smyth/ Applied Energy 98 (2012) 2232
verse angle is illustrated in Fig. 10. Both collectors showed very
close IAM values of 1 at a transverse angle of 0 but decreased with
an increase in transverse angles with a minor variation recorded by
the truncated SSACPC at 10 transverse angle. The truncated
SSACPC shows an increase in IAM from transverse angle of 010
and then drops off whereas the truncated DSACPC shows a contin-
uous drop off in IAM with an increase in transverse angle.
The decrease in the IAM is more noticeable in the DSACPC com-
pared to SSACPC solar collector dropping off from 1 to 0.32 than 1
to 0.44, respectively. These peak IAM values are in agreement with
the energy collection values recorded by both the SSACPC and
DSACPC solar collectors. The decrease in incident angle modier
for both solar collectors can be attributed to an increase in path
length of the incoming rays with resultant increase multiple reec-
tions, reduced projected exposed absorber area and increase in
rays missing the absorber.
Lower than expected efciencies realised by the two systems
resulted from the partial vacuum loss suffered by the modied
double-sided absorber evacuated tube heat pipe solar collector.
In addition, the prototype DSACPC solar collector suffered more
heat losses with resulting lower efciencies accounted for by the
poor nature of the MAXORB foil coating on the modied double-
sided absorber evacuated tube heat pipe compared to the proto-
type SSACPC solar collector where only one side was used. The
additional reection of solar radiation between adjacent tubes
(mutual scattering between adjacent tubes) was not possible due
to the use of the concentrators. Optical efciencies experimentally
determined were also lower compared to those theoretically pred-
icated from ray trace simulation.
This resulted from slight reector and absorber fabrication er-
rors, light spectral distribution (510%) and non-collimation effect
(1520%) from the solar simulator. However, the efciency pat-
terns with respect to system prole are the same as those deter-
mined optically.
5. Conclusion
By designing, fabricating, installing and experimentally investi-
gating and comparing the temperatures, energy collection rates
and collection efciencies for the SSACPC and DSACPC solar collec-
tors with a concentration ratio of 1.85, it was found out that an
overall improvement of 3.6 C (42.4%) in average outlet and inlet
uid temperature differential was realised by the truncated
DSACPC compared to the truncated SSACPC at a transverse angle
of 0.
In total, up to 1.5 MJ (46%) and 0.48 MJ (46.6%) more energy was
collected by the truncated DSACPC collector over the truncated
SSACPC solar collector at transverse angles of 0and 40, respec-
tively. Optical efciency and overall heat loss coefcients of
59.8% and 3.55 Wm
2
K
1
and 57.2% and 2.31 Wm
2
K
1
were
determined for the SSACPC and DSACPC, respectively.
The 1.24 Wm
2
K
1
(34.9%) higher heat loss coefcient for the
SSACPC collector is primarily due to the back losses fromthe absor-
ber. Reector truncation reduces the size of the reector and re-
lated reector losses whilst concentration reduces the number of
the evacuated tube heat pipe collectors needed to attain higher
temperatures.
The use of SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors is seen to be fea-
sible for integrating solar thermal energy into buildings for heating
demands as well as greater potential for solar cooling due to better
temperature improvement, higher outlet and inlet uid tempera-
ture differential and substantial improvement in thermal perfor-
mance (lower heat loss coefcient).
The result trends shows that testing these systems at medium
to high temperature range, the SSACPC solar collector array will
be potentially more suitable and an economical option for power-
ing single-effect solar absorption air-conditioning systems whilst
the DSACPC solar collector array will be potentially suited for dou-
ble-effect solar absorption air-conditioning systems needing high-
er generator inlet temperatures.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Charles Parson Energy Research
Award for the nancial assistance/scholarship awarded to the rst
author for his PhD research period during which this work was
conducted.
y = -0.0004x
2
+ 4E-17x + 1.0809
R
2
= 0.9782
y = -0.0004x
2
- 1E-17x + 0.9463
R
2
= 0.9774
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Transverse angle (
o
)
I
A
M
Experimental IAM-Truncated SSACPC Experimental IAM-Truncated DSACPC
Poly. (Experimental IAM-Truncated SSACPC) Poly. (Experimental IAM-Truncated DSACPC)
Fig. 10. Incident angle modier (IAM) as a function of transverse angle for the truncated SSACPC and DSACPC solar collectors.
D.N. Nkwetta, M. Smyth/ Applied Energy 98 (2012) 2232 31
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