Implant Materials.

Titanium 6% Aluminum
7% Niobium.
Second Edition
John Disegi
Second Edition
November 2008
About the Cover
A portion of the Periodic Table depicts various major implant
alloying elements.
Alpha and beta crystal structure of Ti-6Al-7Nb.
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to acknowledge the technical contributions of
Professor S. Steinemann, University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
Introduction
Basic Metallurgy
Properties
References
Glossary
Table of Contents
2
1. Composition 3
2. Microstructure 4
1. Physical 5
2. Tensile 6
3. Fatigue 7
4. Corrosion 8
5. Biocompatibility 11
6. Surface 12
13
16
2
Titanium 6% Aluminum 7% Niobium is a relatively new titanium
alloy that has been selected by Synthes for the next generation of ad-
vanced fracture fixation devices. The alloy was conceived in 1977 by a
team of researchers at Sulzer Bros., Winterthur, Switzerland.
1
The new alloy was introduced by 1985 following six years of intensive
development and testing. A total hip replacement (THR) prosthesis
fabricated from Ti-6Al-7Nb was originally marketed by Protek as
Protasul

100 and has been in clinical use since early 1986.

The mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy are very similar to
Ti-6Al-4V alloy which has been used as a biomaterial for many years.
The major difference between the alloys is the replacement of vana-
dium by niobium. The Ti-6Al-7Nb composition is in agreement with the
principle of utilizing only non-toxic elements for implant devices
as outlined in U.S. Patent 4,040,129 assigned to Institute Straumann,
Waldenburg, Switzerland.
2
Niobium was discovered
3
while chemist C. Hatchett was analyzing
a black stone near Connecticut in 1801. The element was originally
named columbium and was assigned atomic number 41 in the Periodic
Table. Columbium was later renamed niobium which was derived from
Niobe, the goddess of tears in Greek mythology. The word niobium
was preferred in Europe while the word columbium continued to be
used in the United States.
Various niobium compounds are extracted from ore concentrates by a
chlorination process followed by metallic reduction to niobium metal.
3
The metal is then purified by electron beam melting into ingots. The
ingots are alloyed with specific metals and further refined in a vacuum
consumable arc melting furnace to produce an intermediate raw
material known as a niobium master alloy.
The niobium master alloy is blended with pure titanium in the correct
proportion and a cylindrical electrode is formed for melting under high
vacuum. Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy is double or triple vacuum arc melted to
provide an ingot composition that is very uniform and homogeneous.
The ingot is hot pressed, hot rolled, and finished into round and flat
bar products using conventional titanium alloy processing methods.
Introduction
3
1. Composition
Composition requirements for Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy are included in ISO
5832-11
4
and ASTM F 1295 specification
5
. The composition limits for
Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy are listed as follows:
Basic Metallurgy
Ti6Al7Nb composition limits
Element Composition (%)
Aluminum 5.50 to 6.50
Niobium 6.50 to 7.50
Tantalum 0.50 max
Iron 0.25 max
Oxygen 0.20 max
Carbon 0.08 max
Nitrogen 0.05 max
Hydrogen 0.009 max
Titanium Balance
The product tolerance limits for chemical check analysis must meet the
requirements in AMS 2249C specification.
6
Product analysis tolerance
limits do not broaden the specified heat analysis requirements but
cover variations between laboratories in the measurement of chemical
content.
Hydrogen content must be kept very low in Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy to avoid
hydrogen embrittlement. Hot working operations in the titanium mill
are typically performed in air and this can increase the hydrogen
content because of the reactive nature of the alloy at elevated temper-
ature. Surface protective coatings and special thermal treatments are
used to minimize the pick-up of residual hydrogen during high temper-
ature processing. Ti-6Al-7Nb cleaning operations which use nitric
plus hydrofluoric acid solutions are carefully controlled to eliminate
hydrogen absorption during pickling. A ratio of 10 parts nitric acid to 1
part hydrofluoric acid is recommended.
7
Hydrogen analysis is typically
performed on the finish mill product after all high temperature and
cleaning operations have been completed.
4
2. Microstructure
The room temperature microstructure of Ti-6Al-7Nb consists of a dual
phase alpha + beta structure that is similar to Ti-6Al-4V alloy. An alpha
+ beta globular microstructure is typically obtained for Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy
after solution annealing at 700 C, 1 hour, air cool or water quench.
1
Hot pressing studies
8
have shown that Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy compositions
with 6.0% to 7.0% niobium contain 10% to 12% beta phase.
This is comparable to Ti-6Al-4V alloy which contains 9% to 12.5%
beta phase.
The temperature at which the alpha-beta phase transformation occurs
is known as the beta transus. A beta transus of 1010 C 15 C has
been reported for Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy.
1
The actual beta transus tempera-
ture is dependent on composition and, hence, can be used as a meas-
ure of compositional uniformity. Optimized heat treating operations
may also be established on the basis of beta transus temperature.
The alpha + beta microstructure of hot rolled and annealed Ti-6Al-7Nb
bar is shown in the following transverse photomicrograph at 200X
magnification. The photomicrograph was provided by Dr. L. Zardiackas,
Division of Biomaterials, University of Mississippi Medical Center.
Annealed bar microstucture
Basic Metallurgycontinued
ASTM F 1295 microstructure requirements specify a fine dispersion of
alpha+ beta phases resulting from processing in the alpha plus beta
field. No alpha case, coarse elongated alpha platelets, or continuous
alpha network at prior beta grain boundaries are permitted. ISO
requirements specify that the material must meet micrographs A1 to
A9 in ETTC 2 standard
9
for annealed material.
The density of Ti-6Al-7Nb is nearly identical to Synthes unalloyed
titanium and Ti-6Al-4V. Titanium implants weigh about 45% of 316L
stainless steel and cobalt base implants
10
and this may represent a pa-
tient comfort factor especially when large-sized devices are compared.
Modulus of elasticity is a physical property that describes the stress per
unit strain in the elastic region. A low modulus of elasticity is desirable
because stress shielding is minimized and increased stress will be trans-
ferred to the bone. The relative importance of stress shielding increases
as the size of the implant increases. The modulus of elasticity of
Ti-6Al-7Nb, Ti-6Al-4V, and unalloyed titanium are similar and the
values are significantly lower than 187 GPa for 316L stainless steel
and 248 GPa for cast Co-Cr-Mo biomaterials.
10
The magnetic permeability of low permeability materials may be
measured with an instrument known as a High Sensitivity Low-Mu
Permeability Indicator or Severn Gauge.
11
The lowest calibrated
measurement probe is equal to 1.01. Magnetic permeabilities of
less than 1.01 have been recorded
12
for Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy. The titanium
alloy demonstrates negligible residual magnetism and Ti-6Al-7Nb
implants may be routinely scanned with Magnetic Resonance
Imaging equipment.
13
5
1. Physical
The physical properties of Ti-6Al-7Nb
1
have been compared to
unalloyed titanium Grade 1 through Grade 4 and Ti-6Al-4V alloy.
10
Properties
Density Modulus of elasticity
Material (gm/cc) in tension (GPa)
Ti-6Al-7Nb 4.52 105
Ti-6Al-4V 4.43 114
Ti Grade 1 4.51 103
Ti Grade 2 4.51 103
Ti Grade 3 4.51 103
Ti Grade 4 4.51 104
Properties continued
6
The minimum UTS (Ultimate Tensile Strength) and minimum 0.2% Y.S.
(Yield Strength) of Ti-6Al-7Nb is similar to Ti-6Al-4V ELI alloy and
significantly higher than Ti Grade 4. The minimum % elongation for
both titanium alloys is less than Ti Grade 4 and this is expected, be-
cause of the significantly higher strength characteristics. The minimum
% reduction of areas are identical. Mechanical property limits indicate
these titanium materials have similar levels of tensile ductility.
A mechanical test known as a notched tensile test is commonly used
to evaluate the relative notch sensitivity of various materials. The test is
performed by comparing the tensile strength of a notched cross
section to a smooth cross section. The notch is produced by precision
machining a bar specimen so that the notch geometry matches a
specific factor of stress concentration (K
t
). Notched tensile results for
a K
t
value of 3.2 have been reported by S. Steinemann
14
as follows:
Minimum tensile properties for bar in the annealed condition
Min.
Min. Min. Min. Reduction
ASTM UTS 0.2% y. S. Elong. in area**
Material Spec. (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
Ti-6Al-7Nb F 1295 900 800 10* 25
Ti-6Al-4V ELI F 136 860 795 10** 25
Ti Grade 4 F 67 550 483 15** 25
* gage length = 5.65 X S, where S is the original cross-sectional area, in mm
** gage length = 4D, where D is the machined diameter in mm
2. Tensile
Minimum tensile properties for Ti-6Al-7Nb bar up to 100 mm diameter,
Ti-6Al-4V ELI bar from 4.75 to 44.45 mm in diameter or thickness, and
commercially pure unalloyed titanium Grade 4 bar have been
compared as follows:
NTS UTS
Material Condition (MPa) (MPa) NTS/UTS
Ti-6Al-7Nb Annealed 1387 1024 1.35
Ti-6Al-4V Annealed 1598 1076 1.49
Ti Grade 4 Cold Worked 1387 785 1.77
Notch tensile sensitivity of titanium materials
7
Materials which have a NTS/UTS ratio of 1.10 or greater in this test
are classified as notch insensitive, i.e. they are not notch sensitive.
Results clearly demonstrate that Ti-6Al-7Nb along with Ti-6Al-4V and
Ti Grade 4 are not considered notch sensitive materials when evaluated
according to notch tensile strength criteria.
3. Fatigue
M. Semlitsch and the group at Sulzer
8
have reported the rotating
bending fatigue strength of shot peened Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy in various
hot worked conditions.
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
Fatigue
Strength
(MPa)
Extruded
and Forged
Pressed
and Forged
Hot Rolled
The fatigue strength increases as the total amount of hot deformation increases. This is
related to the homogeneous structure and grain refinement that result from cumulative
hot working operations. Hot rolled Ti-6Al-7Nb bar typically has a fatigue strength in ex-
cess of 50% of the ultimate tensile strength which is very desirable for a titanium alloy.
Rotating bending fatigue tests
14
have also been performed with 5.68 mm round hour-
glass shaped specimen at 6,000 rpm. Samples were prepared by vibratory finishing
followed by electropolishing. Comparative results generated in this series of fatigue
tests showed the following trends:
Rotating bending fatigue strength of hot worked Ti-6Al-7Nb
8
Stress Amplitude (MPa)
at Specified Cycles
The stress amplitude at 10
7
cycles is known as the endurance limit.
This is the maximum stress below which a material can presumably
endure an infinite number of stress cycles. The Ti-6Al-7Nb endurance
limit is equivalent to Ti-6Al-4V alloy and is substantially better than
cold worked Ti Grade 4.
4. Corrosion
Polarization curves
15
in 2 molar hydrochloric acid at 37 C are shown
in the following diagram.
Properties continued
The unalloyed titanium and Ti-6Al-7Nb exhibit a classic active-passive
transition at -500 mV with stable passive behavior up to at least +3000
mV. The very similar anodic polarization curves for Ti-6Al-7Nb and
unalloyed titanium also suggest that galvanic corrosion would not be
experienced. Unalloyed titanium and Ti-6Al-7Nb resist breakthrough
Material Condition 10
4
10
7
>10
Ti-6Al-7Nb Annealed 810 540 540
Ti-6Al-4V Annealed 540 540
Ti Grade 4 Cold Worked 670 430 430
Fully reversed rotating fatigue
-500 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
10
3
10
2
10
1
Millivolts vs. SCE
Pitting Potential
Active/Passive
Transition
Ti6Al4V
Ti
Ti6Al7Nb

A
/cm
2
9
but not Ti-6Al-4V, which exhibits a strong current increase for a pitting
potential of 6000 mV. Anodic polarization results confirm the improved
corrosion resistance of Ti-6Al-7Nb when compared to Ti-6Al-4V in a
reducing acid environment.
Pitting potential results
16
versus a Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE) in
a severe reducing acid environment of 2 molar HCl at 37 C are shown
in the following graph.
Breakthrough results indicate that the pitting potential of Ti-6Al-7Nb
is above +10.0 volts which is identical to unalloyed titanium and
substantially better than the + 5.9 volts exhibited by Ti-6Al-4V alloy.
This suggests that the Ti-6Al-7Nb passive film is more resistant to
breakdown than the Ti-6Al-4V in an aggressive reducing acid
environment.
The corrosion fatigue strengths of Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-6Al-4V total
hip stems
17
have been compared by Semlitsch. Corrosion fatigue
strengths were similar when tested for 5 million cycles in Ringers
solution at 37 C and a frequency of 6 Hertz.
Exposure of Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy to sodium chloride, ferric chloride, and
amino acids
18
have shown that the alloy is chemically inert under the
test conditions investigated.
Samples have also been tested by four-point bend testing at 80% of
the 0.2% Y.S. in NACE TM0177-86 solution for 760 hours.
19
The test
solution is very aggressive and contains sodium chloride, glacial acetic
acid, and is saturated with bubbling hydrogen sulfide.
10
8
6
4
2
0
Pitting
Potential
(+ volts)
Ti6Al7Nb Ti6Al4V Ti
>10.0 >10.0
5.9
Pitting potential in 2 molar HCI at 37C
10
The specimen size was 70 mm x 10 mm x 2 mm. No cracked or failed
specimens were found after exposure to the NACE solution at 24 C
for 760 hours under high bending loads and very strong reducing
conditions.
Slow strain rate stress corrosion cracking (SCC) tendency has been
evaluated by constant extension rate testing in 3% NaCl or deionized
water at 40 C as reported by Simpson.
19
A material is considered to be susceptible to SCC if the ductility proper-
ties in an aggressive media (3% NaCl) are inferior to the properties in
a non-aggressive media (deionized water). Reduction of area or elon-
gation ratios for sodium chloride/water that are below 90% may
indicate SCC problems. Comparison of the results in NaCl with those in
water indicated no problem is to be expected with SCC because the re-
duction of area ratios were virtually identical regardless of the test envi-
ronment. This trend was also observed when the test was repeated at
a strain rate of 1 x 10
-6
sec
-1
and when the % elongation ratios were
used as a criteria.
Properties continued
76
74
72
70
66
64
62
60
Reduction
in Area (%)
Ti6Al7Nb Ti6Al4V
Deionized Water 3% NaCl
Constant extension rate
testing at 2 x 10
-7
sec
-1
11
5. Biocompatibility
In vitro organ culture tests evaluated the growth inhibition of organ
cultured embryonic rat femurs in the presence of soluble metal
chlorides for 10 days and solid metal implants for 7 days.
20
Results
indicated that vanadium salts are an order of magnitude more toxic
than nickel, cobalt, and copper salts. The same experiments were also
performed with niobium and aluminum oxide salts that were saturated
in the test electrolyte. No toxic reactions occurred.
21
No growth inhibition was observed in femurs with niobium and
titanium metal wire implants .
20
These metals were well tolerated as
evidenced by the appearance of normal cartilage cells near the wire im-
plants. However, other metals such as nickel, cobalt, copper, and iron
showed marked corrosion, growth inhibition, and cell damage. Alu-
minum metal was not tested in this study.
Work at Lausanne University, Institute for Experimental Physics,
22
has
concluded that the oxides or hydroxides of Ti, Al, and Nb are at
saturation in biological tissue. The dissolved metals will not be ionized
or transported in vivo. The elements in Ti-6Al-7Nb do not create a
bioburden and this accounts for the excellent localized biocompatibility
observed for this alloy.
In vivo screening tests
23
were performed with grooved cylinders
implanted subcutaneously in the backs of mice for 1, 3, and 9 weeks.
This test is identical to the subcutaneous screening method specified
in ASTM F 1408.
24
Histological analysis revealed that the Ti-6Al-7Nb
implants did not create adverse tissue tolerance reactions. The number
of giant cell nuclei was smaller for vanadium-free alloys.
Synthes bone screws machined from unalloyed titanium and various
titanium alloys were implanted in dog femora for up to 2 years.
25
Testing was performed according to ASTM F 981 standard.
26
Histologi-
cal evaluation indicated that direct bone attachment was observed
at the Ti-6Al-7Nb bone screw surface. Overall biocompatibility results
were excellent with no adverse cellular reactions observed histologi-
cally. Removal torques at 26 and 52 week retrieval periods were similar
for anodized screws fabricated from Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-6Al-4V. All
unalloyed titanium and titanium alloy screws evaluated in the study
demonstrated similar removal torque from dog femora bone.
Mechanically polished Ti-6Al-7Nb discs implanted in the backs of mice
27
were retrieved for histological and surface chemistry analysis at the
University of Lausanne. Desorption studies indicated that the amount
of adherent soft tissue was similar for Ti-6Al-7Nb and unalloyed
12
titanium implants. Visible corrosion products were not present on the
surface of the implants after the surrounding tissue was removed.
Retrieval analyses of human hip joint prostheses
28
have concluded
that Ti-6Al-7Nb is extremely biocompatible as evidenced by osseous
ingrowth at the implant surface. Histological examination indicated
that osseous tissue formation along the entire stem length provided
secondary implant stabilization.
6. Surface
The surface oxide of Ti-6Al-7Nb has been characterized
18
by X-Ray
Photoelectron Spectroscopy analysis. The surface study found the oxide
film was a mixture of TiO
2
, Al
2
O
3
, and Nb
2
O
5
. This study concluded that
the mixed oxide film formed on Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy is more chemically
stable than the TiO
2
oxide layer formed on unalloyed titanium.
Ti-6Al-7Nb implants may be shot peened for improved fatigue life but
the shot peening media must be carefully selected to avoid iron con-
tamination at the surface of the implant. Final surface treatment after
machining, or after machining and shot peening, consists of electro-
chemical anodizing, although nitric acid passivation may also be used.
29
Synthes Ti-6Al-7Nb implants have an anodized surface finish that is
produced by immersing the implants in an electrochemical solution for
a specified time and voltage. The color that is produced is a function
of the mixed oxide film thickness which is controlled in the anodizing
process. Visible light diffraction within the oxide produces a distinct
color. No pigments or organic coloring agents are present in the
anodized film. The standard Synthes anodizing treatment creates a
gold appearance that is a distinguishing feature of Synthes titanium
implants. The anodizing process is capable of creating a variety of
colors, depending on the thickness of the oxide film.
Surface analysis of anodized CP titanium
30
has shown that typical
anodizing treatments increase the oxide thickness and alter the
oxide chemistry. Corrosion studies concluded that the anodized film
exhibited reduced corrosion rates when compared to unanodized
specimens. Extrapolation of the CP titanium results suggest that
anodizing improves the corrosion resistance of the mixed oxide film
that is normally present on the surface of Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy.
Recent studies in aerated 3% sodium chloride
31
indicated that
anodized films on Ti-6Al-7Nb and other titanium alloys have higher po-
larization resistance than CP titanium. The results confirmed increased
stability and better corrosion resistance for an anodized oxide film in
a chloride-containing corrosive environment.
Properties continued
13
1. Surgical Implant Alloy IMI 367, Product Bulletin, IMI Titanium
Limited, Birmingham, England.
2. Steinemann, S., and Perren, S., Surgical Implant and Alloy for
Use in Making an Implant, U.S. Patent 4,040, 129, August 9,
1977.
3 Niobium, Product Brochure, Teledyne Wah Chang, Albany, OR,
pp. 3-4.
4. ISO 5832-11: Implants for Surgery Metallic Materials, Part II:
Wrought Titanium-6 Aluminum-7 Niobium Alloy, International
Organization for Standardization.
5. ASTM F 1295: Standard Specification for Wrought Titanium-6
Aluminum-7 Niobium Alloy for Surgical Implant Applications,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
6. AMS 2249C: Chemical Check Analysis Limits, Titanium and Tita-
nium Alloys, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA.
7. ASTM B 600, Standard Recommended Practices for Descaling
and Cleaning Titanium and Titanium Surfaces, American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
8. Semlitsch, M., et.al., Titanium-Aluminum-Niobium Alloy,
Development for Biocompatible High Strength Surgical Im-
plants, Sonderduck aus Biomedizinische Technik 30, (1985), 12,
S. 334-339.
9. Technical Committee of European Titanium Producers, ETCC2
Monograph, IMI Titanium Ltd., Birmingham, England, Kynoch
Press.
10. Disegi, J., AO/ASIF Unalloyed Titanium Implant Material,
Second Edition, AO/ASIF Technical Publications, SYNTHES (USA),
July 1991.
11. Severn Engineering Company, Inc., Annapolis, MD.
12. Disegi, J., Internal Correspondence, SYNTHES (USA), Paoli, PA.
13. Disegi, J., Magnetic resonance imaging of AO/ASIF stainless
steel and titanium implants, Injury, AO/ASIF Scientific Supple-
ment, Vol. 23, Supplement 2, 1992.
14. Steinemann, S., et.al., Beta-Titanium Alloy for Surgical
Implants, Seventh World Conference on Titanium, San Diego,
CA, June 28-July 2, 1992.
15. Protasul

100 (Ti-6Al-7Nb) Vanadium-Free, High Strength Tita-

nium Alloy, Technical Report, Protek, Inc., Indianapolis, IN, 1988.
References
14
16. Simpson, J., The Electrochemical Behavior of Titanium and
Titanium Alloys With Respect to Their Use as Surgical Implant
Materials, Biological and Biomechanical Performance of Bioma-
terials, Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, pp. 63-68, 1986.
17. Semlitsch, M., et.al. Development of a Vital, High-Strength
Titanium-Aluminum-Niobium Alloy for Surgical Implants,
Biological and Biomechanical Performance of Biomaterials,
Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, pp. 69-74, 1986.
18. Maeusli, P., et.al., Surface Characterization of Titanium and
Ti-Alloys, Biological and Biomechanical Performance of Bioma-
terials, Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, pp. 57-62, 1986.
19. Simpson, J., Re: ASTM-Norm Titanium Alloy Ti-6Al-7Nb
Internal Report, Sulzer Innotec, Winterthur, February 3, 1990.
20. Gerber, H., and Perren, S., Evaluation of Tissue Compatibility of
in vitro Cultures of Embryonic Bone, Evaluation of Biomaterials,
John Wiley and Sons, pp. 307-314, 1980.
21. Gerber, H., et.al., Bioactivity of metals: Tissue tolerance of
soluble solid metal tested on organ cultured embryonic bone
rudiments, Technical Principles, Design and Safety of Implants,
G.H. Buchhorn, H.G. Wiliert (eds.), Hogrefe & Huber,
Toronto/Bern.
22. Steinemann, S., and Maeusli, P., Titanium Alloys for Surgical Im-
plants Biocompatibility from Physiochemical Principles, Sixth
World Conference on Titanium, France, pp. 535-540, 1988.
23. Perren, S., et.al, Quantitative Evaluation of Biocompatibility of
Vanadium Free Titanium Alloys, Biological and Biomechanical
Performance of Biomaterials, Elsevier Science Publishers,
Amsterdam, pp. 397-402, 1980.
24. ASTM F 1408: Practices for Subcutaneous Screening Test for
Implant Materials, American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, PA.
25. Olmstead, M., and Pohler, O., Report on Long Term
Compatibility Testing of New Titanium Alloys, AO Research
Grant 1987/88, Stratec Medical, Waldenburg, January 17, 1990.
26. ASTM F 981: Assessment of Compatibility of Biomaterials (Non-
porous) for Surgical Implants with Respect to Effect of Materials
on Muscle and Bone, American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, PA.
27. Gold, J., et.al., XPS Study of Retrieved Titanium and Ti Alloy
References continued
15
Implants, Advances in Biomaterials, Volume 9, Clinical Implant
Materials, Heimke, G., ed., Elsevier Science Publishers,
Amsterdam, pp. 69-74, 1990.
28. Zweymuller, K., et.al., Biologic Fixation of a press-Fit Titanium
Hip Joint Endoprosthesis, Clinical Orthopaedics, Volume 235,
pp. 195-206, October 1988.
29. Solar, R., et.al., Titanium Release from Implants: A Proposed
Mechanism, Corrosion and Degradation of Implant Materials,
ASTM STP 684, B. Syrett and A. Acharya, American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, p. 172, 1979.
30. Lucas, L., et.al., Corrosion and Auger Surface Chemistry
Analyses of Surface Modified Porous Titanium, Transaction of
the 17th Annual Society for Biomaterials, p. 201,
May 1-5, 1991.
31. Frey, N., et.al., Properties of Surface Oxides on Titanium and
Some Titanium Alloys, Seventh World Conference on Titanium,
San Diego, CA, June 28-July 2, 1992.
16
ALLOY. A metallic substance composed of two or more elements at
least one of which is metal.
ALLOYING ELEMENT. An element, added to and remaining in a
metal, that changes the metals structure and properties.
ALPHA. The low temperature form of titanium with a hexagonal
close-packed (hcp) crystal structure.
ALPHA + BETA STRUCTURE. A microstructure containing alpha
and beta as the principal phases at ambient temperatures.
ALPHA CASE. The oxygen, nitrogen, or carbon enriched alpha
stabilized surface resulting from elevated temperature exposure.
ANNEALING. A metal softening operation in which the metal is
heated to and held at a specified temperature, followed by cooling at
a controlled rate.
ANODIC REACTION. An oxidation reaction that produces electrons
at the anode of an electrochemical cell. When dissimilar metals are
coupled, the anode usually experiences increased corrosion.
ANODIZING. An electrolytic process that increases the thickness
of the protective oxide film on titanium.
BETA. The high temperature form of titanium with a body-centered
cubic (bcc) crystal structure.
BETA TRANSUS. The minimum temperature at which 100% beta
phase can exist.
BODY-CENTERED CUBIC. A unit cell which consists of atoms
arranged at cube corners with one atom at the center of the cube.
BRITTLENESS. The tendency of a material to fracture without first
undergoing significant permanent deformation.
CATHODIC REACTION. A reduction reaction that consumes
electrons at the cathode of an electrochemical cell. When dissimilar
metals are coupled, the cathode usually undergoes reduced corrosion.
COLD-WORKED MICROSTRUCTURE. A microstructure resulting
from cold working the material.
COLD WORKING. Permanently deforming a metal or alloy at room
temperature to increase its strength.
CRYSTAL. A solid composed of atoms that repeat in a pattern of
regular intervals in three dimensions.
Glossary
17
DESCALING. Chemically or mechanically removing the thick oxide
layer that is formed on metals during high temperature processing.
DUCTILITY. The ability to permanently deform before fracturing.
ELECTRODE. A cylindrical metal compact that is suitable for vacuum
arc melting or a metal ingot that is suitable for remelting.
ELONGATED ALPHA. A fibrous type of microstructure that results
from unidirectional cold working of unalloyed titanium.
ELONGATION. A term that describes ductility by measuring the
amount of extension that a material undergoes during tensile testing.
EQUIAXED STRUCTURE. A microstructure feature that consists of
polygonal shaped grains with equal dimensions in all directions.
FATIGUE. The phenomenon leading to fracture under repeated or
fluctuating stresses having a maximum value less than the ultimate
tensile strength of the material.
FATIGUE LIFE. The number of cycles of stress or strain of a specified
character that a given specimen sustains before failure of a specific
nature occurs.
FATIGUE STRENGTH. The maximum stress that can be sustained for
a specified number of cycles without failure, the stress being completely
reversed within each cycle unless otherwise stated.
FRETTING CORROSION. An accelerated form of corrosion that
can occur when the protective passive film is mechanically abraded.
The relative motion of the underside of a bone screw head with the
contact surface of a bone plate is a typical example.
GPa. Gigapascal equals 1000 MPa.
HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED. A unit cell which consist of a
hexagonal arrangement of atoms in a plane surrounding an atom
followed by three atoms in the next horizontal plane.
HOT-WORKED MICROSTRUCTURE. A microstructure resulting
from hot working the material.
HOT WORKING. Permanently deforming metal at an elevated
temperature that is usually above recrystallization temperature.
INCLUSION. A particle of foreign material in a metallic microstructure
that is usually considered undesirable.
INGOT. A metal casting that is suitable for remelting or hot working.
18
Glossarycontinued
INTERMETALLIC COMPOUND. A phase in an alloy system that
has a well-defined composition and limited solubility.
LONGITUDINAL. Parallel to the principal direction of hot or cold
working.
MASTER ALLOY. An alloy rich in one or more elements that is
added to a melt to raise the percentage of a desired constituent.
MICROSTRUCTURE. The structure of metals as revealed by
microscopic examination of a specimen.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY. A measure of the stress per unit strain
in the elastic region before permanent deformation occurs.
PASSIVATION. The process of changing the chemical activity of a
metal surface to a less reactive state, usually to increase the corrosion
resistance.
PICKLING. Chemical removal of the thick oxide layer that is formed
on metals during high temperature processing.
POLYGONAL STRUCTURE. A closed planar shape bound on
at least three sides.
RECRYSTALLIZATION. A change from one crystal structure to
another that occurs during heating or cooling through a critical
temperature range.
REDUCTION IN AREA. A tensile testing measure of ductility that
equals the original area minus the area after fracture divided by the
original area, expressed as a percentage.
SOLUBILITY. A measure of the amount of a substance that can be
dissolved in a metal or alloy.
STRAIN. Change in length per unit length in the direction of the
applied stress.
STRESS. Forcer per unit area.
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING. Failure of metals by cracking
under combined action of corrosion and stress.
TRANSVERSE. Perpendicular to the principal direction of hot or
cold working.
TWINNING. A microstructure feature that describes mirror-image
positions across a planar interface.
19
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH. In tensile testing, the maximum
load at fracture divided by the original cross-sectional area.
UNALLOYED TITANIUM. Single phase titanium metal that does
not contain major alloying additions.
VACUUM ARC REMELTING. A melting process in which an
electric arc is used to remelt an electrode inside a vacuum chamber.
YIELD STRENGTH. In tensile testing, the stress at which the
stress-to-strain ratio exhibits a specified deviation, usually designated
as 0.2% offset.
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