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Chapter I
Matrices and Determinants
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
introduce the concept of matrices
elucidate the types of matrix
introduce determinant of matrix
Objectives
The objective of this chapter is to:
explicate the operations on matrices
describe the properties of determinants
explicate the properties of matrices
Learning Outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
compare different types of matrix
identify the basic operations on matrix
understan d simultaneous linear equations using determinants
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1.1 Introduction
The study of matrices and determinants is of immense signifcance in the feld of business and economics. This
lesson introduces the matrix, the rectangular array and determinants at the heart of matrix algebra. Matrix algebra
is used quite a bit in advanced statistics, largely because it provides two benefts.
Compact notation for describing sets of data and sets of equations.
Effcient methods for manipulating sets of data and solving sets of equations.
1.2 Matrix
1.2.1 Matrix defnition
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. It is a collection of real or complex
numbers (usually real) arranged in a fxed number of rows and columns. It is arranged in a rectangular brackets
(either ( ) or [ ]).A set of real or complex numbers arranged in a rectangular array of m rows and n columns, of
an order m x n (read as m by n) is called a matrix. The dimension or order of matrix is written as number of rows
x number of columns.
A=
Example: A=
The topmost row is row 1.The leftmost column is column 1.
Here, the number of rows (m) is 2 and the number of columns (n) is 3.
So the matrix is of order 2 x 3 (2 by 3 matrix).
Matrices are used to solve problem in:
Electronics
Statics
Robotics
Linear programming
Optimisation
Intersection of planes
Genetics
1.2.2 Matrix Notation
Statisticians use symbols to identify matrix elements and matrices.
Matrix elements: Consider the matrix below, in which matrix elements are represented entirely by symbols.
A=
By convention the frst subscript refers to the row number and the second subscript refers to the column number
.Thus the frst element in the frst row is represented by ,the second element in the frst row, by and so
on, until we reach the fourth element in second row which is represented by .
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Notation: The simplest way to represent a matrix symbolically is to use bold face letters A,B ,C etcThus A
might refer to a 2 x 3 matrix in the below example
A =
Another approach of representing matrix A is:
A= [ ] where i=1, 2 and j=1, 2, 3, 4
This notation indicates A is a matrix with two rows and four columns. The actual element of the array are not
displayed they are represented by the symbol .
1.2.3 Matrix Equality
To understand matrix algebra, we need to understand matrix equality. Two matrices are equal if all three of the
following conditions are met:
each matrix has same number of rows
each matrix has same number of columns
corresponding elements within each matrix are equal
Consider the three matrices given below

A= B= C=
If A=B, then x=22 and y=33, as corresponding elements of equal matrices are equal. And it is clear that C is not
equal to A or B, because C has more columns than A or B.
1.3 Types of Matrix
There are six types of matrices. They are as follows.
1.3.1 Row Matrix
A matrix having a single row is called row matrix.
Example
A=
1.3.2 Column Matrix
A matrix having a single column is called column matrix.
Example:
A=
1.3.3 Zero/Null Matrix
A matrix having each and every element as zero is called a null or zero matrix.
Example
A=

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1.3.4 Square Matrix
A matrix having equal number of rows and columns is called a square matrix.
Example
A=
1.3.5 Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix having all elements zero except principal diagonal elements is called diagonal matrix. Principal
diagonal elements can be any non-zero elements.
Matrix elements like , , etc are called principal diagonal elements.
Example
A=
1.3.6 Unit/Identity Matrix
A square matrix which is a diagonal matrix having all principal diagonal elements as one (unit) is called identity
matrix.
Example
A=

1.3.7 Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of one matrix is obtained by using the row of the frst matrix as the column of the second matrix.
Example: if A= , then the transpose of A is represented by A
A=
1.4 Operations on Matrices
Like ordinary algebra, matrix algebra has operations addition, subtraction and multiplication.
1.4.1 Addition of Matrices
Two matrices can be added only if they have same dimensions; that is, they must have same number of rows and
columns.
Addition can be accomplished by adding corresponding elements.
For example, consider matrix A and matrix B
A= B=

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Both matrices have the same number of rows and columns (2 rows and 3 columns), so they can be added. Thus,
A+B =
A+B=
And fnally, note that the order in which the matrices are added does not affect the fnal result.A+B=B+A.
1.4.1.1 Properties of Matrix Addition
The properties of addition of matrices are as follows:
Commutative property is true ;that is A+B=B+A
Associative property is true
A+ (B+C) = (A+B) +C
Distributive property is true
K (A+B) =ka+kb
(A+B) k=Ak+Bk
Existence of additive identity element, if a matrix is added with null matrix of the same dimension then, it results
in the same matrix, so the additive identity of a matrix is null matrix
A+0=0+A=A
Existence of additive inverse, if a matrix is added by inverse of A matrix, then the result is a null matrix, so the
additive inverse of a matrix is the inverse of the matrix itself matrix
A+ (-A) = (-A) +A= 0
1.4.2 Subtraction of Matrices
Like addition of matrices, subtraction of matrices also follows the same conditions and procedures for subtracting
two matrices. Two matrices can be subtracted only if they have same dimensions; that is, they must have same
number of rows and columns.
Subtraction can be accomplished by adding corresponding elements.
For example, consider matrix A and matrix B
A= B=
Both matrices have the same number of rows and columns (3 rows and 2 columns), so they can be subtracted.
Thus,
A-B=
A-B=
And fnally, note that the order in which the matrices are subtracted affects the fnal result. A-B B-A.
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1.4.3 Multiplication of Matrices
In matrix multiplication there are two types of matrix multiplication. They are:
Multiplication of a matrix by a number
Multiplication of a matrix by another matrix
1.4.3.1 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Number
When a matrix is multiplied by a number, every element in the matrix should be multiplied by that same number.
This operation produces a new matrix, which is called scalar multiple. This multiplication process is called as scalar
multiplication.
For example, if x is 5 and matrix A is as follows,
A=
Then,
xA = 5A = 5 = = = B (say)
In the example above, every element of A is multiplied by 5 to produce the scalar multiple, B.
1.4.3.2 Multiplication of a Matrix by another Matrix
The matrix product AB is defned only when the number of columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B .Similarly,
the matrix product BA is defned only when the number of columns in B is equal to number of rows in A.
Suppose that A is an i x j matrix and B is a j x k matrix. Then, the matrix product AB results in a matrix C which
has i rows and k columns; and each element in C can be computed according to the following formula.
=
Where,
= the element in row i and column k in matrix C
= the element in row i and column j in matrix A
= the element in row j and column k in matrix B
= summation sign, which indicates that the should be summed over j
Suppose we want to compute AB, given the matrices below.
A= B=
Let AB = C.Because A has 2 rows, we know that C will also have 2 rows; and because B has 2 columns, we know
that C will have 2 columns. To compute the value of every element in 2 x 2 matrix C, we use the formula
= , such that

= = 0 * 6 + 1 * 8 + 2 * 1 = 0+8+2 = 10

= = 0 * 7 + 1 * 9 + 2 * 2 = 0+9+4 = 13
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= = 3 * 6 + 4 * 8 + 5 * 1 = 18+32+5 = 55

= = 3 * 7 + 4 * 9 + 5 * 2 = 21+36+10 = 67
Therefore AB= C =
1.4.3.3 Properties of Multiplication of Matrices
The properties of multiplication of matrices are as follows:
Commutative property is not true ;that is ,even when matrix multiplication is possible in both direction the
results may be different ,that is AB is not always equal to BA
Associative property is true
A (BC) = (AB) C
Distributive property is true
K (AB) = (ka) (kb)
(AB) k= (Ak) (Bk)
Existence of multiplicative identity element, if a matrix is multiplied with identity matrix of the same dimension
then, it results in the same matrix, so the multiplicative identity of a matrix is identity matrix
AI=IA=A
Existence of multiplicative inverse, if a matrix is multiplied by the inverse of it, then the result is a identity
matrix, so the multiplicative inverse of a matrix is its inverse matrix (inverse of a matrix is discussed in 1.6)
A * = * A = I
1.5 Determinants
A determinant is a square array of numbers (written within a pair of vertical lines) which represents a certain sum
of products.
example of a 2 x 2 determinant:
A=
1.5.1 Calculating Value of 2 x 2 Determinant
In general we need to fnd the value of 2 x 2 determinants with elements a, b, c and d as follows:
= ad-cb
Here the diagonals are multiplied (top left * bottom right frst) and then subtracted.
Example
Find the value of the determinant
= 4 * 3 - 2 * 1
= 12 2
=10 (answer)
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1.5.2 Calculating Value of 3 x 3 Determinant
A general representation of a 3 x 3 matrix is as follows
A=
The method used for fnding the determinants of 3 x 3 is the expansion by minors.
1.5.2.1 Cofactors
The 2 x 2 determinant is called the cofactor of for 3 x 3 matrix
The cofactors are formed from the elements that are not in the same row and not in the same column as .
Thus the elements in grey are not in the row and column of , so is the cofactor of .
Similarly for , the cofactor is
And for , the cofactor is
1.5.2.2 Expansion by Minors
The 3 x 3 determinant values are evaluated by expansion by minors. This involves multiplying the frst column of the
determinant with the cofactor of those elements. The middle product is subtracted and the fnal product is added.
= - +
example: evaluate


= -2 (5) + 4

= -2[(-1) (2)-(-8) (4)] 5 [(2) (3) (-8) (-1)] + 4 [(3) (4)-(-1) (-1)]
= -2(30)-5(-2) +4(11)
=-60+10+44
= -6
Here we are using frst column to expand it, even if we use frst row to expand, it gives the same result.
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1.6 Inverse of a Matrix
Suppose A is an n x n matrix, denoted by , that satisfes the following condition
A = A = I
Where I is the identity matrix
To check whether inverse of the matrix exists:
Find the determinant of the square matrix, if the determinant value is zero then the inverse of that matrix does not
exist and that matrix is known as Singular matrix.
If the determinant value is not zero, then there exists an inverse for that matrix.
The matrix for which there is an inverse is called non-singular matrix or invertible matrix.
1.6.1 Finding Inverse for a 2 x 2 Matrix
Suppose A is a non-singular 2 x 2 matrix .Then, the inverse of A can be computed as given below,
A= then = |A| is the determinant value of the matrix
How to fnd the determinant value of 2 x 2 matrix and 3 x 3 matrix are discussed above in 1.5.1 and 1.5.2
respectively.
Example:
Find the inverse of the 2 x 2 matrix B =
|B| = 4 (Refer 1.5.1)
= = is the inverse of the matrix
1.6.2 Finding Inverse for a 3 x 3 Matrix
Steps for fnding the inverse of 3 x 3 matrix:
Find the determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix, det(A)
Find the transpose of the matrix
Find the determinant of the cofactors of each element in the transpose matrix.
Represent these values as a matrix of the cofactors
Find the adjoint of that resultant matrix adj(A)
Substitute the required values in
= adj (A)
Verify by multiplying A and ,the result should be an identity matrix of same dimension.
Example
Find the inverse of A=
Step 1:
Find determinant of the 3 x 3 matrix (refer 1.5.2)
det (A) = 1(0-24)-2(0-20)+3(0-5)
det (A)=1
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Step 2:
Find the transpose of the matrix
=
Step 3:
Find the determinant of the cofactor of each element in the transpose matrix.
= = -24
= = -18
= = 5
= = -20
= = -15
= = 4
= = -5
= = -4
= = 1
Step 4:
Represents these values as a matrix of the cofactors
Step 5:
Find the adjoint of the matrix
adj (A)=
=
Step 6:
Substitute the values in

= adj (A)
=
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Therefore =
Step 7:
Verifcation A = I
=
If a matrix is multiplied with its inverse, then the result should be the identity matrix of same dimension
1.7 Solving Simultaneous Equation using Determinants
1.7.1 Solving Two Simultaneous Equations
System of equation can be solved using determinants with cramers rule
The solution of (x, y) of the system
x + y = ----------- (1)
x + y = ----------- (2)
can be found using determinants
Solution:
Here, x and y are the variables, & are the coeffcients of the variable x in equations 1 and 2 respectively
and & are the coeffcients of the variable y in equations 1 and 2 respectively, and are the constants of
equation 1 and 2 respectively.
Step 1:
Solve the determinant of coeffcients of variables and it is represented by
=
Step 2:
Solve the determinant replacing constants instead of coeffcient of variable x and it is represented by
=
Step 3:
Solve the determinant replacing constants instead of coeffcient of variable y and it is represented by
=
Step 4:
Obtain solution as x= and y =
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Example
Solve the system using Cramers rule.
x-3y=6
2x+3y=3
Solution:
Here = 1; = -3; = 2; = 3; = 6; = 3;
So, x= = = = 3
y= = = = -1
So, the solution is (3,-1)
1.7.2 Solving Three simultaneous Equations
System of equation can be solved using determinants with cramers rule
The solution of (x, y, z) of the system
x + y+ z = ----------- (1)
x + y+ z = ----------- (2)
x + y+ z = ----------- (3)
can be found using determinants
Solution
Here, x, y and z are the variables. , & are the coeffcients of the variable x in equations 1, 2 and 3 respectively
. , & are the coeffcients of the variable y in equations 1, 2 and 3 respectively. , and are the
coeffcients of the variable z in equations 1, 2 and 3 respectively. , and are the constants of equation 1,2
and 3 respectively.
Step 1:
Solve the determinant of coeffcients of variables and it is represented by
=
Step 2:
Solve the determinant replacing constants instead of coeffcient of variable x and it is represented by
=
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Step 3:
Solve the determinant replacing constants instead of coeffcient of variable y and it is represented by
=
Step 4:
Solve the determinant replacing constants instead of coeffcient of variable z and it is represented by
=
Step 5:
Obtain solution as x= ; y = ; z =
Example
Solve the system using Cramers rule.
2x+3y+z=2
-x+2y+3z=1
-3x-3y+z=0
Solution:
Here = 2; = 3; = 1; = -1; = 2; = 3; = -3; =-3; = 1 and =2; = 1; =0
= = 2(11) +1(6)-3(7) = 7
So, x= = = 28 / 7=4
y= = = - 21/ 7 = -3
z= = = 21/ 7 = 3
So, the solution is (4,-3, 3)
1.8 Properties of Determinants
The properties of determinants are as follows:
The value of determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns are interchanged
If any two rows/columns change by minus sign only ,then also the value of determinant remains unchanged
If any two rows/columns of a determinant are identical, then the value of determinant is zero
If each element of a row/column of a determinant is multiplied by a same constant and then added to corresponding
elements of some other row/column, then the value of determinant remains unchanged.
If each element of a row/column of a determinant is zero, then the value of the determinant is zero.
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1.9 Difference between Matrices and Determinants
Following is the difference between matrices and determinants
Features Matrices Determinants
Defnition A matrix is an array of
numbers arranged in
rectangular brackets.
A determinant is a square array of numbers
(written within a pair of vertical lines) which
represents a certain sum of products.
Representation It is written inside
brackets either ( ) or [ ].
It is written within two vertical Lines | | .
Value/Result It results in an array of
number inside brackets.
It results in a single number.
Infuence Scalar multiplication
affects all the elements in
a matrix.
Scalar multiplication only affects single row /
single column.
Value Matrices contain many
elements.
Determinant has a single number as a end
result.
Nature Matrices may positive or
negative.
Determinant value is always positive. Though
it results in a negative number we consider it as
positive because determinant is like distance(it
cannot e negative whether it is forward or
backward)
Table 1.1 Differences between matrices and determinants
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Summary
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns.
A set of real or complex numbers arranged in a rectangular array of m rows and n columns, of an order m x
n (read as m by n) is called a matrix.
Two matrices can be added only if they have same dimensions.
Commutative property, Associative property, Distributive property is true for matrix addition.
The matrix product AB is defned only when the number of columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B.
Commutative property is not true for matrix multiplication.
Associative property ,Distributive property are true for matrix multiplication
There exists additive identity, multiplicative identity, additive inverse and multiplicative inverse for a matrix.
A determinant is a square array of numbers.
The 3 x 3 determinant values are evaluated by expansion by minors.
System of equation can be solved using determinants with Cramers rule.
References
Dr. Kala, V. N. & Rana, R., 2009. Matrices, 1st ed., Laxmi Publication ltd.
Jain, T. R. & Aggarwal, S. C., 2010. Business Mathematics and Statistics, V.K Enterprises.
Matrices and determinants , [pdf] Available at: < http://www.kkuniyuk.com/M1410801Part1.pdf > [Accessed
31 August 2012].
Gunawarden, J., Matrix algebras for beginning, [Online] Available at: < http://vcp.med.harvard.edu/papers/
matrices-1.pdf > [Accessed 31 August 2012].
2011, Matrices, [Video Online] Available at: < http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9tFhs-D47Ik > [Accessed
31 August 2012].
Hurst, W., Matrices & determinants, [Video Online] Available at: < http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=havr-
W8IwKs > [Accessed 31 August 2012].
Recommended Reading
McMahon, D., 2005. Linear Algebra Demystifed, McGraw-hill publication.
Anton, H., 2010. Elementary Linear Algebra, 10th ed., FM Publications.
Greub, W., 1975. Linear Algebra graduate texts in mathematics, Springer.

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Self Assessment
If matrix A= 1.

and aij is the element of matrix A in i
th
row and j
th
column, then what is the value of a
21
?

3 a.
4 b.
2 c.
5 d.
It is given that P= 2. and Q = .What is the value of x+y if P=Q?
3 a.
5 b.
6 c.
8 d.
A _ 3. ______ is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns.
Determinant a.
Matrix b.
Array c.
Transpose d.
Two matrices can be added only if they have __________. 4.
same dimensions a.
different dimensions b.
plus sign c.
minus sign d.
When a matrix is multiplied by a number, then the process is called as _________. 5.
matrix multiplication a.
scalar multiplication b.
square multiplication c.
rectangular multiplication d.
What type of matrix is A= 6. ?
square a.
diagonal b.
null c.
identity d.
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What is the addition matrix of the following two matrices? 7.
A = and B=
a.


b.



c.

d.

If A = 8. , what is the value of 5A?
a.



b.

c.

d.

What is the value of determinant 9. ?
6 a.
8 b.
7 c.
10 d.
A _________ is a square array of numbers. 10.
matrix a.
determinant b.
array c.
transpose d.
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Chapter II
Mathematical Logic
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
introduce mathematical logic
describe operations on logic
highlight tautology and contradiction
Objective
The objectives of this chapter are to:
explicate logical connectives
elucidate laws of algebra of propositions
describe compound statement
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
identify the use of mathematical logic
understand the complex procedures into simpler form
understand statement a nd the truth table
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2.1 Introduction
Mathematical Logic is a tool for providing a precise meaning to mathematical statements.
It includes:
A formal language for expressing them
A concise notation to represent them
A methodology for objectively reasoning about their truth or falsity
2.2 Defnition
The part of mathematics concerned with the study of formal languages, formal reasoning, the nature of
mathematical proof, provability of mathematical statements, computability, and other aspects of the foundations
of mathematics.
2.2.1 Statement
A statement is a declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both.
2.2.2 Truth Value
The truth value of a proposition is true (T) if it is of true proposition and false (F) if it is false proposition.
Example
P: The year 1973 was a leap year is a proposition readily decidable as false.
Note that the use of label P so that the overall statement is read p is the statement:The year 1973 was a leap
year.
So we use P, Q, R, S, T to represent statements and these letters are called as statement variables, that is, variable
replaced by statements.
Example
Determine whether the following sentences are statements are not.If it is a statement, determine its truth value.
The sun rises in west. False
128= 2
6
False
Is 2 an integer? Not a statement as it is interrogative Take the book not a statement
2.2.3 Truth Table
A table that gives the truth value of the compound statement in terms of its component part is called a truth table.
2.2.4 Compound Statements
A compound statement is a combination of two or more statements.
Example
Today is Friday and it is a holiday
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2.3 Statement
A statement is an assertion that can be determined to be True or False. A statement/simple statement or proposition
is a declarative sentence that is either True or False but not both. A simple statement is the basic building block of
the logic.
Those declarative statements will be admitted in the object language which have one and only one of two
possible values called Truth Value
The two truth values are true and false, which are denoted by T and F respectively
Occasionally they are represented using symbols 1 and 0
We do not use other kind of statements in object language such as exclamatory and interrogative
Declarative sentences in object language are of two types
The frst type includes those sentences which are considered to be primitive in the object language
This will be denoted by distinct symbols selected from uppercase letters A, B... P, Q...
Second type are obtained from the primitive ones by using certain symbols called connectives and certain
punctuation marks such as parentheses to join primitive sentences
In any case, all declarative sentences to which it is possible to assign one and only of the two possible truth values
are called statements.
The following are the statements which do not contain any connectives, these kinds of statements are called as
atomic or primary primitive statement.
Canada is a country 1.
Moscow is the capital of spain 2.
This statement is false 3.
1+101=110 4.
Close the door 5.
Toronto is an old city 6.
Man will reach mars by 2080 7.

The statements are discussed below
The statements 1 and 2 have truth values true or false
Sentence 3 is not a statement according to the defnition, because we cannot assign to it a defnite truth value
If we assign a value true then the statement 3 is false, if assigned false then the statement 3 is true
Sentence 4 is a statement; if the numbers are considered as decimal system then the statement is false. If it is
considered as binary number system, then the statement is true. So the statement 4 is true.
Statement 5 is not a statement as it is interrogative
Statement 6 is considered true in some part of the world and false in certain other parts of the world
The statement 7 could not be determined ,it will be determined only in the year or earlier when man reaches
mars before that date
2.4 Compound Statement
A statement represented by a single statement variable (without any connective) is called a simple (or primitive)
statement.
A statement represented by some combination of statement variables and connectives is called a compound
statement.
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Example
A dog or a car is an animal
A dog is not an animal
5<3
If the earth is fat, then 3+4 =7
2.5 Connectives
In case of simple statements, their truth values are fairly obvious. It is possible to construct rather complicated
statements from simpler statements by using certain connecting words or expressions known as sentential
connectives. The statements which we initially consider are simple statements, called atomic or primary statements.
New statement can be formed from atomic statements through the use of sentential connectives. The resulting
statement is called molecular or compound statements. Thus the atomic statements are those which do not have any
connectives. Capital letters are used to denote statements.
The capital letters with or without subscripts, will also be used to denote arbitrary statements. In the sense, a statement
P either denotes a particular statement or serves as a place holder for any statement .This dual use of the symbol
to denote either a defnite statement, called a constant, or an arbitrary statement called a variable.
The truth value of P is the truth table of actual statement which it represents.
It should be emphasises that when P is used as a statement variable, it has no truth value and such does not
represent a statement in symbolic logic.
Most mathematical statements are combinations of simpler statement formed through some choice of the words
not,and,or,if ...then and if and only if. These are called logical connectives or simply connectives and
are denoted by the following symbols:
Connective Symbol Formal name
Not or Negation
And Conjunction
Or Disjunction
If...then Conditional
If and only if Biconditional
Table 2.1 Symbols of connectives
2.5.1 Negation
Defnition of negation
If P is a statement variable,the negation of P is not P or it is not the case that P and is denoted by P.It has
opposite truth value from P.
The negation statement is generally formed by introducing the word not at a proper place in statement with the
phrase It is not the case that and read as not P.
Let P be a statement .The negation of P, written P or P is the statement obtained by negating statement P.
If the truth value of P is true then truth value of P is false, and if the truth value of P is false then truth value of
P is true.
This defnition of negation is summarized by the truth table below.
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P P
T F
F T
Table 2.2 Truth Table of Negation
Example
P:The integer 10 is even
Then P: The integer 10 is not even
P:London is a city
P:It is not case that London is a city
P:London is not a city
P:I went to my class yesterday.
P:I did not go to my class yesterday
P:I was absent from my class yesterday.
P:I went to my class yesterday.
P:I did not go to my class yesterday
P:I was absent from my class yesterday
Negation is called connectives although it only modifes a statement or a variable.
2.5.2 Conjunction
Let P and Q be statements. The conjunction of P and Q, written P Q,is the statement formed by joining statements
P and Q using the word and. The statement PQ is true if both P and Q are true; otherwise PQ is false.
The symbol is called and. Let P and Q be statements. The truth table of P Q is given below.
Defnition
If p and q are statement variables, the conjunction of p and q is p and q, denoted pq.The compound statement
pq .The compound statement p q is true when both p and q are true; otherwise, it is false.
P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Table 2.3 Truth table of conjunction
Example
P: 2 is an even integer,
Q: 7 divide 14
R:2 is an even integer and 7 divides 14.
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P:It is raining today
Q:There are 20 tables in this room.
R:It is raining today and there are 20 tables in this room.
Jack and Jill went up the hill.
From this statement we get two statement Jack went up the hill and Jill went up the hill.
Then the given statement can be written symbolic from PQ.
2.5.3 Disjunction
Let P and Q be statements. The disjunction of P and Q ,written P Q ,is statement formed by putting statements P
and Q together using the word Or. The truth value of the statement PQ is T if atleast one of statements P and Q
is true. The symbol is called Or, for the statement P Q is given below.
Defnition
If P and Q are statement variables, the disjunction of P and Q is P or Q, denoted P Q.The compound statement
P Q is true if atleast one of P or Q is true; it is false when both P and Q are false.
P Q P Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Table 2.4 Truth table for disjunction
Example
P:2
2
+3
3
is an even integer
Q:2
2
+3
3
is an odd integer then P Q:2
2
+3
3
is an even integer or 2
2
+3
3
is an odd integer
OR
P Q :2
2
+3
3
is an even integer or an odd integer

The notation for inequalities involves and and or statements.
Let a,b and c be particular real numbers.
a b means a < b or a= b
a<b<c means a<b and b<c
is a unary operation while and are binary operations.
3 0r -5 is negative truth value is false
or is an integer ---truth value is false
2.5.4 Conditional or Implication
Let P and Q be two statements.Then If P,then Q is the statement called an Implication or conditional statement,written
P Q .
The statement P Q has a truth value F when the truth value of P is true and Q is false.Otherwisetruth value of
conditional or implication is T.The statement P is called the antecedent or hypothesis and q is called consequent or
conclusion in P Q .According to the defnition,it is not necessary that there be any kind of relation between P and
Q in order to form P Q.The statement P Q is also to be read as
P implies Q
Or
P is suffcient for Q
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Or
Q if P
Or
Q whenever P.
In the implication P Q,P is called the hypothesis and Q is called the conclusion. The truth table of P Q is
given below.
Defnition
If P and Q are statements,the statemenif P then Q or P implies Q,denoted PQ is called the conditional
statement,or implication.
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Table 2.5 Truth table for implication
Example
If today is Sunday,then i will go for walk.
Let P:Today is Sunday
Q:I will go for walk
Variety of terminaology:
If P then Q Q if P
P implies Q Q when P
P only if Q Q follows from P
P is suffcient for Q Q is necessary for P
2.5.5 Biconditional or Biimplication
Let P and Q be two statements.Then P if and only if Q,written PQ is called the Biimplication or biconditional
of the statement P and Q.The statement PQ may also be read as P is necessary and suffcient for Q or Q is
necessary and suffcient for P or Q if and only if P or Q when and only when P.We defne that the Biimplication
PQ is considered to be true when both P and Q have the same truth values and false otherwise. It is denoted by
PQ.The truth table is given below.
P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Table 2.6 Truth table of biimplication
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2.5.6 Contrapositive, Converse and Inverse
The contrapostive of P Q is QP
The converse of P Q is QP
The inverse of P Q is P Q
2.6 Tautology ,Contradiction and Contingency
A tautology is a statement form where its truth values in all rows in the truth table are always true. A contradiction
is a statement form where its truth values in all rows in the truth table are always false.
A contingency is a statement form that is neither tautology nor contradiction. Normally t is denoted to use tautology
and c is used to denote a contradiction.
Example
Let P, Q, R be statement variables. Show that the statement form
P P is a tautology
P P is a contradiction
(PQ) R is a contingency
a.
P P P P
F T T
T F T
Table 2.7 P P is a tautology
b.
P P P P
F T F
T F F
Table 2.8 contradiction
c.
P Q R PQ R (P Q) V R
F F F F T T
F F T F F F
F T F F T T
F T T F F F
T F F F T T
T F T F F F
T T F T T T
T T T T F T
Table 2.9 contingency
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2.7 Laws of Algebra
Following are the laws of algebra
2.7.1 Identity Law
P P P
P T T
P F P
P P P
P T P
P F F
TP P
FP T
PP T
PT T
PF P
P P T
P T P
P F P
2.7.2 Commutative Law
PQ Q P
PQQP
PQ Q P
P Q = QP
2.7.3 Complement Law
P P T
P P F
P P P
P PF
PPP
2.7.4 Double Negation
( P) P
2.7.5 Associative Law
P(QR) (PQ)R
P(QR)(PQ)R
2.7.6 Distributive Law
P(QR) (PQ)(PR)
P(QR) (PQ)(PR)
2.7.7 Absorption Law
P(PQ) P
P(PQ) P
2.7.8 Demorgans Law
(PQ)P Q
(PQ)P Q
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2.7.9 Equivalance of Contrapositive
PQQP
2.7.10 Others
PQP Q
PQ(PQ)(QP)
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Summary
Mathematical Logic is a tool for providing a precise meaning to mathematical statements.
A statement is a declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both.
The truth value of a proposition is true (T) if it is of true proposition and false (F) if it is false proposition.
A table that gives the truth value of the compound statement in terms of its component part is called a truth
table.
A compound statement is a combination of two or more statements.
All declarative sentences to which it is possible to assign one and only of the two possible truth values are
called statements.
It is possible to construct rather complicated statements from simpler statements by using certain connecting
words or expressions known as sentential connectives.
The negation statement is generally formed by introducing the word not at a proper place in statement with
the phrase It is not the case that and read as not P.
Let P and Q be two statements. Then If P, then Q is the statement called an Implication or conditional statement,
written P Q.
References
Fulda, J. S., 1993. Exclusive Disjunction and the Bi-conditional: An Even-Odd Relationship, Mathematics
Magazine.
Hallie, P. P., 1954. A Note on Logical Connectives, Mind 63.
Bartlett, A., Simple Mathematical Logic, [Video Online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PlSfS5-
jU_g > [Accessed 31 August 2012].
Dr. Kirthivasan, K., Propositional Logic, [Video Online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=xlUFkMKSB3Y > [Accessed 31 August 2012].
Lifschitz, V., Lecture notes on mathematical logic, [pdf] Available at: <http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~vl/
teaching/388Lnotes.pdf > [Accessed 31 August 2012].
Simpson, S., Mathematical Logic, [Online] Available at: <http://www.math.psu.edu/simpson/courses/math557/
> [Accessed 31 August 2012].
Recommended Reading
Dean McCullough, P., 1971. Logical Connectives for Intuitionist Propositional Logic, Journal of Symbolic
Logic.
Wansing, H., 2006. Logical Connectives for Constructive Modal Logic.
Hallie, P. P., 1954. A Note on Logical Connectives, Mind 63.
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Self Assessment:
Canada is a country .what kind of statement is it? 1.
Primitive statement a.
Compound statement b.
Elementary statement c.
Primary statement d.
A dog or a car is an animal. What kind of statement it is? 2.
Primitive statement a.
Compound statement b.
Elementary statement c.
Primary statement d.
What is the symbol for negation? 3.
a.
b.
c.
d.
What is the symbol for conjunction? 4.
a.
b.
c.
d.
What is the symbol for disjunction? 5.
a.
b.
c.
d.
What is the symbol for implication? 6.
a.
b.
c.
d.
If P is true and Q is False what is the value of P 7. Q?
T a.
F b.
Invalid c.
no value d.
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If P is true and Q is False what is the value of P 8. Q?
T a.
F b.
Invalid c.
no value d.
If P is true and Q is False what is the value of P 9. Q?
T a.
F b.
Invalid c.
no value d.
If P is true and Q is False what is the value of P 10. Q?
T a.
F b.
Invalid c.
no value d.
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Chapter III
Set Theory
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
defne a set
discuss different types of set
elucidate operations on sets
Objective
The objectives of this chapter are to:
discuss the types of sets
explicate null and universal set
explain Demorgans Law
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
understand standard set
comprehend the concept of intersection and disjoint sets
understand operati ons on sets.
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3.1 Defnition of a Set
A set is a collection of well defned object enclosed within curly brackets, generally denoted by upper case letters.
The objects which form the set are called the elements or members of the set. The elements are denoted by lower
case letters.
Example
A= {1, 2, 3... 100} represents set of numbers from 1 to 100
V= {a, e, i, o, u} represents set of vowels in English alphabets
The following notation is used to show the set membership
x A means that x is a member of the set A.
x A means that x is not a member of the set A.
3.2 Standard Sets
Following are the standard sets
N= set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4...}
Z= set of all integers = {...,-3,-2,-1, 0,1,2,3...}
R= set of all rational numbers = {p/q: p is integer, q0}
Q=set of all real numbers
3.3 Representation of set
Following are the method for representing sets
3.3.1 Tabular Form/Roaster Method
In the tabular form, all elements of the set are enumerated or listed.
Example
The set of natural numbers from 1 to 100 is given by
N= {1, 2, 3, 4...100}
The set of vowels is given by
V= {a, e, i, o, u}
3.3.2 Rule Method
Under this method, the defning property of the set is specifed.
If all the elements in the set have a Property P, then we can defne the set as
A={x: x has the property P}
Example
N={x: 1x100, x is a natural number} or {x/1x100,xN}
Where, N represents natural number
V={x/x is a vowel of English alphabet}
3.3.3 Descriptive Form
In this method, the elements in the set are verbally described within the curly brackets
Example:
N= {natural numbers from 1 to 100}
V= {vowels of English alphabet}
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3.4 Types of Sets
Following are the types of sets
3.4.1 Finite Set
A set with a fnite or countable number of elements is called a fnite set.
Example:
V= {a, e, i, o, u}
3.4.2 Empty or Null Set
A set which contains no elements is called an empty set or a null set. An empty set is denoted as { } or .
Example:
A= { }
A=
3.4.3 Subset
Set P is a subset of a set Q, symbolised by P Q, if and only if all the elements of set P are also the element of set
Q.
Note:
every set is a subset of itself
null set is a subset of every set
Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3}
Then { }, {1}, {2}, {3},{1,2},{1,3},{2,3}.{1,2,3} are the subsets of the set A={1,2,3}.
3.4.3.1 Proper Subset
Set G is a proper subset of H, symbolised by G H, if and only if all the elements of set G is elements of set H
and set G set H.
That is set H must contain at least one element not in set G.
Example
Consider above example, {},{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{1,3},{2,3} are the proper subset of A={1,2,3}.
3.4.3.2 Improper Subset
Set S is an improper subset of T, symbolised by S T , if and only if all the elements of set S are the elements of
set T and set S = set T.
Example
In the above example {1,2,3} is an improper subset of set A={1,2,3}

3.4.4 Infnite Set
Neither an empty set nor a fnite set is called an infnite set. Such set will contain infnitely many elements.
Example
N= {1, 2, 3...}
Z= {...-3,-2,-1, 0,1,2,3...}
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3.4.5 Disjoint Sets
Two sets are said to be disjoint sets if they do not have any common elements.
Example
If
A={x: x is an even number}
B={y: y is an odd number}
Then A and B will be disjoint sets.
3.4.6 Overlapping Sets
Two sets are said to be overlapping sets, if they have some common elements.
Example
A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B= {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
These sets are overlapping sets as the elements 3, 4 and 5 are common to both set.
The element common to both sets is called the intersection of the two sets and is denoted as A B.
On the other hand, the addition of two sets is called the union of two sets and is denoted by A B.
3.4.7 Universal Set
A universal set is the set that contains the element of all the sets under consideration. It is usually denoted by U, S
or .
Example
A={4,7,8,9}, B={-4,-2,0,1,4,7,10}.
The set of Integers, I= {...,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2...} will be the universal set for A and B.
3.4.8 Equal Set
Two sets are said to e equal if they contain the same elements.
Example
A= {2, 4, 6, 8} B={x: x is an even number between 1 and 9} are equal set as they contain the same elements
P= {1, 3, 6} Q= {6, 1, 3} is also an equal set.
3.4.9 Complement Set
Given a set A, the complement set is the set that contains elements not belonging to A and is denoted by A. The
union (will be discussed in operations on set) of the given set and its complement will give the universal set. That
is A A = U.
Example
A={x: x is a Mathematics book in the Library}
A ={y: y is not a Mathematics book in the Library}
And the universal set in this case is U= the set of all books in the Library}
3.4.10 Equivalent Set
Two sets are said to be equivalent set if number of elements in one set is equal to the number of elements in the
other set. The number of elements in a set is known as Cardinal number of the set.
So, if the cardinal numbers of two sets are equal then those two sets are said to be equivalent set. Cardinal number
of the set A is represented by n (A).
Example
A= {1, 2, 3, 4}
B= {a, b, c, d}
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Here, n (A) =4 and n (B) =4
So the sets A and B are said to be Equivalent sets.
3.5 Illustration of Various Sets
Let us consider three sets A, B and C in the rule form as A= {x: x are the vowels}, B= {x: x are the consonants}
C={x: x is the frst 10 alphabets of English}
In tabular form
A={a,e,i,o,u}, B={b,c,d,f,g,h,j,k,l,m,n,p,q,r,s,t,v,w,x,y,z},C={a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j}
set A and B are disjoint sets as they no elements of A is present in B and vice versa.
set A and C are overlapping sets as both contains the element a, e, i in common.
set B and C are also overlapping set as both contain the element b, c, d, f, g, h, j in common.
set of all alphabets of English is the universal set for A, B, C. U= {a, b, c, d... z}
set A is a complement of set B as it contains elements not contained in set A and union of set A and set B will
give the Universal set U.
3.6 Basic Operations on Sets
Following are the basic operations on sets
3.6.1 Intersection of Two Sets
The intersection of two sets is the set of elements common to both the given sets. The intersection of two sets A
and B is denoted as A B.
In notation form, we can defne the intersection of two sets A and B as
A B = {x: x A, x B}.
If, A B = , then A and B are said to be disjoint sets. If A B ,then A and B are called overlapping sets.
Example
Given
A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B= {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Then A B = {4, 5}
3.6.2 Union of Two Sets
The union of the two sets is the set containing the elements belonging to A and also the elements belonging to B.The
union of these sets is denoted as A B. In notation form, we can defne the union of the two sets as A B = {x: x
A, x B, x A B}.
Example
A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,}
B= {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Therefore, A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
3.6.3 Relative Complement or Difference of Two Sets
The difference of two sets A and B is the set of elements that belong to A but do not belong to B.The difference of
two sets is denoted by
A B .In notation form, we can defne the difference of two sets as
A B = {x: x A, x B}
Similarly, B A ={x: x B, x A}
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Example
A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B= {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Then, A B = { 1,2,3} Though 4,5 belongs to A it also belongs to B so that is not included .
3.6.4 Complement of a Set
Complement set is the set that contains elements not belonging to A but belonging to the universal set. In notation
form, we can defne the complement of a set as A = {x: x A, x U}.
Example
Given U= { 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A= {1, 2, 3}
Therefore A = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
3.6.5 Symmetric Difference of Two Sets
The symmetric difference of two sets is the union of both the relative complements.
A B = (A B) (B A)
It can also be expressed as relative complement of union of the two sets and intersection of the two sets.
A B = (A B) (A B)
Example
Given A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B= {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Solution 1:
A B = (A B) (B A)
A B = {1, 2, 3}
B A = {6, 7, 8}
So, A B = {1, 2, 3} {6, 7, 8}
Therefore A B = {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8}
Solution 2:
A B = (A B) (A B)
A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A B = {4, 5}
A B = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} - { 4,5}
Therefore A B = {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8}
3.7 Properties of Set
Following are the properties of sets
3.7.1 Commutative Law
A B = B A
A B = B A
A B = B A
3.7.2 Associative Law
A (B C) = (A B) C
A (B C) = (A B) C
A (B C) = (A B) C
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3.7.3 Distributive Law
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
3.7.4 Identity Law
A = A
A U = A
= U
U =
3.7.5 Complement Law
A A = U
A A =
3.7.6 Idempotent Law
A A = A
A A = A
3.7.7 Bound Law
A U = U
A =
3.7.8 Absorption Law
A (A B) = A
A (A B) = A
3.7.9 Involution Law
(A)= A
3.7.10 De Morgans Law
The complement of the union of two sets is equal to the intersection of their complements.
(A B) = A B
The complement of the intersection of two sets is equal to the union of their complements.
(A B) = A B
A - (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A - B) (A C)
3.7.11More Results
n (A B) = n (A) + n (B) n (A B)
n(A B C) = n(A) +n(B) +n(C)- n( A B)-n(B C) n(A C) + n( ABC)
Solved Examples
Example 1
If A= {1,2,3,4} , B= {2,4,6,8} ,C= {3,4,5,6,8}, U ={1,2,3,4,5,...,10}
Find A, B C, A C
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Solution:
A = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
B C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}
A C = {3, 4}
Example 2
If A= {1,2,3,4} , B= {2,4,6,8} ,C= {3,4,5,6,8}, U ={1,2,3,4,5,...,10}
Find A B, B C, (A B)
Solution:
A B= {1, 3}
B C= {2}
A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}
(A B)= {7, 9, 10}
Example 3
If U ={1,2,3...10} A={3,4,6,10} B={1,2,4,5,6,8} Verify De Morgans laws of complementation.
(A B) = A B
Solution:
LHS: (A B)
A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10}
(A B) = {7, 9} --------- (1)
RHS: A B
A = {1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9}
B = {3, 7, 9, 10}
A B = {7, 9} --------- (2)
From (1) and (2), it is clear (A B) = A B
(A 1. B) = A B
Solution:
LHS = (A B)
A B = {4, 6}
(A B) = {1,2,3,5,7,8,9,10}-----------(1)
Now, A = {1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9}
B = {3, 7, 9, 10}
Therefore, A B = {1,2,3,5,7,8,9,10}-------(2)
From (1) and (2) it is clear that (A B)= A B
Hence Verifed.
Example 4
If A= {-8,-7,-5, 1, 2, 4}
B= {-7, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6}
C= {-8,-5, 2, 4, 6, 7}
Verify A- (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Solution:
LHS: A (B C)
B C = {-7, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6,-8,-5, 2, 7}
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Therefore A (B C) = { } ------ (1)
RHS: (A B) (A C)
Now, A B = {-8,-5, 2}
A C = {1,-7}
(A B) (A C) = { } --------- (2)
From (1) and (2), it is clear that A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Hence verifed.
Example 5
If A= {-9,-7,-6,-3,0,2},B= {-7,-3,0,4,5,6} C={-9,-6,2,-7,8},Verify
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Solution:
L H S:
A (B C)
B C = {-7}
Therefore A (B C) = {-9,-6,-3, 0, 2} -------- (1)
Now, A B = {-9,-6, 2}
A C = {-3, 0}
RHS: (A B) (A C) = {-9,-6, 2,-3, 0} ----- (2)
From (1) and (2), it is clear A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Hence verifed.
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Summary
A set is a collection of well defned object enclosed within curly brackets.
The objects which form the set are called the elements or members of the set.
In the tabular form, all elements of the set are enumerated or listed.
Set P is a subset of a set Q, symbolised by P Q, if and only if all the elements of set P are also the element of
set Q.
A set which contains no elements is called an empty set or a null set.
Two sets are said to be disjoint sets if they do not have any common elements.
Two sets are said to be overlapping sets, if they have some common elements.
A universal set is the set that contains the element of all the sets under consideration.
Two sets are said to be equal if they contain the same elements.
The intersection of two sets is the set of elements common to both the given sets.
The union of the two sets is the set containing the elements belonging to A and also the elements belonging to
B.
A B = (A B) (B A)
Demorgans Law(A B) = A B
References
Akekar, R., 2008. Discrete Mathematics: Set theory, 2nd ed., Dorling Kindersley Publication India.
T. Veeraranjan, 2008. Discrete Mathematics with graph theory and Combinatorics: Set theory, 7th ed., McGraw-
Hill Publication.
Lipchutz, S., 1998. Set Theory and related topics, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Publication.
Arithmetic and geometric progressions , [Online] Available at: < http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/
mc-ty-apgp-2009-1.pdf > [Accessed 31 August 2012].
Arithmetic and geometric progressions, [Online] Available at: < http://maths.mq.edu.au/numeracy/web_mums/
module3/Worksheet36/module3.pdf > [Accessed 31 August 2012].
2011, Arithmetic & Geometric progressions, [Video Online] Available t: < http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=ze0hNuxJaVE > [Accessed31 August 2012].
Lee, D., Arithmetic Progression, [Video Online] Available at: < http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kGh9BtU-
OVU > [Accessed 31 August 2012].
Recommended Reading
Waters, D., 2006. Quantitative Methods for business, Set Theory, 4th ed., Prentice Hall Publication.
Bedward, D., 1999. Quantitative Methods, Set theory, Elsevier.
Slater, J, C., 2007. Quantitative Methods, Set theory, Thomson Learning.
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Self Assessment
A ____ is a collection of well defned object enclosed within curly brackets. 1.
Set a.
Subset b.
Object c.
Element d.
A set which contains no elements is called _____ set. 2.
equal a.
equivalent b.
empty c.
fnite d.
Two sets are said to be __________ if they do not have any common elements. 3.
disjoint sets a.
overlapping sets b.
intersection sets c.
equal sets d.
Two sets are said to be ______ if number of elements in one set is equal to the number of elements in the other 4.
set.
disjoint set a.
equivalent set b.
overlapping set c.
intersection set d.
If A = {1,2,3,4,5} and B={4,5,6,7,8} ,what is A B ? 5.
{4,5} a.
{6,7,8} b.
{1,2,3} c.
{1,2,3,4,5} d.
Is P= {1, 3, 6} Q= {6, 1, 3} an equal set? 6.
True a.
False b.
Is A= {1, 2, 3, 4} and B= {a, b, c, d} an equivalent set? 7.
True a.
False b.
If A= {1,2,3,4} and U ={1,2,3,4,5,...,10},What is the value of A? 8.
{1,2,3,4,5} a.
{4,5,6,7} b.
{7,8,9,10} c.
{5,6,7,8,9,10} d.
Quantitative Methods
42/uts
If B= {2,4,6,8} and C= {3,4,5,6,8} what is the value of B 9. C?
{2,3,4,5,6,8} a.
{2,4,6,8} b.
{3,4,5,6,8} c.
{4,6,8} d.
If A= {1,2,3,4} and C= {3,4,5,6,8} what is the value of A 10. C?
{1,2,3,4} a.
{3,4} b.
{3,4,5,6,8} c.
{1,2,3,4} d.