CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

CONCRETE AND ITS INGREDIENTS

Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world. Its consumption is around
20 billion tonnes annually which comes to around two tonnes per every living person. The
reasons for such widespread use of concrete are its adaptability, durability, strength, availability
and economy. Concrete is the only material which can be used everywhere; literally, from
pavements to roofs. We should be grateful to all the people who invented, modified and made it
most useful material in the construction industry.
Reinforced Concrete resists Cyclones, Earthquakes, blasts and fires much better than timber and
steel if designed properly. In India, RCC has been used extensively for construction of houses,
buildings, roads, bridges and dams.

INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT CONCRETE
The following are the ingredients of Cement Concrete:
1. Cement
2. Aggregate
i) Coarse aggregate
ii) Fine aggregate
3. Water
Cement
The cement used shall be any of the following and type should be appropriate for the intended
use:
a) 33 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement conforming to IS269
b) 43 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement conforming to IS8112
c) 53 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement conforming to IS 12269
d) Rapid hardening Portland Cement conforming to IS8041
e) Portland Slag Cement conforming to IS455
f) Portland Pozzolana Cement conforming to IS1489
g) Hydrophobic Cement conforming to IS8043 .
h) Low heat Portland Cement conforming to IS12600
i) Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement conforming to IS12330

Ordinary Portland Cement: The Bureau of Indian Standard has graded the OPC into three grades.
i) 33 Grade- The Compressive Strength at 28days 33N/mm
2

ii) 43 Grade-The Compressive Strength at 28days 43N/mm
2
iii) 53 Grade- The Compressive Strength at 28days 53N/mm
2


Rapid hardening Portland Cement: It has a high content of trica1cium silicate. It is ground finer,
which contributes towards high early strength. This cement Chemical composition is same as
OPC, but is more finely ground. Its 24hours strength is nearly equal to that attained by OPC after
3days.

Portland Slag Cement: This cement can be used for all construction jobs in place of OPC.
However, its special properties render its adoption highly desirable for marine structures,
municipal works such as sewer lines, etc.
Portland Pozzolana Cement: It is produced by grinding together a mixture of 60 to 80% Portland
cement and 20 to 40% pozzolana (Such as volcanic ash or pumice or an burnt clay or shale). It
has a higher resistance to chemical disintegration and sulphate attack.

Hydrophobic Cement: It is OPC to which additives are mixed which give a protective coating to
the cement particles. This enables the cement to be stored in damp or buried conditions for
longer period.

Low heat Portland Cement: It has a high percentage of di-calcium silicate and a low percentage
of tri-calcium silicate. So, the rate of hardening is slow and generates less heat than other
elements.

Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement: It has a better performance in resisting sulphate attack than
OPC due to the reduced tri-calcium aluminate content.
The Sulphate Resisting Cement is used for following works:
1. Concrete to be used in marine condition.
2. Fabrication of concrete pipes which are likely to be buried in marshy region.
3. Construction of sewage treatment plants.

Aggregate
Physical properties of aggregate:
1. Size of aggregate
Based on the size of the particles, aggregates are classified as
a) Coarse aggregate: It passes through an 80mm sieve and retained on 4.75mm sieve.
b) Fine aggregate: It passes through a 4.75mm sieve and retained on a 75 micron sieve.
Based on the distribution of particles size, aggregates are classified as
a) Single size aggregate: It has a majority of particles of the same size.
b) Graded aggregate: It has particles of all size.
c) All-in-aggregates: It is a combination of coarse and fine aggregates.
2. Shape of particles
Aggregates are classified as rounded, irregular or partly rounded, angular and flaky. The shape of
particles affects the voids in a properly compacted aggregate. Flaky particles are not desirable for
making concrete.
3. Surface texture
The surface texture describes the nature of the surface of the aggregate. The aggregate may be
classified as Glossy, Smooth, Rough, Crystalline, Porous. Aggregates of rough surface increases
the strength because of higher surface area resulting in greater adhesive force between the
particles and cement paste.
4. Compressive strength
The strength of aggregate should be greater than the strength of normal concrete.
5. Specific gravity
Average specific gravity of aggregate should be vary from 2.6 to 2.8

6. Bulk density
It is the weight of aggregates required to fill a container of a unit volume. This is used to convert
quantities by weight to quantities by volume. It also reflects the shape and grading of aggregate.
7. Water absorption
The absorption capacity of the coarse aggregate is of the order of about 0.5 to I percent by
weight of aggregate. A higher absorption value may met with aggregates derived from sand
stone or other soft and porous rocks.
8. Bulking of sand
Bulking of sand is the increase in volume of sand by the films of water pushing the sand particles
apart. With the increase in the moisture content up to 5 to 8% bulking of 15 to 40% takes place.
9. Soundness
Soundness is the resistance of aggregate to physical disintegrating forces such as heating &
cooling, wetting & drying, freezing & Thawing due to climatic changes.
10. Durability
Durability is the resistance of aggregates to chemically disintegrating forces.

Water
Water used for making and curing concrete should be free from injurious substances such as oil,
acid, alkali, salt, sugar, organic materials &other elements which deleterious to concrete &steel.
Portable water is suitable for making concrete.
GRADES OF CONCRETE

WATER CEMENT RATIO
Three simple ingredients can be blended and proportioned numerous ways to make concrete:
aggregate, cement and water. In concrete, the single most significant influence on most or all of
the properties is the amount of water used in the mix.
In concrete mix design, the ratio of the amount of water to the amount of cement used (both by
weight) is called the water to cement ratio (w/c). These two ingredients are responsible for
binding everything together.
The water to cement ratio, or w/c ratio, largely determines the strength and durability of the
concrete when it is cured properly. The w/c ratio refers to the ratio of the weights of water and
cement used in the concrete mix. A w/c ratio of 0.4 means that for every 100 kg of cement used
in the concrete, 40 kg of water is added.
For ordinary concrete (sidewalks and driveways), a w/c ratio of 0.6 to 0.7 is considered normal.
A lower w/c ratio of 0.4 is generally specified if a higher quality concrete is desired. The
practical range of the w/c ratio is from about 0.3 to over 0.8. A ratio of 0.3 is very stiff (unless
superplasticizers are used), and a ratio of 0.8 makes a wet and fairly weak concrete. For
reference, a 0.4 w/c ratio is generally expected to make a concrete with a compressive strength of
about 40 N/mm
2
when it is properly cured. On the other hand, a ratio of 0.8 will make a weak
concrete of only about 15 N/mm
2
.
The simplest way to think about the w/c ratio is to think that the greater the amount of water in a
concrete mix, the more dilute the cement paste will be. This not only affects the compressive
strength, it also affects the tensile and flexural strengths, the porosity, the shrinkage and the
color.
The more the w/c ratio is increased (that is, the more water that is added for a fixed amount of
cement), the more the strength of the resulting concrete is reduced. This is mostly because
adding more water creates a diluted paste that is weaker and more susceptible to cracking and
shrinkage. Shrinkage leads to micro-cracks, which are zones of weakness. Once the fresh
concrete is placed, excess water is squeezed out of the paste by the weight of the aggregate and
the cement paste itself. When there is a large excess of water, that water bleeds out onto the
surface. The micro channels and passages that were created inside the concrete to allow that
water to flow become weak zones and micro-cracks.
Using a low w/c ratio is the usual way to achieve a high strength and high quality concrete, but it
does not guarantee that the resulting concrete is always appropriate for countertops. Unless the
aggregate gradation and proportion are balanced with the correct amount of cement paste,
excessive shrinkage, cracking and curling can result. Good concrete results from good mix
design, and a low w/c ratio is just one part of a good mix design.

Following are the important properties of fresh concrete:
1. Setting
2. Workability
3. Bleeding and Segregation
a. Bleeding
b. Segregation
4. Hydration
5. Air Entrainment
1. Setting of Concrete
The hardening of concrete before its hydration is known as setting of concrete. OR
The hardening of concrete before it gains strength. OR
The transition process of changing of concrete from plastic state to hardened state. Setting of
concrete is based or related to the setting of cement paste. Thus cement properties greatly affect
the setting time.
Factors affecting setting:
Following are the factors that affect the setting of concrete.
1. Water Cement ratio
2. Suitable Temperature
3. Cement content
4. Type of Cement
5. Fineness of Cement
6. Relative Humidity
7. Admixtures
8. Type and amount of Aggregate
2. Workability of Concrete
Workability is often referred to as the ease with which a concrete can be transported, placed and
consolidated without excessive bleeding or segregation.
Because the strength of concrete is adversely and significantly affected by the presence of voids
in the compacted mass, it is vital to achieve a maximum possible density. This requires sufficient
workability for virtually full compaction to be possible using a reasonable amount of work under
the given conditions. Presence of voids in concrete reduces the density and greatly reduces the
strength: 5% of voids can lower the strength by as much as 30%.
Slump Test can be used to find out the workability of concrete.
3(a). Concrete Bleeding
Bleeding in concrete is sometimes referred as water gain. It is a particular form of segregation, in
which some of the water from the concrete comes out to the surface of the concrete, being of the
lowest specific gravity among all the ingredients of concrete. Bleeding is predominantly
observed in a highly wet mix, badly proportioned and insufficiently mixed concrete. In thin
members like roof slab or road slabs and when concrete is placed in sunny weather show
excessive bleeding.
Due to bleeding, water comes up and accumulates at the surface. Sometimes, along with this
water, certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface. When the surface is worked up with
the trowel, the aggregate goes down and the cement and water come up to the top surface. This
formation of cement paste at the surface is known as Laitance. In such a case, the top surface
of slabs and pavements will not have good wearing quality. This laitance formed on roads
produces dust in summer and mud in rainy season.
Water while traversing from bottom to top, makes continuous channels. If the water cement ratio
used is more than 0.7, the bleeding channels will remain continuous and unsegmented. These
continuous bleeding channels are often responsible for causing permeability of the concrete
structures. While the mixing water is in the process of coming up, it may be intercepted by
aggregates. The bleeding water is likely to accumulate below the aggregate. This accumulation
of water creates water voids and reduces the bond between the aggregates and the paste.
The above aspect is more pronounced in the case of flaky aggregate. Similarly, the water that
accumulates below the reinforcing bars reduces the bond between the reinforcement and the
concrete. The poor bond between the aggregate and the paste or the reinforcement and the paste
due to bleeding can be remedied by re vibration of concrete. The formation of laitance and
the consequent bad effect can be reduced by delayed finishing operations.
Bleeding rate increases with time up to about one hour or so and thereafter the rate decreases but
continues more or less till the final setting time of cement.
Prevention of Bleeding in concrete
Bleeding can be reduced by proper proportioning and uniform and complete mixing.
Use of finely divided pozzolanic materials reduces bleeding by creating a longer path for
the water to traverse.
Air-entraining agent is very effective in reducing the bleeding.
Bleeding can be reduced by the use of finer cement or cement with low alkali content.
Rich mixes are less susceptible to bleeding than lean mixes.
The bleeding is not completely harmful if the rate of evaporation of water from the surface is
equal to the rate of bleeding. Removal of water, after it had played its role in providing
workability, from the body of concrete by way of bleeding will do good to the concrete.
Early bleeding when the concrete mass is fully plastic, may not cause much harm, because
concrete being in a fully plastic condition at that stage, will get subsided and compacted. It is the
delayed bleeding, when the concrete has lost its plasticity, which causes undue harm to the
concrete. Controlled re vibration may be adopted to overcome the bad effect of bleeding.
3(b). Segregation in concrete
Segregation can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of concrete. A good
concrete is one in which all the ingredients are properly distributed to make a homogeneous
mixture. There are considerable differences in the sizes and specific gravities of the constituent
ingredients of concrete. Therefore, it is natural that the materials show a tendency to fall apart.
Segregation may be of three types
1. Coarse aggregate separating out or settling down from the rest of the matrix.
2. Paste separating away from coarse aggregate.
3. Water separating out from the rest of the material being a material of lowest specific
gravity.
The conditions favorable for segregation are:
1. Badly proportioned mix where sufficient matrix is not there to bind and contain the
aggregates
2. Insufficiently mixed concrete with excess water content
3. Dropping of concrete from heights as in the case of placing concrete in column
concreting
4. When concrete is discharged from a badly designed mixer, or from a mixer with worn out
blades
5. Conveyance of concrete by conveyor belts, wheel barrow, long distance haul by dumper,
long lift by skip and hoist are the other situations promoting segregation of concrete
Vibration of concrete is one of the important methods of compaction. It should be remembered
that only comparatively dry mix should be vibrated. It too wet a mix is excessively vibrated; it is
likely that the concrete gets segregated. It should also be remembered that vibration is continued
just for required time for optimum results. If the vibration is continued for a long time,
particularly, in too wet a mix, it is likely to result in segregation of concrete due to settlement of
coarse aggregate in matrix.
4. Hydration in concrete
Concrete derives its strength by the hydration of cement particles. The hydration of cement is not
a momentary action but a process continuing for long time. Of course, the rate of hydration is
fast to start with, but continues over a very long time at a decreasing rate. In the field and in
actual work, even a higher water/cement ratio is used, since the concrete is open to atmosphere,
the water used in the concrete evaporates and the water available in the concrete will not be
sufficient for effective hydration to take place particularly in the top layer.
If the hydration is to continue, extra water must be added to refill the loss of water on account of
absorption and evaporation. Therefore, the curing can be considered as creation of a favorable
environment during the early period for uninterrupted hydration. The desirable conditions are a
suitable temperature and ample moisture.
Concrete, while hydrating, releases high heat of hydration. This heat is harmful from the point of
view of volume stability. Heat of hydration of concrete may also shrinkage in concrete, thus
producing cracks. If the heat generated is removed by some means, the adverse effect due to the
generation of heat can be reduced. This can be done by a thorough water curing.

5. Air Entrainment
Air entrainment reduces the density of concrete and consequently reduces the strength. Air
entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the hardened concrete.
These include:
1. Resistance to freezethaw action in the hardened concrete.
2. Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic
concrete.
3. Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
4. Stability of extruded concrete.
5. Cohesion and handling properties in bedding mortars.
Following are the properties of hardened concrete:
1. Strength of concrete
2. Concrete Creep
3. Shrinkage
4. Modulus Of Elasticity
5. Water tightness (impermeability)
6. Rate of Strength gain of Concrete
1. Strength
The strength of concrete is basically referred to compressive strength and it depends upon three
factors.
1- Paste Strength
2- Interfacial Bonding
3- Aggregate Strength
Paste strength:
It is mainly due to the binding properties of cement that the ingredients are compacted together.
If the paste has higher binding strength, higher will be strength of concrete.
Interfacial bonding:
Interfacial bonding is very necessary regarding the strength. Clay hampers the bonding between
paste and aggregate. The aggregate should be washed for a better bonding between paste and
aggregate.
Aggregate strength:
It is mainly the aggregate that provide strength to concrete especially coarse aggregates which
act just like bones in the body. Rough and angular aggregate provides better bonding and high
strength.

2. Concrete Creep
Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically, long term
pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usually occurs in the
direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete column getting more compressed, or a beam
bending.
Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break apart. Creep is factored in when
concrete structures are designed.

Factors Affecting Creep
1. Aggregate
2. Mix Proportions
3. Age of concrete
3.Shrinkage
Concrete is subjected to changes in volume either autogenous or induced. Volume change is one
of the most detrimental properties of concrete, which affects the long-term strength and
durability. To the practical engineer, the aspect of volume change in concrete is important from
the point of view that it causes unsightly cracks in concrete. We shall discuss the volume change
on account of inherenet properties of concrete shrinkage.
One of the most objectionable defects in concrete is the presence of cracks, particularly in floors
and pavements. One of the important factors that contribute to the cracks in floors and pavements
is that due to shrinkage. It is difficult to make concrete which does not shrink and crack. Only the
magnitude of shrinkage can be reduced.

Concrete Mix Design
Introduction
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative amounts
with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and workability
as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The proportioning of ingredient
of concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic
and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly placed and
compacted. The property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital importance. The
compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an index of its
other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water and
aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The detailed procedure of the
mix design is given in IS: 10262- 2009.
Requirements of concrete mix design
The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of mix ingredients are:
a ) The minimum compressive strength required from structural consideration.
b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the compacting equipment
available.
c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give adequate durability for
the particular site conditions.
d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature cycle in mass
concrete.
Types of Mixes
1. Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and coarse
aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength are
termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a margin of
strength above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the nominal
concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength.
2. Standard mixes
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength and may
result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength has been
included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes.
IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20,
M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to
the specified 28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm
2
. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and
M25 correspond approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2)
respectively.
3. Designed Mixes
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement content
can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions with specific
materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach results in the
production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically. However, the
designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions
for the prescribed performance.
For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed in the
codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by slump) may be used only for very
small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm
2
. No control testing
is necessary reliance being placed on the masses of the ingredients.

Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions
The various factors affecting the mix design are:
1. Compressive strength
It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other describable
properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength required at a specific age,
usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-cement ratio of the mix. The other factor
affecting the strength of concrete at a given age and cured at a prescribed temperature is the
degree of compaction. According to Abrahams law the strength of fully compacted concrete is
inversely proportional to the water-cement ratio.
2. Workability
The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size of the section to
be concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of compaction to be used. For the
narrow and complicated section with numerous corners or inaccessible parts, the concrete must
have a high workability so that full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable amount of
effort. This also applies to the embedded steel sections. The desired workability depends on the
compacting equipment available at the site.
3. Durability
The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental conditions. High
strength concrete is generally more durable than low strength concrete. In the situations when
the high strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure are such that high durability is
vital, the durability requirement will determine the water-cement ratio to be used.
4. Maximum nominal size of aggregate
In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement requirement for a
particular water-cement ratio, because the workability of concrete increases with increase in
maximum size of the aggregate. However, the compressive strength tends to increase with the
decrease in size of aggregate.
IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of the aggregate should be as
large as possible.
5. Grading and type of aggregate
The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified workability and water-
cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix which can be used. Very lean mix is not
desirable since it does not contain enough finer material to make the concrete cohesive.
The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the desired workability
and stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a satisfactory aggregate is the
uniformity of the grading which can be achieved by mixing different size fractions.
6. Quality Control
The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test results. The variation
in strength results from the variations in the properties of the mix ingredients and lack of control
of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing, curing and testing. The lower the difference between
the mean and minimum strengths of the mix lower will be the cement-content required. The
factor controlling this difference is termed as quality control.
Mix Proportion designations
The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete mix is in the
terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of
proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix
contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse aggregate. The
proportions are either by volume or by mass. The water-cement ratio is usually expressed in
mass
Factors to be considered for mix design
The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of concrete.
The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength of concrete.
Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large as possible within
the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.
The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.
The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related to the size and
shape of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and technique used for transportation,
placing and compaction.
Procedure
1. Determine the mean target strength f
t
from the specified characteristic compressive strength at
28-day f
ck
and the level of quality control.
f
t
= f
ck
+ 1.65 S
where S is the standard deviation obtained from the Table of approximate contents given after
the design mix.
2. Obtain the water cement ratio for the desired mean target using the emperical relationship
between compressive strength and water cement ratio so chosen is checked against the
limiting water cement ratio. The water cement ratio so chosen is checked against the limiting
water cement ratio for the requirements of durability given in table and adopts the lower of
the two values.
3. Estimate the amount of entrapped air for maximum nominal size of the aggregate from the
table.
4. Select the water content, for the required workability and maximum size of aggregates (for
aggregates in saturated surface dry condition) from table.
5. Determine the percentage of fine aggregate in total aggregate by absolute volume from table
for the concrete using crushed coarse aggregate.
6. Adjust the values of water content and percentage of sand as provided in the table for any
difference in workability, water cement ratio, grading of fine aggregate and for rounded
aggregate the values are given in table.
7. Calculate the cement content form the water-cement ratio and the final water content as
arrived after adjustment. Check the cement against the minimum cement content from the
requirements of the durability, and greater of the two values is adopted.
8. From the quantities of water and cement per unit volume of concrete and the percentage of
sand already determined in steps 6 and 7 above, calculate the content of coarse and fine
aggregates per unit volume of concrete from the following relations:

where V = absolute volume of concrete
= gross volume (1m
3
) minus the volume of entrapped air
S
c
= specific gravity of cement
W = Mass of water per cubic metre of concrete, kg
C = mass of cement per cubic metre of concrete, kg
p = ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume
f
a
, C
a
= total masses of fine and coarse aggregates, per cubic metre of concrete,
respectively, kg, and
S
fa
, S
ca
= specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine and coarse aggregates,
respectively
9. Determine the concrete mix proportions for the first trial mix.
10. Prepare the concrete using the calculated proportions and cast three cubes of 150 mm size
and test them wet after 28-days moist curing and check for the strength.
11. Prepare trial mixes with suitable adjustments till the final mix proportions are arrived at.

ADMIXTURES
An admixture is defined as the material added during the mixing process of concrete to modify
the properties of the mix in the fresh / hardened state. Both chemical and mineral admixtures are
widely used. Admixture is the FIFTH ingredient of a concrete mix.
The purpose of using chemical admixture is to modify certain properties of concrete.
In the fresh state
To increase workability.
To reduce water content up to 20-25%.
To accelerate or retard the setting time.
To modify the rate and /or capacity for bleeding.
To reduce the segregation and increase cohesiveness.
To improve pump ability.
To reduce slump loss / modify slump retention time.
To entrain air in concrete for specific purposes.

And in hardened state
To retard or reduce the heat produced during early hardening of cement.
To accelerate strength development at early stages.
To increase physical strengths.
To increase durability by decrease in permeability.
To control expansion due to alkali-aggregate reaction.
To control expansion due to alkali-aggregate reaction.
To counter freeze and thaw phenomenon.

TYPES OF ADMIXTURES
Mineral Admixtures
Mineral admixtures are usually added to concrete in larger amounts to enhance the workability of
fresh concrete; to improve resistance of concrete to thermal cracking, alkali-aggregate expansion,
and sulfate attack; and to enable a reduction in cement content. Some of mineral admixtures are,
Pozzolanic
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS).
Fly Ash
Silica Fume
Rice Husk Ash

Pozzolanic
A pozzolan is a material which, when combined with calcium hydroxide (lime), exhibits
cementitious properties. Pozzolans are commonly used as an addition (the technical term is
"cement extender") to Portland cement concrete mixtures to increase the long-term strength and
other material properties of Portland cement concrete and in some cases reduce the material cost
of concrete.

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS)
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag is the granular material formed when molten iron blast
furnace slag (a by-product of iron and steel making) is rapidly chilled (quenched) by immersion
in water. It is a granular product, highly cementitious in nature and, ground to cement fineness,
hydrates like Portland cement. The benefits of using GGBFS are,
1. Durability.
2. GGBFS cement is routinely specified in concrete to provide protection against both sulphate
attack and chloride attack
3. GGBFS is also routinely used to limit the temperature rise in large concrete pours.
4. Appearance.
5. In contrast to the stony grey of concrete made with Portland cement, the near-white color of
GGBFS cement permits architects to achieve a lighter colour for exposed fair-faced concrete
finishes, at no extra cost.
6. Strength.
7. Concrete containing GGBFS cement has a higher ultimate strength than concrete made with
Portland cement.

Fly ash
The finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered coal. Fly ash is
generally captured from the chimneys of coal-fired power plants. The use of fly ash in concrete
improves its workability, reduces segregation, bleeding, heat evolution and permeability, inhibits
alkali-aggregate reaction, and enhances sulfate resistance.

Silica Fume
The terms condensed silica fume, microsilica, silica fume and volatilized silica are often used to
describe the by-products extracted from the exhaust gases of silicon, ferrosilicon and other metal
alloy furnaces.
It has been found that Silica Fume improves compressive strength, bond strength, and abrasion
resistance; reduces permeability of concrete to chloride ions; and therefore helps in protecting
reinforcing steel from corrosion, especially in chloride-rich environments such as coastal
regions.


Rice Husk Ash
This is a bio waste from the husk left from the grains of rice. It is used as a pozzolanic material
in cement to increase durability and strength.

Chemical Admixtures
Chemical admixtures are added to concrete in very small amounts mainly for the entrainment of
air, reduction of water or cement content, plasticization of fresh concrete mixtures, or control of
setting time.
Seven types of chemical admixtures are specified in ASTM depending on their purposes in PCC.
General and physical requirements for each type of admixture are included in the specifications.
They are,
Retarders.
Accelerators.
Air-entraining agents.
Integral water proofing agents.
Water-reducing agents.
Superplasticisers / High-range water reducers.
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures.

Retarders
Retarders are useful when concreting in hot weather, when normal setting time is shortened by
the higher temperature, and in preventing the formulation of cold joints between successive lifts
in concreting.
Generally, with a retarder, a delay in hardening also occurs. Most commonly used retarder is
Calcium Sulphate. Sugar can also be used as retarder. 0.2% of sugar will increase final set to 72
hrs or more.

Accelerators
These are admixtures which accelerate the hardening or development of early strength of
concrete; the admixture need not have any specified effect on setting time. However, in practice,
the setting time is reduced. Accelerators are mainly used in cold weather concreting or in places
where early deshuttering is required. Previously Calcium Chloride was used as accelerator but it
caused detrimental effect on RCC and PSC. So now a days Soluble Carbonates, Silicates, Fluo
silicates etc. are used as accelerators.

Air-entraining Agents (AEA)
The invention of air-entraining agents is a revolutionary development in concrete technology.
The basic function of an air-entraining agent is to impart freeze-thaw resistance which causes a
lot of problems in the cold countries. Air can be present in concrete in two forms, viz., entrapped
and entrained. Entrapped air is due to improper compaction, cavities in the aggregates etc.,
Whereas the entrained air is that which is deliberately introduced into concrete in the form of
millions of minute air-bubbles (air-cells) of 0.025 to 1mm diameter, placed at a distance not
exceeding 0.4mm. The main reasons for using air-entraining agents are to have freeze-thaw
resistance, to reduce density and to improve cohesion. Natural wood resin, animal and vegetable
fats and oils, alkali salts etc. are used as air-entraining agents.

Integral Water proofing agents
Integral waterproofing admixtures help to cut capillaries in the fresh state of concrete, thereby
providing permanent impermeability to water seepage. Even when the concrete has aged or has
been subjected to weathering & abrasion, the effect continues to exist.
Soda, potash soaps, calcium soaps, vegetable oils etc. are used as water proofing agents.

Plasticisers / water reducing agents
The water-reducing admixtures are the group of products which possess the ability to produce
concrete of a given workability, as measured by traditional means, such as slump or compacting
factor, at a lower water-cement ratio than' that of control concrete containing no admixture.
Basically, they can be used in three ways:
1. By the addition of the plasticiser with a reduction in the water-cement ratio, a concrete having
the same workability as the control concrete can be obtained, with unconfined compressive
strengths at all ages which exceed those of the control concrete.
2. If the admixture is added directly to concrete as part of the gauging water, with no other
changes to the mix proportions, a concrete possessing similar strength development
characteristics is obtained, yet having a greater workability than the control concrete.
3. A concrete with similar workability and strength development characteristics can be obtained
at lower cement and water contents, than control concrete.

Superplasticisers
The most dramatic change in concrete behaviour followed the evolution of Superplasticisers,
products which make concrete perform in a way in which no amount of juggling with the mix
design could achieve; a product which can produce stronger concrete with lower water-cement
ratios, or perhaps more importantly, will provide with normal ratios, a concrete which is
essentially self levelling without any tendency to bleed or segregate. Superplasticisers are new
generic materials which are polymers of recent origin. They are also called High-range water-
reducers (HRWR).
Currently available Superplasticisers can be broadly grouped into 4 categories:
1. Sulphonated Melamine Formaldehyde Condensates (SMF).
2. Sulphonated Naphthalene Formaldehyde Condensates (SNF).
3. Modified Lignosulphonates (MLS) and
4. Esters.

Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures fall into the specialty admixture category and are used to slow
corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. Corrosion inhibitors can be used as a defensive
strategy for concrete structures, such as marine facilities, highway bridges, and parking garages,
that will be exposed to high concentrations of chloride.
Other specialty admixtures include shrinkage-reducing admixtures and alkali-silica reactivity
inhibitors. The shrinkage reducers are used to control drying shrinkage and minimize cracking,
while AlkaliSilica Reaction (ASR) inhibitors control durability problems associated with alkali-
silica reactivity. Some of the corrosion-inhibiting admixtures are Calcium Nitrite, Amino
alcohols, Amino alcohols blended with inorganic inhibitors.

CONCRETE CURING
The concrete surface is kept wet for a certain period after placing of concrete so as to promote
the hardening of cement. The process of applying of water on the concrete is known as curing.
Purpose of curing
1. The curing protects the concrete surfaces from the sun and wind.
2. The presence of water is essential to concrete to cause chemical action which
accompanies the setting of concrete.
3. The strength of concrete gradually increases with age, if curing is efficient.
4. By proper curing the durability and impermeability of concrete are increased and
shrinkage is reduced.

Methods of curing
1. Water curing: Immersion, Ponding, Spraying, Wet covering
The precast concrete members are immersed in curing tanks for certain duration. Pavement
slabs, roof slabs etc., are covered under water by making small pond. Vertical walls, columns
etc., are cured by spraying water. In some cases water curing is also done by covering with wet
gunny bags, Hessian cloth, jute matting, straw etc. For horizontal surfaces saw dust, earth or
sand is used as wet covering.
2. Membrane curing: Concrete surface is covered with membrane or a sealing compound
which will effectively seal off the evaporation of water from the concrete. The application of
membrane should be after a short spell of water curing for one or two days.
Membrane curing is a good method for maintaining a satisfactory state of wetness in the body of
the concrete. This method is useful where there is acute shortage of water, concrete placed in
inaccessible places, difficult or far off places. Some of the materials that can be used for this
purpose are bituminous compounds, polyethylene or polyester film, waterproof paper, rubber
compounds etc
3. Application of heat: When concrete subjected to higher temperature it accelerates the
hydration process resulting in faster development of strength. Concrete cannot be subjected to
dry heat as the presence of moisture is also essential requisite. The higher temperature can be
applied in following ways:
a. Steam curing at ordinary or high pressure- used for prefabricated concrete elements.
b. Curing with infra-red radiation and electrical curing practiced in cold climatic region.

Steam curing is a process for hardening concrete, cement, and mortar that involves exposure to
warm steam. Materials subjected to this hardening technique tend to cure more uniformly and
also much more quickly than those hardened via other processes. There are some disadvantages
to this process that must be considered before deciding to use it for curing, and there may be
certain applications where steam curing is not appropriate.
In steam curing, objects to be cured are placed inside a chamber or room. Using a control panel,
an operator can set the temperature and humidity level. Variations in pressure may also be
possible, depending on the device. The heat and moisture penetrate the materials quickly to fully
hydrate and harden them. Steam curing requires a fraction of the time involved with traditional
curing and quickly strengthens the products so they can be used immediately.
The problem with steam cured cement is that in the long term, the cement may be weaker. Steam
cured cement, concrete, and mortar products are stronger at the outset than traditionally cured
products, but they are more likely to fracture, crumble, and develop other problems later in their
useful lives. This may not be a concern in all situations, but it can become a serious issue in
others. Variations in the temperature and humidity levels used during curing that change the
length of time required will also vary the long-term strength of the product.

SPECIAL CONCRETE

1. FOAM CONCRETE
The most basic definition of foamed concrete is that it is mortar with air bubbles in it. The air
content of foamed concrete may be up to 75% air by volume. In general terms, foamed concrete
can be described as a lightweight, free flowing material which is ideal for a wide range of
applications. Foamed Concrete can be placed easily, by pumping if necessary, and does not
require compaction, vibrating or levelling. It has excellent resistance to water and frost, and
provides a high level of both sound and thermal insulation. It is very versatile, since it can be
tailored for optimum performance and minimum cost by choice of a suitable mix design. Foam
concrete is used in void filling (disused storage tanks, pipelines, sewers, tunnels, culverts, and
subways), road and pavement sub-bases, bridge abutments, construction strengthening etc.
Advantages of Foamed Concrete
Does not settle, hence requires no compaction.
Lightweight - does not impose large loadings.
Free flowing - spreads to fill all voids.
Excellent load spreading characteristics.
2. READY MIXED CONCRETE (RMC)
RMC is specialized material in which cement, aggregate, and other ingredients are weigh
batched at a plant in central or truck mixer before delivery to the construction site.
The RMC plant consists of
a) The RMC plant with auxiliary/Supporting equipment,
b) Transit mixers, and
c) Site equipment for handling concrete.
Advantages of RMC
1. Uniform and assured quality of concrete.
2. RMC can ensure correct W/C ratio to be maintained. Hence durability of concrete is
consistent and better.
3. Faster construction speed.
4. Eliminates storage needs at the construction site.
5. In RMC, admixtures can be added in a controlled manner.
6. Reduces wastage of materials.
7. RMC is eco-friendly, since production of RMC is done in an environmentally assessed and
licensed plant.

3. GEO-POLYMER CONCRETE
Geopolymer concrete is a type of concrete that is made by reacting aluminate and silicate
bearing materials with a caustic activator. Commonly, waste materials such as fly ash or slag
from iron and metal production are used, which helps lead to a cleaner
environment. Geopolymer concrete is does not require heat to make it and it does not produce
carbon dioxide. Standard Portland cement based concrete requires both heat and carbon dioxide.
Geopolymer concrete has significant advantages over standard concretes. It is much more
long lasting than standard concrete and requires little repair, thus saving huge amounts of money
that would otherwise have to be spent on repairing and maintaining concrete based
infrastructure. You might be interested to learn that geopolymer concrete is the modern
equivalent of the ancient concretes such as those used by the Romans that have survived for
thousands of years. Geopolymer concretes will safely last for hundreds of years while standard
concretes will last for tens of years.
Geopolymer concrete is more resistant to corrosion and fire, has high compressive and tensile
strengths, and it gains its full strength quickly (cures fully faster). It also shrinks less than
standard concrete.

4. HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE (HPC)
HPC is used for concrete mixture which possesses high workability, high strength, high modulus
of elasticity, high density, high dimensional stability, low permeability and resistance to
chemical attack.
Started off as High Strength Concrete in 1970's.
Made possible by advent of super-plasticizer.
HPC a better version of High Strength Concrete.
Low w/c ratio - 0.30 to 0.35.
Finer cements.
More C3S in cement.
Benefits of HPC
Early pre-stressing.
Smaller sections/segments.
Compressive strength up to 80MPa, more also.
Speedy construction.
Components of HPC
Portland cement 450-500 kg/m
3
.
Pozzolans - Fly ash, Silica fume, Metakaolin, Rice husk ash.
Super plasticizer - heavy dosage.
Low w/c ratio - 0.25 to 0.35.
Well graded aggregate (concrete strength up to 100Mpa maximum size of aggregate -20mm.
For above 100Mpa aggregate size limited to 10 to 12mm).

5. SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE (SCC)
Concreting can be done successfully without use of vibrators by preparing SCC. It mainly
consists of OPC 43 or 53 grade, Aggregate of size 10 to 12mm, fine aggregates of size smaller
than 0.125mm, water and Super plasticizers. SCC developed in context of skilled labour
shortage. There is no need to spread, No vibration needed, SCC fills forms completely. It
envelops rebar's thoroughly, Enables very fast placing and High quality assurance since no
placement nor compaction errors. Advantages of SCC are:
Faster construction.
Reduction in labour.
Better surface finish.
Thinner concrete design.
Safer working environment.
Improved durability.
Greater freedom of design.

6. FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE (FRC)
The presence of micro cracks at the mortar-aggregate interface is responsible for inherent
weakness of plain concrete. The weakness can be removed by inclusion of fibres in mix. FRC
can be defined as a composite material consisting of mixtures of cement, mortar or concrete and
discontinuous, discrete, uniformly dispersed fibres. Steel fibres of diameter 0.25 to 0.75mm are
most commonly used.
Uses of FRC: used for road pavements, Industrial floorings, Canal lining, Explosive resistant
structures, Roof panels, Pipes, Man hole covers, etc.


7. HIGH VOLUME FLY ASH CONCRETE (HVFA CONCRETE)
It is a type of concrete where 50 to 60% fly ash is incorporated. It is useful in mass concrete
application where low heat of hydration was of primary consideration.
The use of these type of concrete permits to overcome the problem of additional quality control
and storage facilities at the ready mixed concrete batching plants.
Due to very low water content of High Volume Fly Ash concrete, the use of super plasticizers
becomes necessary for obtaining workable concrete. Use of air entraining admixtures is also
concurrently used.
The water content is low in the HVFA concrete hence the bleeding is very low and often
negligible. Setting time is very longer than that of conventional concrete, because of the low
cement content, low rate of reaction and high content of super plasticizers.
8. REINFORCEDCEMENT CONCRETE
Concrete is strong under compression but weak under tension and shear. Whenever concrete
members are likely to be subjected to tension, they are reinforced with steel.
Concrete structures use reinforcements of different types: Reinforcing bars- plain or ribbed,
welded mesh, fibre reinforcement and prestressing wires. Steel used for reinforcement should
have following qualities:
I. High tensile strength.
2. Good bond with concrete.
3. Nearly same coefficient of expansion as that of concrete.
4. Adequate quality control possible during the manufacture of steel.
Classification of Bars:
I. Round MS bars as per IS: 226 - 1985: f
y
= 250 N/mm
2

2. Cold Twisted bars (CTD): Fe415 -f
y
= 415 N/mm
2
, Fe500-f
y
= 500 N/mm
2
, Fe550-f
y
= 550
N/mm
2
, Fe600 - f
y
= 600 N/mm
2

3. Thermo Mechanically Twisted bars:
SAIL TMT - Fe415 - f
y
= 415 N/mm
2
, Fe500 - f
y
=500 N/mm
2
, Fe550 - f
y
= 550 N/mm
2

TISCON TMT- TMT42 - f
y
= 450 N/mm
2

- TMT50 - f
y
= 530 N/mm
2

RINL rebar's - Fe415 - f
y
= 460 N/mm
2

- Fe500 - f
y
= 540 Nln11l12
f
y
= Yield strength