Journal of Structural Geology, Vol. 9, No. 5/6, pp. 597 to 608, 1987 0191-8141/87 $03.00 + 0.

00
Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Journals Ltd.
Cri t eri a f or the sense o f mo v e me nt on f aul t surf aces i n bri ttl e rocks
J . P . PETI T
Labor at oi r e de Tect oni que, Uni t 6 Associ 6e C. N. R. S. 266, U. S. T. L. , Pl ace E. B at ai l l on,
34060 Mont pel l i er c6dex, Fr ance
(Received 13 June 1986; accepted in revised f or m 3 March 1987)
Abstract- - Thi s pa pe r gi ves a det ai l ed des cr i pt i on of t he use of mi nor s t r uct ur es on f aul t pl anes in var i ous br i t t l e
r ocks as i ndi cat or s of t he s ens e of r el at i ve move me nt . The mai n ki nds of st r uct ur es des cr i bed i nvol ve set s of
r e pe a t e d s econdar y f r act ur es ( st r i at ed or not ) whi ch i nt er sect t he slip pl ane in a di r ect i on r oughl y per pendi cul ar
t o t he slip di r ect i on. Some of t he mos t f r e que nt cri t eri a ar e new; t hei r rel i abi l i t y is es t abl i s hed in t he field and by
compar i s on wi t h bot h pr evi ous and ne w exper i ment s . It is shown t hat s ome of t he r ar er s t r uct ur es pr obabl y
c or r e s pond t o ne o- r upt ur e in i nt act r ock, mos t pr obabl y at t he tip of pr e- exi st i ng j oi nt s, whi l e t he mos t f r e que nt
s t r uct ur es ar e gener at ed by fri ct i on on j oi nt s , wi t h ver y little sliding. The possi bl e sei smi c ori gi n of s ome
st r uct ur es is di scussed.
INTRODUCTION
THE DETERMINATION of direction and sense of movement
on faults is a basic requi rement during brittle tectonics
analysis. It is indispensable in establishing the kinema-
tics of faults of various scales or the geomet ry of faulted
ore bodies, especially in cases where the slip cannot be
det ermi ned from the offsets of geological structures.
With recent computer met hods which give some charac-
teristics of paleostress tensors from measurements of
fault striation (Carey & Brunier 1974, Angelier 1975,
Et checopar et al . 1981, Armi j o et al. 1982), slip-sense
det ermi nat i on is also necessary. A most useful way of
determining direction and sense is the direct observation
of fault surfaces which may show not only striation but
also minor structures indicating the sense of relative
movement (sense criteria).
Original morphological descriptions of corresponding
structures are rare in the geological literature (Dzulinski
& Kotlarczyk 1965, Tjia 1971, Hobbs et al . 1976, Elliott
1976). This paper gives descriptions of such structures
based on field observations of faults in the Alpine High
Atlas Mountains of Morocco (Petit 1976), where there is
a very dense fault network linked to the Tizi n'Test Fault
zone (Mat t auer et al. 1972, Proust et al. 1977). In the
excellent outcrops of this semi-arid region, more than
4000 fault planes were observed in different rocks: gra-
nite, gneiss, volcanics, sandstone and limestone (Petit et
al . 1983). In addition, slickensides formed in incom-
pletely lithified sandstones, and morphological and
microstructural comparisons between 'hydroplastic' and
'brittle' fault structures formed in the corresponding
indurated sandstone, have been described (Petit &
Laville 1987). Some of the features given in this paper
have already been described (in French) by Petit et al .
(1983); they have subsequently proved useful in other
regions. The present paper re-describes these features,
together with new observations and interpretative ele-
ments.
The observations were strictly limited to fault sur-
faces, excluding those completely covered with gouge or
with pronounced planar anisotropies in the rock (espe-
cially cleavage). Detailed field descriptions are mainly
confined to features visible to the naked eye or with a
hand lens. The microstructures will be described in a
separate publication. The reliability of t he shear-sense
criteria can be checked when different criteria are used
for the same fault plane (related to the same movement ).
Within a strike-slip regime, the slickensides of conjugate
faults show structures indicating opposite senses. If sev-
eral tectonic phases are responsible for different struc-
tures linked to several striation orientations on the same
surfaces, the corresponding stress states can be deter-
mined by computer met hods (Etchecopar et al. 1981).
During field observations mechanical interpretations of
the structures were borne in mind to help define the
criteria, although the conclusions were mostly based on
evaluations of experimental data.
There is a wide variety of secondary structures
associated with faults. The factors controlling their for-
mat i on could be: (i) the presence and geometry of
pre-existing joints; how fault marks due to friction on
pre-existing joints may be distinguished from those from
shear of intact rocks will be discussed; (ii) the physical
properties of t he rock involved (composition, porosity,
mechanical properties); or (iii) conditions of stress (rela-
tive or absolute values) and strain (amount of slip, strain
rate, possible seismic movements).
TERMINOLOGY FOR DESCRIPTION
Terminology t hat has been used for description of
repeat ed secondary fractures and for steps on fault
surfaces is presented below. An i mport ant feat ure com-
monly observed is the presence of secondary repeated
fractures of the same type, making an angle with the
mean fault plane, some being regular en-6chelon frac-
tures. In view of the present lack of adequate terminol-
ogy, it is essential to provide one for these fractures and
597
5 9 8 .1. P. P I ~ [ l l
FAULTPLANE
NAS S I V E
[ L>" . 0 . 0 0 EN 0 0
ROCK ( e l c e p t
l i m e s t o n e )
SECONDARYFRACTURES
f
b -'~w. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PLANES
CLEAVAGE
FR
R
T
. \
_--.. \ p
~"- ANGLE
~NGI F
TC~,TE~I~ R ~, ~, ~
e r l s l l e fr o c t ur e s
__-
\ \ \ , x , \ \ \ ' , \ \
c r e s c e n f l c f r o c l ur e s
I ! ! I .... / / ' /
RO
_ c / - j - j ; ~ , ~ - - 7 - - ,
R M
R
~ CRJTERfA
D
l un a t e f r g c f d r e s r , -
! - . '"/~'~
m
Fig. l ( a) and (b). St ruct ures of compar abl e aspect but opposi t e sense. (c) Tcrnmloiog~ tH uc~cr~puon ,)1 clcmentarx
secondary fract ures in a shear cont ext , and for cor r espondi ng criteria I see text ~. (d I - ( f ) Main t ypes of criteria based on
repetitive secondary fract ures
t hei r f eat ur es. To aw)id l engt hy non- genet i c descr i pt i ve
t er ms such as ' ri ght st eppi ng non- s t r i at ed f r act ur es in a
l eft l at eral shear ' or ' st r i at ed s econdar y f r act ur es di ppi ng
in t he di r ect i on of move me nt of t he opposi t e bl ock' , a
t er mi nol ogy is suggest ed (Fig. l c) based mai nl y on
Ri edel - t ype exper i ment s as used in classic wor ks of
Tc ha l e nko & Ambr as eys (1970), Wi l cox et al. (1973)
and ot her s. Thes e t er ms are i nt ended onl y t o descr i be
the geomet r i cal posi t i on of t he obs er ved e l e me nt a r y
f r act ur es in a shear cont ext , but not t o i mpl y t hat t he
st r uct ur es obs er ved can be expl ai ned mechani cal l y by
Ri edel t ype exper i ment s , especi al l y f or st r uct ur es l i nked
t o fri ct i on (see bel ow) .
It is conveni ent to di vi de st r uct ur es cor r es pondi ng to
r epet i t i ve secondar y f r act ur es i nt o t hr ee gr oups (Fig. 1
d- f ) : group T, i ncl udi ng t ypes showi ng onl y r epet i t i ve T
f r act ur es ( f r om t ensi on, but see bel ow) and no s econdar y
shear f r act ur es, group R, i ncl udi ng all t ypes showi ng
s econdar y synt het i c shear f r act ur es ( st r i at ed) of R or i en-
t at i on, and group P. i ncl udi ng all t ypes showi ng secon-
dar y shear f r act ur es ( st r i at ed) of P or i ent at i on. The
mor phol ogi cal di f f er ence bet ween t hese t hr ee gr oups
can easily be seen m t he l i c l d Within gr oups R and P one
can di st i ngui sh i mpor t ant mor phol ogi cal t ypes with a
second l et t er : O, if onl y R or P s econdar y shear f r act ur es
are pr esent : M, if t he main or mean faul t pl ane is
compl et el y st ri at ed and T. if non- st r i at ed s econdar y
f r act ur es are obs er ved (Fig. I c & f ) . As shown l at er, t he
f r act ur es cal l ed R, her e, are st r i at ed and make small
angles wi t h t he aver age fault pl ane similar t o t hose
usual l y obs er ved in Ri edel - t ype exper i ment s . R' will be
used in t he descr i pt i on f or high angl e ant i t het i c secon-
dar y shears. A pr obl em arises with r e pe a t e d appar ent l y
non- st r i at ed T f r act ur es di ppi ng at vari ous angles to t he
fault wall in t he di r ect i on of t he missing bl ock. Fur t he r
discussion will show t hat some T f r act ur es have not been
i ni t i at ed as macr oscopi c ext ensi onal f r act ur es, so gr oup
T in t he br oa de r sense must embr ace non- st r i at ed frac-
t ur e sets of what ever mechani cal ori gi n, possi bl y ol der
t han t he sheari ng, dt ppi ng in t he di r ect i on of move me nt
of t he missing bl ock.
Norri s & Ba r t on' s t ct mmoh) gy (1968) will be used for
t he obs er ved steps: accr et i on steps (risers f or med in
added gouge or cryst al l i zed mat er i al ) , and f r act ur e steps
Criteria for movement on fault surfaces 599
(risers cut in solid rock), of incongruous (risers facing
the movement of the opposite block) and congruous
(opposite case) types.
SHEAR-SENSE STRUCTURES NOT LINKED TO
SECONDARY FRACTURES
Striation due to a pl oughi ng element (Fig. 2a)
Striation occurs from an el ement (a rock or gouge
fragment or mineral grain) which is obviously harder
t han t he wall it striates, although it may be of the same
material. During friction it forms deep striae (grooves)
t ermi nat ed at the final ploughing el ement position. The
end of the plough mark points towards the movement of
the missing wall (Dzulinski & Kotlarcyzk 1965, Tjia 1971
and Hancock 1985; Tjia introduced the term 'prod
marks' , while Hancock referred to 'tool marks'). This
feat ure can be integrated with the more general case of
'asperity ploughing' (Means 1987). This clear type of
striation is mainly present in limestone.
Crystallization linked to irregularities of the fault surface
(Fig. 2b)
Irregularities on the fault surface exhibit local crystal-
lization generally of fibrous minerals (quartz, epidote,
etc., in magmatic rocks, calcite in limestone). They
appear as a set of steps (accretion steps) whose risers are
more or less perpendicular to the general striation and
face in the same direction. These accretion steps are
congruous (i.e. risers facing towards the movement of
t he missing block) where euhedral crystal faces are
S t r i a t i n g
a / ( ploughing )
C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n
Euhedral
~. 1 S c r y s t a l s ( X )
~. 2
~ X '~ C r y s t a l l i s a t i on l i n ke d
t o fr a c t ur e s t e p s
Fig. 2( a) . St r i at i on due t o a pl oughi ng e l e me nt ( asper i t y pl oughi ng) ;
( b) : cr yst al l i zat i on on t he l ee si de of asper i t i es ( see t ext ) .
observed on the risers (Elliott 1976, fig. 13, Hobbs et al.
1976, fig. 7.12) (Fig. 2bl ) or where crystallization formed
during, or after, the opening of domino-type structures
(Gamond 1983) (Fig. 2b2). This feat ure is very common
in limestone and sometimes associated with stylolites
(Art haud & Mat t auer 1969, fig. l d) , but is also found in
igneous rocks (Bl~s & Gros 1980) where it implies high
t emperat ure fluid circulation. The sense is not clear if
the slickensides are too thickly coated with t he crystal-
line material. In this case Laurent ' s met hod for calcite
(1987) can lead to shear-sense determination.
SHEAR-SENSE STRUCTURES INVOLVING
SECONDARY FRACTURES
T criteria:
The mean fault plane (M) is fully striated. Secondary
fractures are not striated, so t hey are of T type. They can
make an angle of 30 to about 90 with the main fault
plane (Fig. l d) (see also 'comb fractures', Hancock &
Barka 1987). They can be open or infilled with any
mineral and either planar or curved when viewed as
traces on the fault plane; in the latter case the T~M angle
is about 90 and t he curved T fractures make a crescentic
shape on the M plane. Crescents are never found alone
but are usually aligned, at least along a short distance,
their horns pointing in t he direction of movement of the
missing block. These criteria clearly correspond to the
'crescentic fractures' associated with glacial scratches
(Harris 1943, Masson & Baud 1974). However, they are
sometimes found associated with faults, especially bed-
ding plane faults (Wegmann & Schear 1957), or fault
planes in Languedoc limestone (Fig. 3a). Nothing equi-
valent to 'chatter marks' (Harris 1943) due to aligned
spalling or flaking of the fault surface were observed.
R criteria:
The mean fault plane is j oi ned by repeat ed secondary
striated fractures in secondary R shear attitude dipping
at a small angle to the fault wall (Fig. l e). Their intersec-
tion with the mean fault plane is more or less perpendicu-
lar to the slip direction. Two main types are observed.
RO (R only) type. There is no mean striated fault
plane (Figs. l e and 3b top). The distance between R
shears is very small and regular and their surfaces are
very slightly striated. The fault surface is serrated in
profile due to the intersection of two sets of secondary
shears, R and R' , whose orientation with respect to the
mean plane is indicated in Fig. 4(a). This type is rare and
has only been observed in fine-grained sandstone. It
seems to be an original feature corresponding to a planar
view of an en-6chelon zone cut t hrough the middle.
RM type. The main fault plane is fully striated (Figs.
l e and 5a). The R fractures are visible because of t he
non-tectonic rupture of the tip of the dihedron formed
600 J . P . PEr n
M
10%
R
b
I 0 % "" M
R
C 10% ~ M
Fig. 4. Angle between secondary fractures and the main or mean fault
plane (M). (a): R and R' in RO structure (from the outcrop shown in
Fig. 3b); (b) R in RM structure; (c) T in PT structure (from Fig. 7b).
by R and M s ur f aces , so t ha t t he r u p t u r e s ur f ace de t e r -
mi nes i n c o n g r u o u s f r a c t ur e st eps. Th e s e R f r a c t ur e s ar e
i r r egul ar l y di s t r i but e d on t he s ur f ace, s o me wel l a pa r t ,
s o me ve r y cl ose t o g e t h e r , a nd of va r yi ng size. Th e y
ma k e smal l angl es wi t h t he M pl a ne (Fi g. 4b) . Th e y
oc c ur f r o m c e n t i me t e r scal e in s a nds t one s t o me t e r scal e
in i gne ous r ocks. Se l d o m f o u n d i n l i me s t one s , t hi s st r uc-
t ur e l ed t o sense d e t e r mi n a t i o n o n a b o u t hal f o f t he f aul t
pl anes , in s a nds t one as wel l as i n i gne ous r ock. Fi gur e s
l ( a ) & ( b) i l l ust r at e a pos s i bl e c onf us i on. I n spi t e of its
i mp o r t a n c e , this s t r uc t ur e has a p p a r e n t l y b e e n de s c r i be d
ve r y l i t t l e, e xc e pt f or o n e as pect of t he R f r act ur es : t hei r
c o n c a v e c u r v a t u r e t owa r ds t he ma i n pl a ne , so t ha t t hei r
i nt er s ect i on wi t h t he M pl a ne is al so c o n c a v e and i ndi -
cat es t he sense of mo v e me n t (Fi gs. l e a nd 5b). A
c o mp a r a b l e f e a t ur e was r e f e r r e d t o as ' l u n a t e f r a c t ur e s '
by Ha r r i s ( 1943) ; il s e e ms t o be si mi l ar t o t e c t oni c
' c h e v r o n ma r k s ' i l l us t r at ed by El l i ot t (1976, fig. 11, p.
30).
I n f i ne- gr ai ned s a n d s t o n e s o me s hi ny a p p a r e n t l y
s mo o t h sl i ckensi des ar e of R M t ype : u n d e r a h a n d l ens,
t hey s how mi c r o - R s hear s , s o me bei ng mi c r o - ' l u n a t e
f r a c t u r e s ' , t ypi cal l y f o r me d in a l ayer o f s ever al mi l -
l i met r es t hi ck c r u s h e d gr ai ns. I n ge ne r a l t hi n s ect i ons cut
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t he s he a r pl ane and par al l el t o t he
s t r i at i on (Fi g. 6) s how t ha t mi c r o - R s hear s ar e f r e que nt l y
o b s e r v e d on M s ur f aces , and ar e t hus h o mo l o g o u s wi t h
ma c r o s c o p i c R shear s. As s hown in Fi g. 6 ( a) & ( b) , t he
. . . . . . . . . " N,
. ~ / . . . . . t , ~ , ; ~ . ..... i _'.;"
" , " ~ ..... "~"'"-'C:-~-'-"-"
., \ \ , ,,,,\
Jar. 2 1~.-4~_z. . . 2 , . :;_- '.'~ 7 - ~ 7 ~ ",',~ 1 Z ~ ;~ " UZ 2 ' ~' - " " -
Fig. 6. Sketches from sections parallel to the striation and perpendicu-
lar to fault plane through micro-R shears in sandstone. Long dashes
indicate transgranular fractures, short ones crushed grains. In (a)
black dots indicate alignment of clay and oxides in compartments of
more or less crushed grains in porous sandstone; in (c) small arrows
outline the amount of slip in sheared quartz grains. Scale lines are (a)
1 ram: ( b) 0 , 1 ram: ( c) 0 . 3 mm.
as s oci at ed i n c o n g r u o u s mJ cr os t eps can c o r r e s p o n d t o
t he b r o k e n t i p of t he di he dr a l angl e b e t we e n M and R.
I n Fi g. 6( c) , t he t i p is not yet b r o k e n . Th e R M d i h e d r o n
is of t e n f o r me d of mo r e or less c r us he d gr ai ns so t hat
t hes e mi c r o- s t e ps ar e not t ypi cal f r a c t ur e st eps.
P criteria.
Th e f aul t pl ane is al ways i nc ompl e t e l y s t r i at ed a nd
l ooks ve r y di f f er ent f r o m o t h e r t ype s of sl i ckensi des
(Fi g. l f ) , whi c h c oul d expl ai n wh y this f e a t ur e has n e v e r
be e n de s c r i be d or us ed be f or e . Th e s t r i at i on, or at l east
a br ui s e d s ur f ace, a p p e a r s l ocal i zed on t he si de of
as per i t i es f aci ng t he mo v e me n t of t he mi ssi ng bl ock.
Two t ype s can be s een:
PO ( P only) type. Fhe non- s t r i a t e d ( p r o t e c t e d ) sur -
f aces of t he as per i t i es (l ee si de) do not di p i nt o t he wal l
(Fi gs. 3b, b o t t o m, a nd 7a)
PT type. Th e mo r e or less pl a na r non- s t r i a t e d s ur f ace
cl ear l y di ps i nt o t he wal l at a smal l angl e. P s ur f aces ar e
mo r e d e v e l o p e d and s t r i at ed t han P O t ype s ( Fi g. 7b & c
and 8a). Th e tip of t he d i h e d r o n f o r me d by P and T
s ur f aces has b e e n b r o k e n t o f o r m ma n y smal l st eps.
So me of t he mo r e s t r i at ed P s ur f aces s h o w s hal l ow st eps
al ways a s c e ndi ng i n t he di r e c t i on of t he mi ssi ng bl ock,
s o me t i me s as s oci at ed wi t h mi c r o - R s hear s (Fi g. 8b) .
Th e l at t er ar e s o me t i me s o b s e r v e d di ppi ng u n d e r t he
ri sers wh e n s t eps ar e pr e s e nt .
C r i t e r i a f o r mo v e me n t o n f a u l t s u r f a c e s
( c)
I I ~. . ~. ' ~ ' ~ I_- "1 = ~ I: 1 I
I I ~ . ~ , . ' , ~ t = ; ~ . I= .q I
I I ~ l ~ l ~ t , ~ : = , ~ : ~ l I
p r e e x i s t i n g j o i n t P O
Fig, 3(a). Cr escent i c f r act ur es (T f r act ur es) in La ngue doc Jur assi c l i mest one. (b) St er eo pai r of a ri ght l at eral st ri ke-sl i p
faul t in r ed Tri assi c Hi gh At l as s a nds t one ( Mor occo) . Up p e r par t shows RO st r uct ur e: t he faul t sur f ace c or r e s ponds t o
spl i t t i ng t hr oughout a br i t t l e s hear zone f or me d of en- 6chel on s econdar y s hear s di ppi ng i nsi de t he wall. Lowe r par t shows
a PO st r uct ur e i ndi cat i ng t he s ame slip sense. Some PT st r uct ur es ar e visible in t he t r ansi t i on zone be t we e n RO and PO.
Bl ack st ar s ar e al i gned al ong t he t r ace of beddi ng pl ane on t he faul t surface. Ar r ows i ndi cat e sense of move me nt of mi ssi ng
bl ock. Scal e line is 10 cm. (c) RO st r uct ur e de ve l ope d f r om t he tip of a pr e- exi st i ng j oi nt expl ai ni ng t he f eat ur es i l l ust r at ed
in ( b) ; 1 - - b e f o r e shear i ng, 2 - - a f t e r shear i ng.
6 0 1
, I, P. P~ , . t[ J
Fig. 5, St erco pairs for fault st r uct ur cs in the Triassic High At l as sandst one, Morocco. (a) RM 3tructurc on a right lateral
strike-slip fault; (b) Details of the same fault showi ng a lunate fracture ( bot t om right: here the tip of the di hedr on f or med
bv R and M surfaces has been br oken) and transition to mi cro-R shears (left) occurs. A]r ~ws indicate sense of movcmem
of missing block
602
Cr i t e r i a f or mo v e me n t o n f a ul t s ur f aces
Fi g. 7. P cr i t er i a f r om t he r ed Tr i as s i c Hi gh At l a s s a n d s t o n e . (a) St er eo pai r: PO s t r uc t ur e i ndi cat i ng a s mal l di s pl a c e me nt
( s t r i at i on onl y vi si bl e wi t h a ha r d l ens ) , l ef t - l at er al st r i ke- sl i p f aul t ; ( b) s t er eo pai r: PT s t r uc t ur e . P s ur f aces ha ve be e n wor n
by f r i ct i on; (c) PT s t r uc t ur e ( wi t h P/ T s ur f ace r at i o a bout 1) on a l eft l at er al st r i ke- sl i p f aul t . Scal e l i nes ar e 2 cm. Ar r ows
i ndi cat e s e ns e of mo v e me n t of t he mi s s i ng bl ock.
603
.!, P. PI :. m
Fig. 8(a). PT st r uct ur e with well devel oped T fract ures, on a left-lateraL strike-slip fauh m the red Triassic High Atlas-
sandst one ( Mor occo) . Black stars are aligned al ong the trace of beddi ng plane on fault surface. Ar r ows indicate sense of
movement of missing block. (b) Detail of a nat ural P surface of PTs t r uet ur e ( c) - ( e) : Sheared surfaces in red sandst one aft er
shear box tests. (c) Obl i que view of sheared surface formed in intact speci men, showi ng reeonst i t ut i on of PT st ruct ure at
low nor mal st ress. P fract ures appear whi t ened and st ri at ed, T fract ures are not , and dip into the speci men: compar e with
Fig. 7(c). (d) Detail of surface of a speci men aft er shear test at high nor mal st ress in intact speci men (same rock as in el,
showi ng slightly st ri at ed and tight R fract ures dipping into the speci men. Reconst i t ut i on of RO criteria: compar e with Fi g
}(b, t op). (e) Pre-cnt surface (see text) aft er a 2 mnn relative di spl acement showi ng reeonst i t ut i on of PO criteria. Scale linc,~
are (b) l ram; ( c) - ( e) I cm. Ar r ows indicate sense of movel nent of missing hh~ck
604
Criteria for movement on fault surfaces 605
The P criteria were first used in red, fine-grained
sandstone; the striated side of asperities (the striation is
sometimes only visible with a hand lens) appear as
whitened patches due to crushing of quartz grains, and
thus form a striking contrast with the red non-striated
sides. The PO type has been extensively found because
P surfaces appear on very tiny asperities, for example on
plumose structures, or on the irregularities of any pre-
existing joints. The format i on of this criterion implies
very small slips roughly of the same order of magni t ude
(generally millimetres in sandstone) as t he width of the
patch in the direction of movement . Otherwise the
striation would have been more extensive and could
have led to a fully striated slickenside. These PO criteria
have been commonl y observed in various magmatic
rocks, where t he patches are more typically linked to
larger oft en wavy asperities, with chlorite or oxides
oft en present on the lee side. The PT types have been
observed less oft en, and mainly in sandstone on a cen-
t i met re scale. These criteria exhibit a variety of mor-
phologies because of the varying ratio P/T (apparent
surfaces), which can be from about 1 (Fig. 7c) to 1/5 (Fig.
8a). The smaller the inclination of T fractures with
respect to the mean plane, the smaller t he ratio. In some
cases, the P surfaces have been worn down until they are
parallel to the mean plane (Fig. 7b). As shown in Fig.
3(b), RO, PT and PO criteria are mutually consistent.
Transitions between PO and PT structures have often
been observed.
MECHANICAL INTERPRETATION
Al t hough the criteria presented here are of i mmedi at e
use for field geologists, t he mechanical origin of the
corresponding structures is also of interest, as it may give
some indication of the stress and strain conditions
involved in fault formation. Thus the first basic require-
ment is to be able to distinguish between structures
formed by rupt ure in intact rock and those produced by
sliding on a pre-existing joint.
Compar i s on wi t h tests in intact r ock
Shear box tests. These seem well-adapted to t he recon-
struction of fault plane marks due to ruptures in intact
samples, because the shear plane is imposed by the box
and can thus imitate fracture format i on at the tip of a
pre-existing fracture subjected to a shear movement .
Gamond' s work (1983, 1985, 1987) is apparently the
only application of such tests aimed at recreating geolog-
ical structures linked to shear in intact brittle materials.
Al t hough his experiments were done on an over-consoli-
dated varved clay, the structures obt ai ned at low normal
stress in dilatant conditions (i.e. with the sample allowed
to extend parallel to the imposed constant normal stress,
Gamond 1983, fig. 7) are very similar to PT structures
described here with a P/T surface ratio of about 1. The
fractures appearing first are low-angle T fractures in the
present terminology, as t hey are not striated (see Discus-
sion). P fractures are formed next by the rupture of
bridges bet ween T features.
The same geometrical succession was obtained in my
preliminary shear tests on rocks which produced struc-
tures closely resembling the PT field examples (Fig. 8c).
The tests were carried out with a 500 kN (normal and
shear maxi mum forces) conventional direct shear
machine on indurated red Permian sandstone from the
Lod~ve basin (Languedoc, Southern France), on dry
specimens 8 x 8 cm in section at room t emperat ure.
Before peak stress (r = 52 MPa, on = 24 MPa, i.e. for
values corresponding in this experiment to a very low
value of 03), T fractures formed first, and the rupture of
bridges between t hem occurred in an explosive way at
peak stress. Al t hough a certain amount of elastic stress
is stored in the machine during loading, so that explosive
rupture can be expected (the machine is a 'soft' conven-
tional one with hydraulic loading), this type of rupture
could occur in the Eart h' s crust, suggesting that the most
regular PT structures could be indicators of micro-
seismic events.
In my experiments, RO type structures (i.e. very tight
and regularly spaced slightly striated fractures with a
serrated profile) were obtained by shearing in specimens
(Fig. 8d) subjected to high normal stresses (r = 100
MPa, on = 80 MPa.) At low normal stress, en-rchel on
fractures appeared before peak stresses, but rupt ure at
peak stress was not so brutal. The resulting features
resemble those observed by Gamond (1985) in non-
dilatant conditions (i.e. with no possible extension paral-
lel to the increasing normal stress). The general t endency
is for t he formation of numerous secondary striated R
shears instead of a few isolated non-striated fractures
inducing large open dominoes with P fractures. These
observations suggest that in shear box tests an increasing
normal stress inducing less dilatant conditions could lead
progressively from PT type to RO type structures with
tighter and shorter striated secondary fracture. If this is
true, some of the observed R and T en-rchel on fractures
could have a common mechanical origin (Fig. 9a & b),
Gamond (1983) discussed this, with different terminol-
ogy, and concluded that the non-striated fractures (T in
this paper), were in fact Riedel shear fractures t hat
opened during the sliding of P fractures. As Gamond
emphasized, in non-dilatant conditions the shear zone
tends to be narrower and void formation is inhibited.
a i ~ ! ( T )
b . [ e t (R) 2nd (R")
Fig. 9. Formation of types of secondary fractures in direct shear
ex periments in intact specimens ( see text). (a) At low normal stress;
(b) at high normal stress. 1st and 2nd indicate chronology of the
corresponding fractures.
606 J . P . PETIr
Thi s t endency is onl y possi bl e if an i mpor t a nt r el at i ve
move me nt occur s on cl osed R f r act ur es, t hus i nduci ng
fri ct i on. Mor e ove r , r upt ur e al ong t he i mpos ed s hear
zone is easi er because br i dges bet ween f r act ur es are
cl oser. So it woul d be possi bl e f or RO and some t ypes of
PT st r uct ur es ( when t he P/ T sur f ace r at i o is about 1) t o
cor r es pond t o newl y f or me d faul t surfaces, RO, i ndi cat -
ing hi gh nor mal ( or di f f er ent i al ) stress and PT r upt ur e at
low nor mal ( or di f f er ent i al ) stress, bot h wi t h ver y small
slips.
Triaxial tests. Al t hough this t ype of e xpe r i me nt is
commonl y car r i ed out , onl y a few mor phol ogi cal
descr i pt i ons of f r act ur e surfaces have been publ i shed
and t he obser vat i ons are mai nl y conf i ned t o t he st ep
pr obl em. The evi dence of f r act ur e steps ( gener al l y per -
pendi cul ar to t he st ri at i on and f or me d in i nt act r ock)
faci ng t he move me nt of t he opposi t e bl ock was cl ear l y
shown exper i ment al l y in mar bl e ( Pat er s on 1958, pl at e 2)
and in ot he r r ocks by Cur r i e (in wr i t t en comment s t o
Nor r i s & Ba r r on 1968). Thes e st eps have been pr e s e nt e d
as possi bl e cr i t er i a f or det er mi ni ng t he sense of move-
ment on nat ur al faults. Pat er s on' s exper i ment al secon-
dar y f r act ur es seem t o be i r r egul ar en- 6chel on f r act ur es
of R t ype, t he steps bei ng due t o t he r upt ur e of bri dges
be t we e n t hem. Thus t he whol e f eat ur e coul d be mor e or
less similar t o RO st r uct ur es be f or e t he f or ma t i on of R
shear f r act ur es. On t he ot he r hand, t he st r uct ur es
des cr i bed by Pat er s on and t he det ai l ed f eat ur es of nat u-
ral P surfaces in Fig. 8(b) have st ri ki ng similarities. Thi s
anal ogy confi rms t he f or ma t i on of some P shears of PT
st r uct ur es f r om r upt ur e in br i dges of i nt act r ock (Fig.
9a).
Compari son with f ri ct i on tests on pre- cut speci mens
Shear box tests. On t he same shear box t est i ng machi ne
as above, fri ct i on t est s wer e car r i ed out on speci mens
wi t h an uneven f r act ur e sur f ace caused by pr evi ous
splitting unde r uni axi al l oadi ng: t he t wo par t s wer e fi t t ed
t oge t he r and t he bl ock fixed in t he shear box so t hat t he
splitting pl ane c or r e s ponde d t o t he i mpos ed shear pl ane.
The r esul t obt ai ned f or o, = 28 MPa wi t h 2 mm di spl ace-
ment is gi ven in Fig. 8(e). Compar i s on wi t h t he nat ur al
exampl e of Fig. 3(b, bot t om) , and 7(a) shows a ver y
similar aspect and t he same di st r i but i on of st r i at ed
pat ches on t he side of asperi t i es faci ng t he move me nt of
t he move d bl ock. Thi s emphasi zes t hat PO st r uct ur es
ar e r el i abl e cri t eri a and pr obabl y f or me d on pr e- exi st i ng
j oi nt s. The s e exper i ment s suggest t hat P surfaces coul d
f or m even in low nor mal stress condi t i ons and f or ver y
small slips.
Triaxial tests. Many pr evi ous fri ct i on tests have be e n
done on saw-cut speci mens, but one shoul d not expect t o
find cl ear geol ogi cal anal ogi es, especi al l y t o tests usi ng
pol i shed surfaces, because nat ur al pr e- exi st i ng j oi nt s
are t ypi cal l y uneven. Howe ve r , some t ypes of i ndur at ed
( wel ded) gouge obs er ved on pr e- cut speci mens ( Fr i ed-
man et al. 1974) coul d also be f ound on P surfaces of t he
PO cr i t er i a, but this woul d need mor e i nvest i gat i on. No
~ ~ ~- ~ ". "- - , . . " ~t g ~j . , ~ ~ ~
Fig. 10. Possible mechanisms for formation of secondary R fractures
in RM criteria by frictional penetration at the front of hardened
material (star). T: tension fracture formed first, R: shears formed by
relative movement on previous fractures due to local stress field
reorientations.
nat ur al equi val ent of ' mi c r os c opi c wear gr ooves' ( Engel -
der 1974) or of t a pe r e d gr ooves as descr i bed by Cur r i e
( wr i t t en comment s in Nor r i s & Ba r r on 1968) have been
f ound in t he field.
Fracture i nduced by cutting tools. Al t hough t he
mechani sms i nvol ved are not pur el y fri ct i onal , i nt erest -
ing compar i s ons can be made wi t h Fr i edman' s exper i -
ment s (1983) on t he f r act ur i ng of rocks due to a pl ough-
ing mi ni ng t ool . On t he bot t om of t he f ur r ow dug by t he
t ool he obs er ved among ot he r f eat ur es a set of r epet i t i ve
t ensi on f act ur es di ppi ng at an aver age angl e of 16 in t he
di r ect i on of move me nt of t he t ool . The i r ge ome t r y is
compar abl e t o t hose of R f r act ur es of RM st r uct ur es
(Fig. 4b). A similar mechani s m coul d expl ai n t he
f or ma t i on of some of t he s econdar y R f r act ur es by
fri ct i on (Fig. 10a), but this i mpl i es a har dness cont r ast
bet ween t he t wo walls. It coul d be expl ai ned by t he
f or mat i on of a wi de f r ont zone of ha r de ne d mat er i al
(cryst al l i zed gouge) which act ed as t he t ool in f or mi ng
first t he t ensi on f r act ur es. The shear i ng move me nt on
t hese f r act ur es coul d be due t o stress r eor i ent at i on
dur i ng t he cont i nui ng r el at i ve move me nt .
Hert zi an f ract ure tests. Amo n g t he T cri t eri a, t he
' cr escent i c f r act ur es' (Figs. l d, bot t om, and 3d) cl ear l y
cor r es pond t o exper i ment al r epet i t i ve Her t zi an frac-
t ur es obt ai ned by t he ci rcul ar sliding cont act of an
e l e me nt ha r de r t han t he f r i ct i oned mat er i al , f or exampl e
a st eel ball on glass ( MacCl i nt ock 1953) or a hemi s pher e
of sapphi r e on silicon monocr ys t al ( Bar qui ns 1973).
I ndi vi dual cracks cor r es pond t o f r agment s of Her t zi an
cones whose axes ( per pendi cul ar t o t he sur f ace if no
di spl acement ) are t i l t ed in t he di r ect i on of move me nt .
The f or mat i on of t hese cracks is pr edi ct ed by Lawn
(1967); t hey are due t o t ensi on st resses f or med at t he
back of t he cont act ar ea and are l i nked t o st i ck-sl i p.
Criteria f or neorupt ure in intact rocks
Pr evi ous exper i ment al dat a in bot h shear box and
t ri axi al t est s st r ongl y suggest t hat RO and PT st r uct ur es
(i f t he PFF sur f ace r at i o is about 1) are f or me d in i nt act
r ock, t he di f f er ences be t we e n t hem i ndi cat i ng, r espec-
t i vel y, hi gh or low nor mal stress condi t i ons. Bot h t ypes
i mpl y f or mat i on of en- 6chel on f r act ur es ( r egul ar l y
spaced f r act ur es of t he same t ype) at pr e- peak st resses in
i nt act rocks. As shown in r ock by Pol l ar d et al. (1982)
and Gr a ni e r (1985), such en- 6chel on cracks can be
f or med st art i ng f r om t he tip of a par ent crack, i. e. an
i sol at ed pr e- exi st i ng j oi nt in a homoge ne ous r ock sub-
Cr i t er i a f or move me nt on f aul t surfaces 607
mi t t ed t o a s hear mo v e me n t in wel l - def i ned st ress condi -
t i ons. Such a mode l i mpl yi ng stress c onc e nt r a t i on at t he
cr ack t i p can be appl i ed t o t he st r uct ur es in Fig. 3(b) and
expl ai ned in 3(c), whe r e t he f aul t sur f ace showi ng en-
6chel on RO s t r uct ur es appear s t o have f or me d f r om t he
t i p of a pr e- exi st i ng f r act ur e cor r es pondi ng t o t he zone
now showi ng PO s t r uct ur es l i nked t o fri ct i on. Thus field
obs er vat i ons s eem consi st ent wi t h mechani cal dat a. Thi s
RO, PO associ at i on has be e n ver y s el dom obs e r ve d on
t he field, f or r eas ons gi ven l at er . PT st r uct ur es (i f t he P/ T
sur f ace r at i o is a bout 1) coul d be f or me d in t he same
way. A pr obl e m ari ses wi t h t he f r e que nt PT st r uct ur es
whe r e T sur f aces ar e mor e de ve l ope d t han P, as in Fig.
8(a). Thi s coul d be becaus e P and T f r act ur es ar e not
necessar i l y f or me d dur i ng a single shear i ng move me nt .
P f r act ur es coul d be f or me d by compr es s i ve r upt ur e
l i mi t ed by br i dges in any ol der , even i r r egul ar , en-
6chel on f r act ur e set of any ori gi n.
Criteria f or friction on pre- existing j oints
Th e s hear box dat a pr e s e nt e d he r e gi ve good evi dence
f or t he f or ma t i on of PO st r uct ur es f r om f r i ct i on even at
l ow an on an i r r egul ar pr e- exi st i ng j oi nt . Th e t r ansi t i on
obs er ved f r om PO t o PT st r uct ur es ( i r r egul ar t ypes)
coul d be expl ai ned by t he f or ma t i on of s ome ki nd of T
f r act ur es dur i ng f r i ct i on due t o t ensi l e st resses devel op-
ing at t he base of t he P si de of asper i t i es subj ect t o
fri ct i on. Thi s, howe ve r , r emai ns specul at i on. Th e fric-
t i onal ori gi n of t ensi l e f r act ur es cor r es pondi ng t o T
cr i t er i a is cl ear , at l east in t he case of cr escent i c f r act ur es
whe r e He r t zi a n- t ype st resses ar e i nvol ved. On t he ot he r
hand, it has not be e n exper i ment al l y pr ove n t hat RM
st r uct ur es or i gi nat e f r om f r i ct i on on a pr e- exi st i ng j oi nt ,
even if cut t i ng t ool exper i ment s suggest a possi bl e ori gi n
of R shears. One can specul at e t hat RM st r uct ur es coul d
be ge ne r a t e d by t he cont i nui ng r el at i ve mo v e me n t on
RO s t r uct ur e and cor r es pondi ng wear i ng, but in this
case t he f or ma t i on of accr et i on st eps is l i kel y t o occur ,
whi l e t he field exampl es show t hat t he ri sers of macr os-
copi c st eps ar e al ways due t o f r act ur e in r ock. Mor e ove r ,
R f r act ur e di st r i but i on seems muc h mor e i r r egul ar t han
one woul d expect f r om RO st r uct ur es, so t hi s t ype of
f or ma t i on f or RM st r uct ur es seems unl i kel y.
DI SCUSSI ON AND CONCLUSI ON
Th e a bunda nc e of PO, RM and t he i r r egul ar f or ms of
PT s t r uct ur es have be e n not i ced in t he field, as wel l as
t he scarci t y of RO and r egul ar PT ones. Thi s can be
expl ai ned by t he fact t hat t he f or me r ( cor r es pondi ng t o
f r i ct i on on pr e- exi st i ng j oi nt s) ar e mor e f r e que nt l y
f or me d t han t he l at t er ( due t o ne o- r upt ur e ) , becaus e
f r i ct i on does not ne e d such hi gh st ress l evel s as neo-
r upt ur e. But t hat does not i mpl y a s epar at e t ect oni c
phas e, becaus e st ress concent r at i ons i nduci ng neo- r up-
t ur e can occur at t he t i ps of pr e- exi st i ng, non- i nt er con-
nect ed j oi nt s. Th e cor r es pondi ng ge ome t r y is pr oba bl y
not ve r y f r equent .
An i dea of t he a mount of slip i nvol ved on faul t s
i mpl yi ng f r i ct i on on pr e- exi st i ng j oi nt s can be obt ai ned
f r om t he a mount of st r i at ed surfaces. PO and i r r egul ar
PT st r uct ur es i mpl y slips of less t han a c e nt i me t e r , whi l e
slip is gr eat er f or RM st r uct ur es. Some exampl es in
s ands t one showed compl et el y s t r i at ed surfaces cor r e-
spondi ng t o a de c i me t e r slip. Nor ma l st ress de pe nde nc e
is l i kel y onl y in t he case of ne or upt ur e f or t he mos t
r egul ar f or ms of PT st r uct ur es (l ow a , ) and f or RO
s t r uct ur e (hi gh an).
Mi cr osei smi c event s have been i nf er r ed by compar i -
son wi t h exper i ment s dur i ng t he f or ma t i on of PT st ruc-
t ur es in i nt act rocks. Such event s coul d also be ge ne r a t e d
by f r i ct i on, at l east in t he case of He r t zi a n st r uct ur es
i nvol vi ng st i ck-sl i p.
Most of t he exampl es pr e s e nt e d ar e f ound in fine-
gr ai ned s ands t one becaus e of t he pr es ence on faul t s of
nume r ous s econdar y f r act ur es of var i ous kinds. Thi s can
be expl ai ned by t he possi bi l i t y of ext ensi ve i nt r agr anul ar
mi cr o- f r act ur i ng. The a mount of por os i t y pr e s e nt in this
s ands t one encour ages t he f or ma t i on of ext ensi onal frac-
t ur es becaus e of st ress concent r at i ons on por es and at
grai n cont act s ( Dunn 1973). Thus , once mi cr of r act ur es
ar e wel l de ve l ope d, t hr ough- goi ng shear can occur and
f r act ur e st r engt h is decr eas ed. I f por os i t y is ver y l ow, as
in quar t zi t es, one can expect t he f or ma t i on of l ong
t ensi l e f r act ur es whi ch woul d i nhi bi t t he f or ma t i on of
mi nor shears t o a var yi ng degr ee. I n t he s ands t one
des cr i bed, a small a mount of hi ghl y de f or ma bl e mat er i al
in t he mat r i x such as clay mi ner al s or cal ci t e can also hel p
s hear f or mat i on, as t hey f aci l i t at e sliding at grai n bound-
ari es. Ho we v e r , RM st r uct ur es i mpl yi ng a l ot of f r i ct i on
and s econdar y shear f or ma t i on wer e f ound in l ow por os-
i t y r ocks such as gr ani t e or var i ous vol cani c rocks. But
t he best exampl es wer e f ound in faul t s l i nked t o ma j or
st ri ke-sl i p zones whe r e much hi gher devi at or i c st resses
can be expect ed. I n t hese cases mi cr o- f r act ur es ar e
obs e r ve d, t oo, but associ at ed wi t h a cer t ai n a mount of
pl ast i c de f or ma t i on in grains.
Whi l e compar i s on wi t h pr evi ous exper i ment s hel ps
unde r s t a nd t he f or ma t i on mechani s ms of s ome of t hese
st r uct ur es, ot her s will ne e d mor e specific exper i ment s
f or t hei r r econst i t ut i on. Two pr obl ems ar e (i) can secon-
dar y s hear f r act ur es be f or me d by f r i ct i on and (ii) how
do stress and st rai n i nfl uence t he t ype of r upt ur e in
var i ous r ocks, in shear box t est s? Expe r i me nt s must be
car r i ed out on t he same mat er i al as t he equi val ent
s t r uct ur e on t he field, ot her wi s e compar i s ons will be
r e nde r e d i naccur at e becaus e of t he st r ong i nf l uence of
t he physi cal pr oper t i es of t he r ocks i nvol ved on t he t ype
and condi t i ons of r upt ur e.
The r esul t s of exper i ment s , c ombi ne d wi t h accur at e
descr i pt i ve dat a f r om nat ur al faul t s shoul d l ead t o a
be t t e r under s t andi ng of shear - sense cr i t er i a in f r act ur ed
rocks.
Acknowledgements- - I woul d like to t hank an a nonymous r evi ewer ,
Dr P. L. Hancock and Prof. W. Means for all t hei r val uabl e sugges-
t i ons, B. Sanche for t he t hi n sect i ons and G. Garci a for s ome of t he
di agrams. I am i ndebt ed to A. T. P. Plis, Failles et Sismogen~se f or
financial suppor t .
608 J . P . PETIT
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