What is creep?

Creep may be defined as a time-dependent deformation at elevated

temperature and constant stress. It follows, then, that a failure from such a condition is
referred to as a creep failure or, occasionally, a stress rupture. The temperature at which
creep begins depends on the alloy composition. For the common materials used in
superheater and reheater construction, Table I see below! gives the appro"imate
temperatures for the onset of creep. It should be pointed out that the actual operating
stress will, in part, dictate or determine the temperature at which creep begins.
The end of useful service life of the high-temperature components in a boiler the
superheater and reheater tubes and headers, for e"ample! is usually a failure by a
creep or stress-rupture mechanism. The root cause may not be elevated temperature,
as fuel-ash corrosion or erosion may reduce the wall thic#ness so that the onset of
creep and creep failures occur sooner than e"pected.
$owever, regardless of the cause, the failure will e"hibit the characteristics of a creep or
stress rupture. Indeed, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code recogni%es creep
and creep deformation as high-temperature design limitations and provides allowable
stresses for all alloys used in the creep range. &ne of the criteria used in the
determination of these allowable stresses is '( creep e"pansion, or deformation, in
')),))) hours of service. Thus, the code recogni%es that over the operating life, some
creep deformation is li#ely. *nd creep failures do display some deformation or tube
swelling in the immediate region of the rupture.

Figure '. +chematic creep curve. Courtesy ,abcoc# - Wilco".

*t elevated temperatures and stresses, much less than the high-temperature yield
stress, metals undergo permanent plastic deformation called creep. Figure ' shows a
schematic creep curve for a constant load. a plot of the change in length verses time.
The weight or load on the specimen is held constant for the duration of the test. There
are four portions of the curve that are of interest/
*n initial steep rate that is at least partly of elastic origin, from point 0)0 to point
0*0 in Figure '.

This is followed by a region in which the elongation or deformation rate
decreases with time, the so-called transient or primary creep, from region 0*0 to
0,0 of Figure '. The portion from point 0)0 to point 0,0 occurs fairly 1uic#ly.

The ne"t portion of the creep curve is the area of engineering interest, where the
creep rate is almost constant. The portion from 0,0 to 0C0 is nearly linear and
predictable. 2epending on the load or stress, the time can be very long. two
years in a test and several decades in service.

The fourth portion of the creep curve, beyond the constant-creep-rate or linear
region, shows a rapidly increasing creep rate which culminates in failure. 3ven
under constant-load test conditions, the effective stress may actually increase
due to the damage that forms within the microstructure.
Without going into a detailed discussion of the atom movements involved in creep
deformation, suffice it to say that creep deformation occurs by grain-boundary sliding.
That is, ad4acent grains or crystals move as a unit relative to each other. Thus, one of
the microstructural features of a creep failure is little or no obvious deformation to
individual grains along the fracture edge.
The first two stages will not leave any microstructural evidence of creep damage.
+omewhere along the linear portion of Figure ', the first microstructural evidence of
damage appears as individual voids or pores. The location of these first voids or holes
varies, often noted at the 4unction of three or more grains, occasionally at nonmetallic
inclusions. These individual voids grow and lin# to form crac#s several grains long, and
finally failure occurs. The ultimate rupture is by a tensile overload when effective wall
thic#ness is too thin to contain the steam pressure.
+ince creep deformation occurs by grain-boundary sliding, the more grain boundary
area, the easier creep deformation will be. Creep deformation and creep strength are a
grain-si%e sensitive property. Thus a larger grain si%e improves creep strength. For
austenitic stainless steels, +*5'6 T765'$ for e"ample, the code re1uires a grain si%e
of 89 or coarser, to assure ade1uate creep strength. The elevated temperatures where
creep occurs lead to other microstructural changes. Creep damage and microstructural
degradation occur simultaneously. For carbon steels and carbon-':5 molybdenum
steels, iron carbide will decompose into graphite. For the low-alloy steels of T-'' and T-
55, the carbide phase spheroidi%es. Thus, creep failures will include the degraded
microstructures of graphite or spheroidi%ed carbides along with the grain-boundary
voids and crac#s characteristic of these high-temperature, long-time failures.
While creep failures are e"pected for superheaters and reheaters operating at design
conditions, deviations from these parameters will promote early failures. The steam
temperature always varies some from individual tube to tube, and the design allows for
this variability. $owever, when the range of temperatures is larger than accounted for,
the hottest tubes fail sooner than e"pected. * more li#ely cause of premature failure is
the slow increase in tube-metal temperatures due to the formation of the steam-side
scale.
+team reacts with steel to form iron o"ide along the I2 surface of the tube.
The microstructures themselves will show the grain-boundary sliding and the resultant
creep crac#s or voids. For stainless steels, the microstructures are similar in that the
failure is by grain-boundary-sliding and crac# formation.
In a superheater or reheater tube, often the very first sign of creep damage is
longitudinal crac#s in the steam-side scale. *s creep deformation e"pands the tube
diameter, the brittle I2 scale cannot follow the e"pansion. Crac#s develop in an a"ial or
longitudinal direction which is perpendicular to the principle hoop stress. With time, the
tube continues to e"pand, and these crac#s widen. This wide crac# shortens the path
from steam to steel. iron o"ide forms preferentially at the tip of the crac#, as there is less
o"ide thic#ness to protect the steel. and a cusp forms within the steel tube. The cusp
acts as a notch or a stress raiser, reducing the local wall thic#ness. Creep voids form
here, often before any other obvious grain-boundary damage appears elsewhere within
the microstructure. With continued high-temperature operation, creep crac#s grow from
the cusp and ultimately wea#en the cross section to the point where failure occurs.
Creep failures are characteri%ed by/
o bulging or blisters in the tube

o thic#-edged fractures often with very little obvious ductility

o longitudinal 0stress crac#s0 in either or both I2 and &2 o"ide scales

o e"ternal or internal o"ide-scale thic#nesses that suggest higher-than-
e"pected temperatures

o intergranular voids and crac#s in the microstructure


Editor's note: +ome ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code re1uirements may have
changed because of advances in material technology and:or actual e"perience. The
reader is cautioned to refer to the latest edition and addenda of the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code for current re1uirements.

Table I
Initial Creep Temperature
For superheaters and reheaters, the scale that forms is essentially magnetite alloyed
with chromium, molybdenum, manganese, and silicon from the alloy steels of T-'' and
T-55. For waterwalls, the iron o"ide may be contaminated with impurities from the boiler
water and corrosion debris from the pre-boiler circuits of condenser and feedwater
heaters. In any event, the thermal conductivity of the steamside scale is about ;( of the
thermal conductivity of the steel tube. Thus, an effective insulating layer forms and
prevents proper cooling of the tube metal by the steam. The net effect of the scale is to
raise the tubemetal temperature. 2epending on the scale thic#ness, which is dependent
on the time and temperature of operation, tube-metal temperature increases of 5; -
9;
o
F are li#ely. +uch a large increase raises tubemetal temperatures beyond the safe
design range. These elevated temperatures result in increased creep deformation rates,
more rapid o"idation and corrosion thinner walls and higher stress! and hasten the
onset of creep failures. *n increase of <)
o
F from ')=)
o
F to ''))
o
F for e"ample! will
decrease creep life by >)(. *n increase of <)
o
F due to steam-side scale formation in a
superheater or reheater is not unusual.
Carbon steel....................... ?))
o
F
Carbon @ ':5 Aolybdenum............ ?;)
o
F
'-':= Chromium-':5 Aolybdenum...... >;)
o
F
5-' := Chromium-' Aolybdenum....... ')))
o
F
+tainless steel.................... ');)
o
F
7riority ' items should be considered for inspection with in the ne"t 9,;)) hours or ;)
thermal cycles of operation.
Bocations with no #nown or documented inspection history and are considered high-ris#
areas associated with steam lea#s, crac#s and ruptures. i.e. boiler outlet connection.
wye bloc# : lateral fittings. longitudinal seam welds traffic areas!. attemporator spools.
drain penetrations
Steam Boiler Inspections Using Remote Field Testing
)6:)':5)''
By Mynor Celis, 7.3ng, Cussell D23 +ystems
Forced outages of steam boilers due to tube lea#ages remain the leading cause of lost
production in plants. 2ue to hundreds, if not thousands of linear feet of pipe, there is a
high potential for failure without notice. &ne of the biggest challenges for maintenance
and operations personnel is the prevention of tube failures in boilers and heat
e"changers without causing significant loss to the company. When e"cursions from
normal operating conditions occur, the 1uestion must be raised, Eif our boiler tubes were
damaged by the e"cursion for e"ample, overheating, or a condenser tube lea#!, how
do we find out if we have a problem that could lead to failure?F
,oiler operation always involves harsh wor#ing conditions. &n the fuel side of tubes,
high operating temperatures and corrosive by-products from burning fossil fuels or solid
waste can seriously degrade the life-e"pectancy of the boiler tubes. &n the water:steam
side, there is a high potential for o"idi%ation of boiler tubes due to high temperature
steam and the corrosive action of chemicals in the water supply. These conditions may
cause metal to overheat, corrosive wall thinning, and locali%ed pitting, any or all of which
can lead to premature failure of the tubes, possible in4uries to personnel, damage to
ad4acent tubes and a forced outage.
In spite of these adverse operating conditions, boilers have a life e"pectancy upwards of
6) years and most premature failures are due to conditions that ma#e operational
variables deviate from e"pected parameters.
Industrial best practice is to inspect all tubes periodically, chec#ing to ensure that
mechanical properties of the materials are intact and that material thic#ness is within
normal e"pectations. * proper and rigorous inspection regimen will go a long way to
reduce the probability of premature boiler failures.
Thomas C. +chmidt of +hell &il headed the initial development of the remote field
testing CFT! techni1ue for measuring oil well casings. *fter that, several tools have
entered the mar#et using CFT for multiple speciali%ed applications.
The primary benefit of this techni1ue is that it does not re1uire contact with the ob4ect
under test to measure material thic#ness and condition. *dditionally, a high-1uality
inspection can be assured without re1uiring couplant and with minimal surface
preparation. CFT also shows high sensitivity to detection of defects on the I2 or &2 of
the tube in 1uestion and can measure through non-ferromagnetic coatings, linings and
scale.
There are two approaches to doing maintenance of any #ind/ a preventative approach
or a corrective approach pro-active or reactive!. This holds true with boiler inspections.
* preventative approach see#s to loo# at the long-term wear-and-tear tendencies on the
e1uipment, with an eye towards improving operations through improvements to the fuel-
air mi"ture, flow balancing and the creation of a maintenance specification for tube
repair or replacement. Gnderta#ing a corrective approach loo#s to inspect the boiler
after a failure to loo# for collateral damage and to ensure that the failure mechanism has
not affected other areas in the boiler.
&f the two, the former is more advantageous from the perspective of being performed
before failure, within the conte"t of the firmHs long-range operational plan, resulting in a
reduced effect to the operations budget and significantly reduced time lost due to
une"pected outages.
Longterm o!er"eating #creep$: This type of failure occurs when the operating
temperature of the boiler tubes e"ceeds the operational limits for an e"tended period of
time. These limits are variable based on the tube si%e and thic#ness, operating
pressures, as well as the tube locations in the boiler and construction materials.
&verheating leading to creep damage can be caused by internal deposits, which reduce
flow through the tubes or, more commonly, sudden spi#es in operating temperature due
to increasing load or issues with the temperature control. These reduce the resistance
of the tubes.
Figure % Longterm
o!er"eating #creep$
How to detect creep damage: 2uring the period of long-term overheating, the surface of
the tube will develop blisters at the locations sub4ect to the highest temperature and will
develop elongated a"ial crac#s. ,oth of these failures will reduce overall tube thic#ness
and material properties of the tube. *dditionally, thic#, dar#, brittle o"ides will appear on
the internal and e"ternal surfaces of the tube. *ll of these conditions can be detected
through CFT as the changes in the tubes electrical permeability can be easily
measured.
How to prevent creep damage: &ften, when boilers are operating outside of standard
operational parameters, it goes unrecorded or unnoticed by the operator. 3ither of these
issues can lead to premature failure, as the degradation of the tubeHs material properties
is not being accurately recorded. *s such, it is necessary to run periodic performance
evaluations on the boiler. 3nsuring fre1uent calibration of the thermostats is the best
way to prevent une"pected temperature spi#es and to help ensure that the unit is
warmed up in accordance with the manufacturerHs recommended specifications.
Fre1uent sampling of the unitHs feed water supplyIideally once per shiftIwill help to
ensure that the feed water 1uality is within the manufacturerHs recommended
parameters. Cegular internal flushing of the boiler tubes will ensure removal of any
material deposits clogging the tubes. *ny deposits must be measured fre1uently, and
chemical cleaning is recommended when the deposit density e"ceeds '; g:s1.ft.
Cleaning becomes mandatory as the density reaches 6) g:s1:ft. Fre1uent drum
inspections are mandatory according to the maintenance manual of the manufacturer.
2epending on the hours of service, it is necessary to determine how well the e1uipment
is wor#ing, the effectiveness of the water treatment and that there are no failure
mechanisms affecting the internal surface, mainly in the area of water-steam interface
line.
Bastly, it is necessary that all spare parts used in maintenance or repairs are correct to
the manufacturerHs specifications. It should be noted that when any tube fails as a result
of creep damage, there will be a rupture with slightly rounded edges and 4agged edges
with crac#s or brea#s in the vicinity of the rupture. * thic#, fragile layer of magnetite will
appear near the failure, indicative of long-term overheating.
S"ort Term &!er"eating: Aost often, these failures occur when the tubes are left
without sufficient cooling and occur in short order. Failures caused by short-term
overheating fre1uently occur at the top of the tubes or close to the steam collector. If the
failure occurs in a single tube and if surrounding tubes have no appearance of
alteration, it suggests that the failed tube was at least partially obstructed, causing the
temperature to rapidly e"ceed material limits, causing an e"plosion or lea# in the tube.
Figure ' S"ortterm
o!er"eating
How to detect short-term overheating: *s these failures occur rapidly, it is recommended
that the tubes be inspected visually through the inspection ports during start-up. If red
spots suddenly appear on a tube, it is a signal that the tube may be plugged. This type
of inspection is necessary after chemical cleaning, tube replacement or re-
commissioning after a long period of dormancy.
How to prevent short-term overheating: *s a result of the rapid occurrence of this type
of failure, it is not readily detectable through non-destructive testing methods. The best
way to prevent it is to flush the tubes with water to ensure all obstructions are removed
prior to startup and by ensuring that the purge and bottom headers are open as the
pressure is increased. This type of failure can be recogni%ed by the longitudinal rupture,
smooth edges and no loss of wall thic#ness as the rupture.
&(ygen Corrosion: &"ygen corrosion occurs in a boiler due to small corroded regions
which acts as an anode to the rest of the boiler, causing further corrosion. This process
is e"acerbated by the presence of dissolved o"ygen in the boiler system. Ideally, the
boiler surface would be covered with a protective layer of iron o"ide, preventing the
attac# of free o"ygen in the water supply. The small pits that result from o"ygen
corrosion can cause significant stress, and will result in the formation of crac#s in the
region
Figure ) &(ygen
corrosion
How to detect oxgen corrosion: CFT is one of the most effective methods used to
detect o"ygen corrosion if it is located at the fire side. $igh tool sensitivity and accuracy
J':?F diam.! allows for the early detection of initial defects, providing data necessary to
determine a repair or replacement protocol before the tube fails. Gltrasonic testing GT!
can also be used, but is limited by significantly slower inspection time and the fact that
')) percent coverage is impossible. The latter increases the ris# that serious damage to
tubes could go unnoticed.
How to prevent oxgen corrosion: The most effective way to prevent o"ygen corrosion
in boiler tubes is to prevent o"ygen from entering the system in the first place.
&"ygen enters a boiler system primarily through three means/ air can be trapped during
normal operation when internal pressure is less than the ambient atmospheric pressure.
when the system is left open for maintenance. and as a result of molecular dissociation
of water in the system. &ther critical factors are the presence of ambient moisture in the
system and, the loss of a passivation layer after chemical cleaning. 3liminating these
factors can successfully prevent o"ygen corrosion. It is recommended that all metal
surfaces be #ept dry using positive-pressure inert gas, moisture-absorbing materials, or
a continuous flow of dry, dehumidified K6) percent! air.
Caustic Corrosion: Caustic corrosion refers to the corrosive action of sodium
hydro"ide with a metal and is restricted to/ water-cooled tubes in regions of high heat
fluctuation. regions with heat transfer in welding rings or other devices that disrupt flow.
hori%ontal or inclined tubes. places with thic# internal deposits reducing flow rates. This
penetration may be filled with dense corrosion products which sometimes contain
magnetite crystals. Aost often, the metal surface has a smooth contour and laminations.
+odium hydro"ide is added to boiler water in non-corrosive concentrations. however
other physical factors tend to concentrate it further, leading to the production of
corrosive al#aline in the boiler.
Figure * Caustic
corrosion
*d by websave L Close This
*d
How to detect caustic corrosion: Caustic corrosion is easily detected using non-
destructive testing methods, because the affected area is found with reduced wall
thic#ness. If this is in its early stage there may not be any blister, but if the thic#ness is
reduced there is li#ely to be a blister or deformation in the tube. Cemote field testing is
the most suitable method. These tools have high sensitivity and inspection speed,
allowing for rapid detection of corrosive damage. GT can also be used, once the
affected region has been located.
How to prevent caustic corrosion: When sodium hydro"ide is presentIeither by itself,
or as a salt-producing al#alineIwith a concentration mechanism, there e"ists the
possibility of caustic corrosion. To reduce the li#elihood of caustic corrosion damage in a
boiler, the amount of free sodium hydro"ide available to produce al#aline salts in the
condenser water must be controlled at the purification stage. This will prevent nucleate
boiling, and the formations of water-level lines. 7roper purging will prevent the formation
of sludge deposits.
+cidic Corrosion: There are two necessary conditions for this type of failure to occur/
the boiler must be operated with a p$ below normal parameters, and there must be a
means to concentrate the acid-producing salts that are responsible for the low-p$
environment. If both of these conditions are met, then the protective layer of iron o"ide
is dissolved, and the bare metal is left unprotected.
Figure , +cidic corrosion
How to detect acidic corrosion: Corrosion of this type primarily results in metal loss on
the interior surface of the tube. +imilar to caustic corrosion, areas affected by a low p$
environment tend to have smooth edges and lamination. The difference between the
two is that the region affected by acidic corrosion is often covered with iron o"ide.
Cemote field testing has high sensitivity, and can detect minimal corrosion accurately
from ':?F diameter, ma#ing it one of the most effective ways to detect acidic corrosion.
The Gltrasonic testing to determine the e"tent of wall loss however this can only be
effectively utili%ed once the affected region is #nown.
How to prevent acidic corrosion: Two ways e"ist to reduce the probability of acidic
corrosion in the boiler. The first involves reducing the availability of free acid, or acid
producing salts in the boiler, avoiding ma#e up water with Bow 7h. The second involves
eliminating the means to concentrate the acid in the boiler, such as bubble formations,
water-side deposits, and water-level lines. This can be achieved through regular, proper
purging of the boiler.
Stress Corrosion: +tress corrosion is caused by a combination of two separate factors/
tensile stresses on the pipe caused by internal pressure, or residual stresses induced
by improperly-applied heat treatment, or tube bending. and a corrosive material such as
sodium hydro"ide or chlorine. This combination results in crac#ing near the stressed
region. +tress corrosion usually occurs near welds, or tube bends.
Figure - Stress corrosion
How to detect stress corrosion: +tress corrosion displays as crac#ing near welds
sub4ect to tensile stresses. While stress corrosion crac#ing can be difficult to see, it can
be detected visually. Bi1uid penetrant inspection provides a surer means of detection.
*dditionally, ultrasonic testing or radiographic testing can detect stress corrosion
crac#ing.
How to prevent stress corrosion: *nnealing will relieve residual stresses from welding or
bending. *dding phosphates to the operating environment will help prevent the
formation of free sodium, reducing the concentration of corrosion products.
.ydrogen /amage: When chemicals are added to boiler water to balance p$, an
electrochemical reaction can occur, releasing free hydrogen atoms into the
environment. This can cause decarburi%ation, embrittlement and the formation of
molecular hydrogen and methane in the steel. $ydrogen damage is restricted to
evaporator tubes with pre-e"isting corrosion problems. $ydrogen atoms diffuse into the
steel of the boiler tubes. +ome of these atoms bond with either each other, or the
carbon in the steel, forming molecular hydrogen or methane. These gasses accumulate
until the pressure causes the separation of the metal along the granular borders,
producing inter-granular micro-crac#s. This in turn reduces the mechanical strength of
the tube, which causes it to burst. *ny tubes suspected of failing due to hydrogen
damage should have samples ta#en and sent for metallographic analysis in a lab.
Figure 0 .ydrogen
damage
How to detect hdrogen damage: $ydrogen damage is hard to detect visually, e"cept in
the advanced stages when the pipe has visible crac#s. Cemote field testing is highly
effective in detecting hydrogen damage because the changes in the electrical properties
of the material due to hydrogen damage are readily detected.
How to prevent hdrogen damage: The two critical factors in reducing a boilerHs
susceptibility to hydrogen damage are the amount of hydrogen available, and the
means to increase its concentration. 7roper chemical treatment of feed water, combined
with a stringent p$ control system is the best way to prevent hydrogen damage.
1rap"iti2ation: Mraphiti%ation is caused by small structural changes of low-carbon
steels at moderate temperatures over e"tended periods of time. Mraphiti%ation causes
the decomposition of pearlite in ferrite, wea#ening the steel. The e"tent of the
decomposition is dependent on the temperature. This phenomenon generally occurs
due to long-term overheating, during which, the graphite nodules are lin#ed to each
other, reducing the resistance to internal pressure, causing the metal to tear.
Figure 3 1rap"iti2ation
How to detect graphiti!ation: Mraphiti%ation occurs internally, with the graphite
detaching from the steel reducing the total wall thic#ness. *s with hydrogen damage,
the electrical properties of the material changes when graphiti%ation is present. For this
reason, remote field testing is the most effective means of detection.
How to prevent graphiti!ation: The primary concern with respect to the susceptibility to
embrittlement due to graphiti%ation is tube 1uality. Bow carbon content steel is more
susceptible to graphiti%ation and long-term overheating is liable to e"acerbate the
problem. * good metal passivation program and treating the boiler feed water with
phosphate will reduce the probability of graphiti%ation.
Fire Side Corrosion: Aost fuel components can cause corrosion on boiler tubes. 2ue
to incomplete combustion, deposits of combustion residue can change the heat transfer
characteristics with potentially severe effects on system efficiency. Aost solid fuels
contain ') to 5) percent ash that remains in the boiler after combustion, leading to lost
heat transfer and corrosion. While li1uid fuels do not e"ceed 5 percent ash, they do
contain elements such as vanadium and sodium.
Figure 4 Fireside
corrosion
How to detect "ire side corrosion: When the surface of the boiler tubes are e"posed to
combustion gases, the damaged area of the surface will change color. Bong-term
corrosion of this type affects the permeability and conductivity of boiler tubes, as well as
causing pitting.
How to prevent "ire side corrosion: Fuel selection is of primary concern in addressing
the issue of fire-side corrosion. Fuels should be selected containing minimal corrosive
agents such as sulfur, sodium and calcium. +econd, optimi%ing the combustion 1uality
through control of temperature, fuel-air mi"ture, and air balancing will reduce the ash
deposits in tubes. Thermocouples should be installed throughout the boiler to indicate
when heat transfer is outside optimal operating range, which could be indicative of ash
deposits on the tubes. Third, continuous cleaning programs should be implemented in
the boiler.
The probability of steam boiler failure is dependent on numerous operational and
maintenance factors. The implementation of preventative inspection and tube profile
measurements will help to ensure that boilers are active for their e"pected 6)-year
average operational lives. *n active regime of preventative maintenance will be effective
at reducing the financial impact of une"pected shut-downs due to boiler tube failures.
&perations staff need to be trained in preventative maintenance procedures and
processes. &ften, when boiler tubes undergo catastrophic failure, ad4acent tubes are
often damaged as well, increasing the outage time. 7eriodic inspections and follow-up
preventative maintenance is necessary to ensure the boiler system remains in good
repair, and potentially e"tend its life-e"pectancy. With this in mind, we can conclude that
periodic boiler inspection is a vital part of any maintenance regime, and that remote field
testing is the optimal means for early detection of most causes of boiler tube failure.
*uthor/ Aynor Celis, currently is Aar#eting Aanager for Batin *merica for Cussell D23
+ystems, 3dmonton, *,. Canada, $e has previous e"perience as operation manager in
a coal-fired power plant, having responsibility for the operation of the boiler, water and
wastewater systems, high and low boiler steam pressure. $e is a mechanical and
electrical engineer with A,* speciali%ation.