CHAPTER ONE

Assessment of
Groundwater and Surface
Water Resources






1






1.1 Hydrologic Cycle


The hydrological cycle is the most fundamental principle of groundwater hydrology.
The driving force of the circulation is derived from the radiant energy received from the sun.

Water evaporates and travels into the air and becomes part of a cloud. It falls down to earth as
precipitation. Then it evaporates again. This happens repeatedly in a never-ending cycle. This
hydrologic cycle never stops. Water keeps moving and changing from a solid to a liquid to a gas,
repeatedly.

Precipitation creates runoff that travels over the ground surface and helps to fill lakes and rivers. It
also percolates or moves downward through openings in the soil and rock to replenish aquifers
under the ground. Some places receive more precipitation than others do with an overview balance.
These areas are usually close to oceans or large bodies of water that allow more water to evaporate
and form clouds. Other areas receive less. Often these areas are far from seawater or near mountains.
As clouds move up and over mountains, the water vapor condenses to form precipitation and freezes.
Snow falls on the peaks. Figure 1.1 shows a schematic representation of the hydrological cycle.

2

Figure 1.1 Schematic Representation of the Hydrological Cycle

In recent years there has been considerable attention paid to the concept of the world water
balance, and the most recent estimates of these data emphasize the ubiquitous nature of
groundwater in hydrosphere. With reference to Table 1.1, if we remove from consideration the 94%
of the earths water that rests in the oceans and seas at high levels of salinity, then groundwater
accounts for about two-thirds of the freshwater resources of the world.

Table 1.1 Estimate of the Water Balance of the World
Parameter Surface area
(Km
2
)*10
6
Volume
(Km
2
)*10
6
Volume
(%)
Equivalent
depth (m)*
Resident time
Oceans and seas
Lakes and reservoirs
Swamps
River channels
Soil moisture
Groundwater
Icecaps and glaciers
Atmospheric water
Biospheric water
361
1.55
< 0.1
< 0.1
130
130
17.8
504
< 0.1
1370
0.13
< 0.01
< 0.01
0.07
60
30
0.01
< 0.01
94
< 0.01
< 0.01
< 0.01
< 0.01
4
2
< 0.01
< 0.01
2500
0.25
0.007
0.003
0.13
120
60
0.025
0.001
~ 4,000 years
~ 10 years
1-10 years
~ 2 weeks
2 weeks 1 year
~ 2 weeks 10,000
years
10-1000 years
~ 10 days
~ 1 week
* Computed as though storage were uniformly distributed over the entire surface of the earth.


Hence, the water resources include all forms of occurrence of water including salt water and fossil
groundwater. An interesting distinction which can be made is between blue and green water. Blue
water, the water in rivers, lakes and shallow aquifers, has received all the attention from water
3
resources planners and engineers. Green water, the water in the unsaturated soil responsible for the
production of biomass has been largely neglected but it is green water that is responsible for 60% of
the world food production and all of the biomass produced in forests and pasture. It is this resource
which is most sensitive to land degradation. Fossil water, the deep aquifers that contain non-
renewable water, should be considered a mineral resource which can be used once at the cost of
foregoing future use.


1.2 Groundwater Resources

Groundwater can be split up into fossil groundwater and renewable (meteoric) groundwater.
Fossil groundwater should be considered a finite mineral resource, which can be used only once, after
which it is finished. Renewable groundwater is groundwater that takes an active part in the
hydrological cycle. The latter means that the residence time of the water in the sub-surface has an
order of magnitude relevant for human planning, say less than a hundred years. This criterion is
clearly open to debate. Geologists, that are used to working with time scales of millions of years
would only consider groundwater as fossil if it has a residence time over a millions of years. A
hydrologist might use time-scale close to that. However, a water resources planner should use a time-
scale much closer to the human dimension.

In our definition, the renewable groundwater takes active part in the hydrological cycle and hence is
"blue water" as mentioned before. In this sense, groundwater is (becomes) surface water and surface
water is (was) groundwater.

Two zones can be distinguished in which water occurs in the ground:

The saturated zone,
The unsaturated zone.

For the hydrologist both zones are important links and storage devices in the hydrological cycle: the
unsaturated zone stores the "green water", whereas the saturated zone stores the "blue" groundwater.
For the engineer the importance of each zone depends on the field of interest. An agricultural
engineer is principally interested in the unsaturated zone, where the necessary combination of soil, air
and water occurs for a plant to live. The water resources engineer is mainly interested in the
groundwater which occurs and flows in the saturated zone (see Figure 1.2).

4

Figure 1.2 A schematic cross-section showing the typical distribution of subsurface waters in a
simple unconfined aquifer setting, highlighting the three common subdivisions of the unsaturated
zone and the saturated zone below the water table.


The process of water entering into the ground is called infiltration. Downward transport of water in
the unsaturated zone is called percolation, whereas the upward transport in the unsaturated zone is
called capillary rise. The outflow from the groundwater to surface water is called seepage.

The types of openings (voids or pores) in which groundwater occurs is an important property of the
subsurface formation. Three types are generally distinguished:

1. Pores, openings between individual particles as in sand and gravel. Pores are generally
interconnected and allow capillary flow for which Darcy's law can be applied.
2. Fractures, crevices or joints in hard rock which have developed from breaking of the rock.
The pores may vary from super capillary size to capillary size. Only for the latter situation
application of Darcy's law is possible. Water in these fractures is known as fissure or fault
water.
3. Solution channels and caverns in limestone (karst water), and openings resulting from gas
bubbles in lava. These large openings result in a turbulent flow of groundwater which cannot
be described with Darcy's law.

The porosity n of the subsurface formation is that part of its volume which consists of openings:


volume total
voids of volume
n = (1.1)
5
Approximate properties such as field capacity and wilting point are used in the hydrological and
agricultural literature. Field capacity is the volumetric moisture content left in the medium after it
has drained under gravity from saturation for a period of two days (definitions vary), and the wilting
point is the volumetric moisture content which is just low enough so that any plants growing in the
medium will fail to transpire, so will wilt and die.

When water is drained by gravity from saturated material, only a part of the total volume is released.
This portion is known as specific yield. The water not drained is called specific retention and the
sum of specific yield and specific retention is equal to the porosity (see Figure 1.3)



Figure 1.3 Specific Yield and Specific Retention

In fine material the forces that retain water against the force of gravity are high due to the small pore
size. Hence, the specific retention od fine-grained material (silt or clay) is larger than of coarse
material (sand or gravel).

Groundwater is the water which occurs in the saturated zone. The study of the occurrence and
movement of groundwater is called groundwater is called groundwater hydrology or geohydrology.
The hydraulic properties of a water-bearing formation are not only determined by the porosity but
also by the interconnection of the pores and the pore size. In this respect the subsurface formations
are classified as follows:

1. Aquifer, which is a ground-water reservoir, composed of geologic units that are saturated
with water and sufficiently permeable to yield water in a usable quantity to wells and springs.
Sand and gravel deposits, sandstone, limestone, and fractured, crystalline rocks are examples
of geological units that form aquifers. Aquifers provide two important functions: (1) they
transmit ground water from areas of recharge to areas of discharge, and (2) they provide a
storage medium for useable quantities of ground water. The amount of water a material can
hold depends upon its porosity. The size and degree of interconnection of those openings
(permeability) determine the materials ability to transmit fluid.

2. Aquiclude is composed of rock or sediment that acts as a barrier to groundwater flow.
Aquicludes are made up of low porosity and low permeability rock/sediment such as shale or
clay. Aquicludes have normally good storage capacity but low transmitting capacity.


6
3. Aquitard is a less permeable layer, not capable of transmitting water in horizontal direction,
but allowing considerable vertical flow (e.g. shale or clay).

4. Aquifuge is impermeable rock neither containing nor transmitting water (e.g. granite layers).



1.2.1 Types of Aquifers

For a description or mathematical treatment of groundwater flow the geological formation can be
schematized into an aquifer system, consisting of various layers with distinct different hydraulic
properties. The aquifers are simplified into one of the following types:

1. Unconfined Aquifer is one in which a water table varies in undulating form and in slope,
depending on areas of recharge and discharge, pumpage from wells, and permeability. Rises
and falls in the water table correspond to changes in the volume of water in storage within an
aquifer see Figure 1.4. Contour maps and profiles of the water table can be prepared from
elevations of water in wells that tap the aquifer to determine the quantities of water available
and their distribution and movement. A special case of an unconfined aquifer involves
perched water bodies, as illustrated by Figure 1.4. This occurs wherever a groundwater
body is separated from the main groundwater by a relatively impermeable stratum of small
areal extent and by the zone of aeration above the main body of groundwater. Clay lenses in
sedimentary deposits often have shallow perched water bodies overlying them. Wells tapping
these sources yield only temporary or small quantities of water.

2. Confined Aquifers also known as artesian or pressure aquifers, occur where
groundwater is confined under pressure greater than atmospheric by overlying relatively
impermeable strata. In a well penetrating such an aquifer, the water level will rise above the
bottom of the confining bed, as shown by the artesian and flowing wells of Figure 1.4. Water
enters a confined aquifer in an area where the confining bed rises to the surface; where the
confining bed ends underground, the aquifer becomes unconfined. A region supplying water
to a confined area is known as a recharge area; water may also enter by leakage through a
confining bed. Rises and falls of water in wells penetrating confined aquifers result primarily
from changes in pressure rather than changes in storage volumes. Hence, confined aquifers
display only small changes in storage and serve primarily as conduits for conveying water
from recharge areas to locations of natural or artificial discharge.


Figure 1.4 Schematic Cross-Section of Aquifer Types
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3. Leaky Aquifers are completely confined or unconfined occur less frequently than do leaky,
or semi-confined, aquifers. These are a common feature in alluvial valleys, plains, or former
lake basins where a permeable stratum is overlain or underlain by a semi-pervious aquitard or
semi-confining layer. Pumping from a well in a leaky aquifer removes water in two ways: by
horizontal flow within the aquifer and by vertical flow through the aquitard into the aquifer
(see Figure 1.5).



Figure 1.5 Different types of aquifers; A. Confined aquifer, B. Unconfined Aquifer, C. and D.
Leaky aquifers, E. Multi-layered leaky aquifer system.

8
1.2.2 Groundwater Flow

The theory on groundwater movement originates from a study by the Frenchman Darcy, first
published in 1856. Darcys result is of fundamental importance and remains at the heart of almost all
groundwater flow calculations.

Darcy discovered that the discharge Q of water through a column of sand is proportional to the cross
sectional area A of the sand column, and to the difference in piezometric head between the ends of
the column, h1 h2, and inversely proportional to the length of the column L. That is:


L
h h
KA Q
2 1

= (1.2)

Darcys experiment is shown schematically in Figure 1.6. The constant of proportionality K is known
as the hydraulic conductivity [LT
1
]. The implication here is that the specific discharge is proportional
to the applied force. Darcys experiments were one-dimensional. In this section, we generalize the
results of the experiments to give Darcys Law in three dimensions.

Figure 1.6 A schematic diagram of Darcys experiment

Rather than referring to the total discharge Q, it is often more convenient to standardize the
discharge by considering the volume flux of water through the column, i.e. the discharge across a unit
area of the porous medium. In the context of groundwater, the volume flux is called the specific
discharge q [LT
1
] and is given simply by Q/ A. Darcys result can then be written in terms of the
specific discharge and the difference in head between the ends of the column.


L
h h
K
A
Q
q
1 2

= = (1.3)
The fraction
L
h h
1 2

is called the average hydraulic gradient over the length of the column. As L
tends to zero, the average hydraulic gradient becomes an increasingly close approximation to the
point value of the derivative of head with respect to distance x.

Darcys experimental result then becomes:

dx
dh
K q = (1.4)
which describes Darcys Law at any point in the porous medium. The spatial derivative of head dh/dx
is called the hydraulic gradient at that point. There are two important points to note:

If the hydraulic gradient is positive, the specific discharge is negative. This reflects the fact
that the groundwater moves from high to low head. So, for example, since the water table
in Figure 1.7 slopes upwards away from the origin (i.e. dh/dx > 0), the water moves back
towards it (i.e. q < 0).
9


Figure 1.7

Although we have referred to Darcys Law at a point, specific discharge, hydraulic
conductivity and hydraulic gradient can be defined only as averages taken over a volume of
rock. The assumption implicit in everything that follows is that this volume is small in
comparison with the scale of any problem under consideration. The volume will vary in size
depending upon the scale of the problem. For example, at the scale of a study in the
laboratory the value of hydraulic conductivity at a point will be taken as an average over a
few cubic centimeters, whereas at the regional scale the point hydraulic conductivity may be
an average taken over hundreds of cubic meters which may include a variety of different
rock formations.


However, the actual velocity
act
v of a fluid particle is much higher because only the effective pore
space
e
n is available for transport, thus

e
act
n
q
v = (1.5)
The effective porosity
e
n is smaller than the porosity n , as the pores that do not contribute to the
transport are excluded (dead-end pores). The actual velocity is important in water quality problems, to
determine the transport of contaminants.


1.2.3 Groundwater as a Storage Medium


For the water resources engineer, groundwater is a very important water resource for the following
reasons:

It is reliable resource, especially in climates with a pronounced dry season.
It is a bacteriological safe resource, provided pollution is controlled.
It is often available in situ (wide-spread occurrence).
It may supply water at a time that surface water resources are limited.
It is not affected by evaporation loss, if deep enough.
There is a large storage capacity.
It can be easily managed.

It is also has a number of disadvantages:

It is a strongly limited resource; extractable quantities are often low as compared to surface
water resources.
Groundwater recovery is generally expensive as a result of pumping costs.
Groundwater, if phreatic, is very sensitive to pollution.
Groundwater recovery may have serious impact on land subsidence or salinization.
10
Especially, in dry climate the existence of underground storage of water is of extreme importance. The
water stored in the subsoil becomes available in two ways. One way is by artificial withdrawal
(pumping) the other is by natural seepage to the surface water.

The latter is an important link in the hydrological cycle. Whereas in the wet season the runoff is
dominant by surface runoff, in the dry season the runoff is almost entirely fed by seepage from
groundwater (base flow). Thus the groundwater component acts as a reservoir which retards the
runoff from the wet season rainfall and smoothes out the shape of the hydrograph.

A recession curve, which is a useful method for the evaluation of surface water resources in the dry
season, shows the variation of base flow with time during periods of little or no rainfall over a
drainage basin (see Figure 1.8). In essence it is a measure of the drainage rate of groundwater
storage from the basin. If large, highly permeable aquifers are contained within drainage area, the
base flow will be sustained even through prolonged droughts; if the aquifers are small and of low
permeability, the base flow will decrease relatively rapidly and may even cease.

The baseflow recession equation is:


at
o
e Q Q

= (1.6)

where Q is the flow at some time t after the recession started (L
3
/T;m
3
/s)

o
Q is the flow at the start of the recession (L
3
/T; m
3
/s)
a is the recession constant for the basin (1/T; d
-1
)
t is the time since the recession began (T; d)


Figure 1.8 Typical annual hydrograph for a river with a long dry summer season





11
1.3 Surface Water Resources

Surface water resources are water resources that are visible to the eye. They are mainly the result of
overland runoff of rain water, but surface water resources can also origin from groundwater. Surface
water is linked to groundwater resources through the processes of infiltration (from surface water to
groundwater) and seepage (from groundwater to surface water). Surface water occurs in two kinds of
water bodies:

Water bodies, such as rivers, canals, estuaries and streams.
Stagnant water bodies, such as lakes, reservoirs, pools, tanks, etc.

The first group of water bodies consists of conveyance links, whereas the second group consists of
storage media. Together they add up to a surface water system.

The amount of water available in storage media is rather straightforward as long as a relation
between pond level and storage is known. The surface water available in channels is more difficult to
determine since the water flows. The water resources of a channel are defined as the total amount of
water that passes through the channel over a given period of time (e.g. a year, a season, a month).
In a given cross-section of a channel the total available amount of surface water runoff R over a time
step t is defined as the average over time of the discharge Q.

=
t t
t
dt Q
t
R
1
(1.7)

The discharge Q is generally determined on the basis of water level recordings in combination with a
stage discharge relation curve, called a rating curve. A unique relationship between water level and
river discharge is usually obtained in a stretch of the river where the river bed is stable and the flow is
slow and uniform, i.e. the velocity pattern does not change in the direction of flow. Another suitable
place is at a calm pool, just upstream of a rapid. Such a situation may also be created artificially in a
stretch of the river (e.g. with non-uniform flow) by building a control structure (threshold) across
the river bed. The rating curve established at the gauging station has to be updated regularly,
because scour and sedimentations of the river bed and river banks may change the stage discharge
relation, particularly after a flood.

The rating curve can often be represented adequately by an equation of the form:

b
o
H H a Q ) ( = (1.8)

Where Q is the discharge in (m
3
/s), H is the water level in the river (m), H
o
is the water level at zero
flow, and a and b are constants. The value of H
o
is determined by trial and error. The values of and b
are found by a least square fit using the measured data, or by a plot on a logarithmic paper and the
fit of a straight line.

Equation 1.8 is compatible with the Manning formula where the cross-sectional area A, and the
hydraulic radius R are functions of (H-H
o
).

S R
n
A
Q
3
2
= (1.9)

Consequently, it can be shown that the coefficient b in equation 1.8 should have a value of 1.59 in a
rectangular channel, a value of 1.69 in a trapezoidal channel with 1:1 side-slopes, a value of 2.16 in a
parabolic channel, and a value of 2.67 in a triangular channel.

12
To illustrate the trial and error procedure in determining the value of H
o
, a plot of data with H
o
=0 has
been added. It can be seen that the value of H
o
particularly affects the determination of low flow.

For the methods of measuring water levels and flows one should refer to the lectures on Hydrometry.
However, making use of the rating curve, a time series of water levels can be transformed into runoff
series.

Finally, the total water resources of a catchment are formed by the sum of surface water and
groundwater. Both resources may not be considered separately from the water quality. Abundant
water resources of poor quality are still useless for consumption. A consumer of water, who pollutes
the water resources system through its return flows, consumes in fact much more water than its
actual consumption, as he makes the remaining water useless.


1.4 Water Balance


Water resources engineers are primarily concerned with catchment yields and usually study
hydrometric records on a monthly basis. For that purpose short duration rainfall should be aggregated.
In most countries monthly rainfall values are readily available. To determine catchment runoff
characteristics, a comparison should be made between rainfall and runoff. For purpose, the monthly
mean discharges are converted to volumes per month and then to an equivalent depth per month Q
over the catchment area. Rainfall P and runoff Q being in the same units (e.g. mm/month) may then
be compared.

On a monthly basis one can write:
t
S
E P Q

= (1.10)

The presence of the Evaporation and the Storage terms makes it difficult to establish a
straightforward relation between R and P. The problem is further complicated in those regions of the
world that the distinctive rainy and dry seasons. In those regions the different situation of storage and
evaporation in the wet and dry season make it difficult to establish a direct relation.

While studying the relationship between rainfall and runoff in a catchment, one should recognize that:

There will be a clear threshold rainfall which no runoff takes place. The threshold would
incorporate such effects as interception, replenishment of soil moisture deficit;
evapotranspiration, surface detention, and open water evaporate.

The same amount of rainfall gives considerably more runoff at the end of the rainy season
than at the start of the rainy season. At the start of the rainy season the contribution of
seepage to runoff is minimal, the groundwater storage is virtually and the amount to be
replenished is considerable, the value of S/t in Eq. (1.10) is thus positive, reducing the
runoff. At the end of the rainy season the reverse occurs.

The threshold rainfall is quite in agreement with Eq. (1.10) and has more physical meaning than the
commonly used proportional losses. Proportional losses are rather a result of averaging. They can be
derived from the fact that a high amount of monthly rainfall is liable to have occurred during a large
number of rainy days, so that threshold losses like interception and open water evaporation have
occurred a corresponding number of times.

By taking into account the threshold loss (D) and the groundwater storage (S), a relation can be
obtained between Q and P. The following model, which can easily be made in spreadsheet, has been
developed for that purpose.
13
Moving Average Model for Monthly Runoff using Threshold Losses

As the amount of storage available during a particular month depends on the amount of rainfall in the
previous months, a relation is sough that relates the runoff in a particular month to the rainfall in the
month itself and the previous months. A simple linear backward relation is used:

( ) ( ) ( ) ...
2 2 1 1
+ + + + =

D P b D P b D P b a Q
t t t o t
(1.11)

Under the condition that if ( ) 0 <

D P
i t
, then ( ) 0 =

D P
i t
.

D is the threshold loss on a monthly basis, b
i
is the coefficient that determines the contribution
of the effective rainfall in month t-i to the runoff in month t (proportional loss); and a is a
coefficient which should be zero if the full set of rainfall contributions and losses were taken
into account.

In matrix notation Eq. (1.11) reads:
a D P B Q
t
+ = ) ( (1.12)

Where Q
t
is a scalar, the runoff in month t, B is an (n X 1) matrix containing the coefficients b
i
and (P-
D) is a state vector of (1 X n) containing the effective monthly precipitation values of the present and
previous months. The value n-1 determines the memory of the system. Obviously n should never be
more than 12, to avoid spurious correlation, but in practice n is seldom more than 6 to 7.

The effective runoff coefficient C, on a water year basis, is defined as:

D P
Q
C

= (1.13)

Where P and Q are the annual rainfall and runoff on a water year basis. It can be seen from
comparison of Eq.'s (1.12) and (1.13) that (if the coefficient a equals zero) the sum of the
coefficients in B should equal the effective runoff coefficient C.

C b
i
(1.14)

Meaning that the total amount of runoff that a certain net rainfall generates is the sum of all
components over n months. Obviously C should not be larger than unity.

The coefficients of B are determined through a multiple linear regression. Moreover, it should be
understood that the correlation substantially improves by taking into account threshold rainfall.














14
The addition of the word integrated to the term water resources refers to three aspects:

Location of the resource: e.g. upstream, downstream, basin, sub-basin.
Type of the resource: groundwater, surface water, rainfall harvesting.
Quality: water of bad quality is no resource unless it is treated.

It is not correct to consider the different aspects of water resources in isolation. The integration of
location, type and quality is a necessary condition for water resources management.
In hydrological cycle, the direct link between groundwater and surface water is apparent. If we add
the aspect of water quality, the picture of integrated water resources is complete.

For Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), however, further integration is needed with
regard to institutional, economical, financial, legal, environmental and social aspects (as
will be discussed later). But with regard to the physical aspects of water we can limit ourselves to
location, type and quality.



In the field of hydrology the budget idea is widely used. Water balances are based on the principle of
continuity. This can be expressed with the equation:


t
S
t O t I

= ) ( ) ( (1.15)

Where I is the inflow in [L
3
/T], O is the outflow in [L
3
/T], and S/t is the rate of change in the
storage over a finite time step in [L
3
/T] of the considered control volume in the system. The equation
holds for a specific period of time and may be applied to any given system provided that the
boundaries are well defined. Other names for the water balance equation are Storage Equation,
Continuity Equation and Law of Conservation of Mass.


Water Balance of a Drainage Area


The water balance is often applied to a river basin. A river basin (also called watershed, catchment, or
drainage basin) is the area contributing to the discharge at a particular river cross-section. The size of
the catchment increases if the point selected as outlet moves downstream. If no water moves across
the catchment boundary indicated by the broken line, the input equals the precipitation P while the
output comprises the evapotranspiration E and the river discharge Q at the outlet of the catchment.
Hence, the water balance may be written as:

( )
t
S
Q A E P

= (1.16)

Where S is the change of storage over the time step t, and A is the surface area of the catchment
upstream of the station where Q has been measured.

S, the storage in the amount of water stored in the catchment, is difficult to measure. However, if
the account period for which the water balance is established is taken sufficiently long, the effect of
the storage term becomes less important, as precipitation and evapotranspiration accumulate while
storage varies within a certain range. When computing the storage equation for annual periods, the
beginning of the balance period is preferably chosen at a time that the amount of water is store is
expected not to vary much for each successive year. These annual periods, which do not necessarily
coincide with the calendar years, are known as hydrologic-or water years. The storage equation is
especially useful to study the effect of a change in the hydrologic cycle.

15
To give an impression of the difference in the water balance of drainage basins, the water balances
for the basins of some great rivers are given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Indicative Average Annual Water Balance for the Drainage Basins of Some of the
Great Rivers
River Catchment
size
Rainfall Evapotranspiration Runoff Runoff
Coefficient
Gm
2
mm/ yr Gm
3
/ yr mm/ yr Gm
3
/ yr mm/ yr Gm
3
/ yr %
Nile 2803 220 620 190 534 30 86 14
Mississippi 3924 800 3100 654 2540 142 558 18
Parana 975 1000 980 625 610 382 372 38
Orinoco 850 1330 1150 420 355 935 795 70
Mekong 646 1500 970 1000 645 382 325 34
Amur 1730 450 780 265 455 188 325 42
Lena 2430 350 850 140 335 212 514 60
Yenisei 2440 450 1100 220 540 230 561 51
Ob 2950 450 1350 325 965 131 385 29
Rhine 200 850 170 500 100 350 70 41



1.5 Available Renewable Water Resources


1.5.1 Water Scarcity

In the eyes of the public, water scarcity is associated with lack of drinking water. That is not so
strange. Drinking water, although in terms of quantity a very small consumer of water resources, is
closest to people's environment and experience. Consequently, in the discussion on water scarcity, the
image most commonly conveyed by the media is that of thirst. We see pictures of people standing
next to a dry well, or people walking large distances to collect a bucket of water. Or, on a more
positive note, people happily crowded around a new water point that spills crystal clear water.

Thirst, however, is not a problem of water scarcity; it is a problem of water management. There is
enough water, virtually everywhere in the world, to provide people with their basic water needs:
drinking, cooking and personal hygiene. Shortage of water for primary purposes (essentially
household water) is much more a problem of lifestyles and poor management than of water
availability. As a result of the "sanitary revolution" of the Victorian age, drinking water is mainly used
to convey our waste over large distances to places where we then try to separate the water from the
waste. This way of sanitation, which probably was highly efficient at the beginning of this century
when there was neither scarcity of water nor an environmental awareness, is now highly inefficient in
terms of energy consumption, money and water alike. An extra-terrestrial visiting the Earth would be
very surprised to see that clean and meticulously treated drinking water, which is considered a
precious and scare commodity, is used for the lowest possible purpose: to transport waste.
Subsequently, the waste is removed through a costly process, after which the water is often pumped
back and re-treated to be used again. We need a new sanitary revolution, to restore this obvious
inefficiency.

If drinking water is not the problem of global water scarcity, then what is? Of the 1700 m
3
/cap/yr of
renewable fresh water that is considered an individual's annual requirement, close to 90% is needed
for food production. For primary water consumption 100 l/cap/day may be considered sufficient. After
the second sanitary revolution it may become even less! On an annual basis this consumption
amounts to about 40 m
3
/cap/yr. Industrial use may be several time this amount, but also in the
industrial sector, a sanitary revolution could seriously reduce the industrial water consumption.

16
The water scarcity problem is primarily a food problem. The production of a kilogram of grains under
proper climatic and management conditions, requires about 1-2 m
3
of water, but it can reach as much
as 4 m
3
of water per kg in tropical dry climates. A kilogram of meat requires a multiple of this amount.
Apparently, the per capita water requirement primarily depends on our food needs and habits.
Consequently, the main question to address is: how are we going to feed an ever growing population
on our limited land and water resources?


1.5.2 A Rainbow of Water

Of all water resources, green water is probably the most under-valued resources. Yet it is
responsible for by far the largest part of the world's food and biomass production. The concept of
green water was first introduced by Falkenmark (1995), to distinguish it from blue Water, which is
the water that occurs in rivers, lakes and aquifers. The storage medium for green water is the
unsaturated soil. The process though which green water is consumed is transpiration. Hence the total
amount of green water resources available over a given period of time equals the accumulated
amount of transpiration over that period. In this definition irrigation is not taken into account. Green
water is transpiration resulting directly from rainfall, hence we are talking about rainfed agriculture,
pasture, forestry, etc. The average residence time of green water in the unsaturated zone is the ratio
of the storage to the flux (the transpiration). At a global scale the storage in the unsaturated zone is
about 500 mm, whereas the average global transpiration is 100 mm/month. The average residence
time of green water is hence approximately 5 months. At a local scale, depending on climate, soils
and topography, these numbers can vary significantly.

Green water is a very important resource for global food production. About 60% of the waorld
staple food production relies on rainfed irrigation, and hence green water. The entire meat production
from grazing relies on green water, and so does the production of wood from forestry. In Sub-
Saharan Africa almost the entire food production depends on green water (the relative importance of
irrigation is minor) and almost of the industrial products, such as cotton, tobacco, wood, etc.

There is no green water without blue water, as their processes of origin are closely related. Blue
water is the sum of the water that recharges the groundwater and the water that runs-off over the
surface. Blue water occurs as renewable groundwater in aquifers and as surface water in water
bodies. These two resources can not simply be added, since the recharge of the renewable
groundwater eventually ends up in the surface water system. Adding them up often implies double
counting. Depending on the climate, topography and geology, the ration of groundwater recharge to
total blue water varies. In some parts the contribution of the groundwater to the blue water can be as
high as 7080%, in some parts (on solid rock surface), it can be negligible. Generally the groundwater
contribution to the blue water is larger than one thinks intuitively. The reason that rivers run dry is
more often related to groundwater withdrawals, than to surface water consumption.

Engineers always have had preference foe blue water. For food production, engineers have
concentrated on irrigation and neglected rainfed agriculture, which does not require impressive
engineering works. Irrigation is a way of turning blue water into green water. Drainage is a way of
turning green water into blue water.

To complete the full picture of the water resources, besides green water and blue water, there is
white water. White water is the part of rainfall that feeds back directly to the atmosphere through
evaporation from interception and bare soil. Some people consider the white water as part of the
green water, but that adds to confusion since green water is a productive use of water whereas the
white water is non-productive. The white and green water together form the vertical component of
the water cycle, as opposed to the blue water, which is horizontal. In addition, the term white water
can be used to describe the rainfall which is intercepted for human use, including rainwater
harvesting.

17
Table 1.3 presents the quantities of fluxes and stocks of these water resources, and the resulting
average residence times, at a global scale. For catchments and sub-systems similar computations can
be made. The relative size of the fluxes and stocks can vary considerably between catchments. Not
much information on these resources exists at sub-catchment scale.

Table 1.3 Global Water Resources, Fluxes, Storage and Average Residence Times
Resource Fluxes [L/ T] or [L
3
/ T] Storage [L] or [L
3
]
Residence
time
[T]
Green T 100 mm/month S
u
500 mm S
u
/T 5 months
White I 5 mm/day* S
s
4 mm* S
s
/I 0.8 days
Blue Q 46x10
12
m
3
/yr S
w
124x10
12
m
3
S
w
/Q 2.7 years
Deep Blue Q
s
5x10
12
m
3
/yr* S
g
750x10
12
m
3
* S
g
/Q
g
150 years
Atmosphere P 510x10
12
m
3
/yr S
a
12x10
12
m
3
S
a
/P 0.3 months
Oceans A 46x10
12
m
3
/yr S
o
1.3x10
18
m
3
S
o
/A 28000 years
* indicates rough estimates.

Finally, the last color of the rainbow is the ultra-violent water, the invisible water, or the virtual
water. Virtual water is the amount of water required to produce a certain good. In agriculture, the
concept of virtual water is used to express a product in the amount of water required for its
production. The production of grains typically requires 2-3 m
3
/kg, depending on the efficiency of the
production process. Trading grains implies the trade of virtual water.

For example; assume that in a certain basin, blue water applied to tobacco has productivity of
around 3.5 $/m
3
, whereas productivity of water for wheat is only around 0.5 $/m
3
. Since wheat and
tobacco can be both traded on the international market, the best use of water resources would be to
produce tobacco, export it and buy the required wheat on the international market. One cubic meter
of water applied to tobacco would allow the importation of 7 m
3
of virtual water in the form of grains.
A net gain to the basin of 6 m
3
of water! Supplementary irrigation during the rainy season of rainfed
crops has a relatively high productivity. In the communal areas, one cubic meter of blue water applied
to a rainfed crop as supplementary irrigation results in production gains valued at 1 $ to 1.3 $.

In water scare regions, the exchange of water in its virtual form is one of the most promising
approaches for sharing international waters.

How to Determine the Blue and Green Water?

The blue water (B) can be determined through rating. The difficulty lies with the green water (G). On
an annual basis, the sum of the white (interception) and the green water equals the overall average
evaporation from a catchment E = W+G = P-Q (E is the total annual evaporation, P is the annual
rainfall and Q is the annual runoff (Q=B), all in mm/yr). The white water (W) consists of the open
water evaporation, the bare soil evaporation and the direct evaporation from interception.

Hence, the sum of the blue and green water differs from the total rainfall P by the direct evaporation
losses (interception, bare soil and open water evaporation). The blue and green water is productive,
or can be made productive. Savenije (1997) developed a method to determine the direct evaporation
losses (W), which in fact corresponds to the actual threshold losses of Eq. (1.11), where
W=min(D,P). On the monthly basis, the transpiration equals the amount of green water (G)
consumed by the vegetation: G= E-W.

Is evaporation a Loss?

In most water balances, evaporation is considered a loss. Hydrological engineers who are asked to
determine surface runoff, consider evaporation a loss. Water resources engineers who design
reservoirs, consider evaporation from the reservoir a loss. For agricultural engineers, however, it
depends on where evaporation occurs, whether it is considered a loss or not. If it refers to the water
evaporated by drop (transpiration), then evaporation is not a loss, it is the use of the water for the
18
intended purpose. If it refers to the evaporation from canals or from spill, then evaporation is
considered a loss which reduces the irrigation efficiency.


1.5.3 The Water Balance as a Result of Human Interference

Attempts have been made to incorporate the interference of the man in the hydrological cycle through
the introduction of the water diversion cycle, which includes water withdrawal and water drainage.
The diversion cycle is exerting significant influence on the terrestrial water cycle; especially in highly
economically develop regions with a dense population.

The water diversion cycle including human interference results in the following annual average water
balance equation (neglecting storage variation):


D H R R U U C
Q C E P
g s g s
+ + + =
+ + =
(1.17)
where,
P precipitation
E total evaporation from the land surface (transpiration + interception + open water
evaporation).
C net water consumption due to water use
Q runoff from land to ocean
U
s
+U
g
intake from surface and groundwater
R
s
+R
g
return flows to surface and groundwater
H rain harvesting
D desalination

In this respect it is important to note that re-use of return flows (R
s
and R
g
) are no additional
resources, but merely a way to make water use more efficient (minimizing drainage).

























19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29
1.6 Brief about Water Resources in Palestine

1.6.1 Introduction


The water resources in Palestine are mainly the Jordan River, Wadi flows and groundwater (utilized
mainly through wells and springs). The following table is a summary of the available water from these
resources.

Table 1.4 Available Water for the Palestinian Water Resources

Source of water Natural flow or Recharge
(Mcm/ yr)
J ordan River
Wadi flow

Groundwater Basins

Eastern
1485-1671
110-120



100-172
Northeastern 130-200
Western 335-450
Gaza Coastal 55-65

Total 2,215 2,678
Source: several studies

At present, water demand in Palestine exceeds the available water supply which has led to low
consumption rates. On average, the per capita consumption in the West Bank is about 70 l/d and
water losses from conveyance systems can reach 40% and thus the actual water consumption per
capita amounts of 42 l/d which is about one third of what the per capita consumption needs are
according to WHO standards. In the Gaza Strip, only a total of about 8.9 Mcm/yr out of the water
supplied by municipal wells may be considered acceptable (based on health considerations); this 8.9
corresponds to approximately 18 percent of the total supply quantity, and translates to an acceptable
per capita supply rate for domestic use of only about 13 l/c/d.

The gap between supply and demand in 2005 for all uses was 336 Mcm/yr. The main causes of
increased water demand in Palestine are agriculture (accounting for 59% of total demand),
demographic growth and urbanization. Urbanisation reduces aquifer replenishment and increases the
risks of floods. Climate change is expected to lead to decreasing and more irregular rainfall, creating
major constraints for agriculture and water supply for other purposes. Climate change could also lead
to higher rates of evapo-transpiration, lower soil moisture content, growing desertification, falling
water levels in aquifers and saline intrusion into coastal aquifers. Desertification has also taken place
in Palestine as a result of loosing 50% of the grazing area to Israeli settlements and military camps
and nature reserves. This has an impact on climate patterns in the region.

The poor sanitation services, poor management of sewage and solid waste and over-application of
fertilizers and pesticides in the agricultural sector can cause pollution to the Palestinian aquifers. In
Gaza, aquifer quality is an important issue, with high nitrates and chlorides arising from over-
extraction and reduction in storage volumes, leading to a continuous degradation of water quality.
There are also some areas where seawater intrusion has been detected. Also, in areas of intensive
pumping, saline water has been drawn upward from underlying waters or saline geological formations.
Contamination of water will minimize the already limited quantities of water resources in Palestine, i.e.,
enlarging the gap between water supply and demand.

30
There is a need to emphasize the principles of access to essential water supply and sanitation services
as 40% of the Palestinian communities are not served in this respect. The Palestinian citizen pays
about $1.25 per 1 m3 of water. This is a high cost compared to the average income of the Palestinian
citizen

This paper addresses only the environmental problem with the following general objectives, (1)
providing a general description of the aquifer systems in Palestine; (2) undertaking an assessment of
the water quality deterioration in the Palestinian aquifers; and (3) providing guidelines for
groundwater protection from pollution.

Water quality in the wider sense has an important role to play in addressing the resource of the West
Bank and Gaza Strip groundwater supply. In this way, it can assist and inform the resource-based
modelling that is required to support the sustainable management of the various aquifer units
concerned. For many years, raw sewage effluents from the Palestinian cities and localities and from
Israeli Settlements in the West Bank, have been discharged in the Wadis. Moreover, Leachate from
dumping sites, zebra from olive mills, industrial wastes, agricultural returns rich with agro-chemicals
and hazardous wastes from the Palestinian and Israeli sources have caused groundwater quality of
Palestinian aquifers to deteriorate. Since the carbonate aquifers of the West Bank have pronounced
mature karst features above and below the water table, these aquifers show high potential for
extensive pollution, a case study in Nablus area shown in this paper deals with the effect of pollutants
mainly wastewater on the carbonate aquifers in the Northern part of the West Bank. Moreover, the
over-abstraction in the Jordan valley aquifers causes salinisation problems.



1.6.2 Aquifer Basins in the West Bank and Gaza Strip

Israel controls all aquifers in Palestine; although the major part of fresh water supply in Palestine
originates from the three aquifers of the West Bank. In the West Bank, the aquifer system is
comprised of several rock formations that are recharged from rainfall. In years of normal rainfall,
some 600-650 Mcm/yr of rain infiltrate the soil and replenish the ground aquifers (PWA, 2005).

The major groundwater system in the West Bank consists of three major basins, classified according
to flow direction into: the Western, Eastern and Northeastern Basins. The West Bank aquifer system
discharges approximately 600-660 Mcm/y.


The Western Aquifer Basin (WAB)


It is considered the most important aquifer in the West Bank and the largest of all groundwater basins
in Historical Palestine as shown in Figure 1.9. It is a shared aquifer between the West Bank, Israel
and Egypt, with a surface area of 11,398 km
2
(Abu Saada, 2004) where the area located within the
borders of the West Bank forms the main recharge area for this Basin, estimated at about 1,596km
2
,
and located within the heavy rainfall area. This area provides the aquifer for more than 73% of the
basins water. The ground water in this aquifer basin moves to the West and North West, where the
rock layers forming the basin tend to these directions (SUSMAQ, 2005). Most of the rock formations
within the borders of the West Bank are considered unsaturated and non-artesian due to close
proximity to the recharge areas, and artesian and saturated towards the west, due to the increase in
thickness of the rock and underlying aquitard formations. Two main aquifers are present in this basin:
the upper and the lower aquifers. The average thickness of these aquifers ranges between 600-900
meters. The basin has a safe yield of 443 Mcm/yr; Israel exploits most of the water of this aquifer
about 95% through more than 500 deep groundwater wells. Israel limits Palestinian use from this
aquifer to 21 Mcm/yr with a total number of wells of 134 (SUSMAQ, 2005).


31
The Northeastern Aquifer Basin (NEAB)


The area of this basin in the West Bank as shown in Figure 1.9 is nearly 1,067.5 km
2
. The annual
groundwater recharge of this basin is approximated to be 145 Mcm. The mountains in the southern
parts of this basin have peak elevations between 600-918 m asl. The central and northern parts of the
Northeastern Basin have a relatively flat to hilly topography that rises about 300 to 600 m asl. This
hilly area drains surface water to the west into shallow wadis, which recharge the coastal aquifer
system as they meet the flatter coastal plain. The number of the Palestinian wells in the Northeastern
Aquifer Basin is 76 wells with an average abstraction of about 16 Mcm/yr, whereas the most
important and the largest utilization of this basin water is by Israelis through the wells and springs
located outside the borders of the West Bank (PWA, 2005).


The Eastern Aquifer Basin (EAB)


Large parts of this aquifer basin are located within the eastern borders of the West Bank as shown in
Figure 1.9. The area of this basin is estimated at 3,079.5 km
2
. The mountains forming the highlands
in this basin consist mainly of carbonate sedimentary rocks with deeply incised wadis draining to the
east. The surface water divide runs parallel to the axis of the mountains, and surface water drains
eastwards towards the Jordan River Valley with minimal infiltration in the carbonate rocks or soil
profile due to the high degree of slope in the wadis. The elevation of these mountains ranges from
600-1,000 m asl, yielding an elevation difference of more than 1,300 meters between the high
mountain peaks and the adjacent Jordan River Valley. The majority of the Eastern Aquifer Basin area
is located within the areas featured by scarcity of rain in general, while the western part is located
within an area featured by heavy rainfall. The eastern aquifer basin has a safe yield of 175 Mcm/yr on
average. The number of Palestinian wells in the eastern aquifer is 95 wells with an average
abstraction of about 25 Mcm/yr, (PWA, 2005).


The Coastal Aquifer Basin (CAB)


The coastal aquifer is the main aquifer for groundwater in the Gaza Strip. Its depth ranges from
several meters in the eastern and southeastern parts to about 120-150 meters in the western part. It
extends along the coastal strip and consists of sand layers of kurkar with a mixture of clay and
sandstone followed by non permeable layers of marl for a depth ranging between 800-1000 meters,
followed by layers of limestone rock, where salinity exceeds 20 g/l of chloride (PWA, 2005) (see
Figure 1.9). The aquifer is characterized by high porosity and permeability. It is divided into four
sub-aquifers which extend 1-3 km from the seacoast and then unified together, forming one aquifer.
Impermeable and non-porous clayey and silty layers in the form of lenses define these sub-aquifers.
Towards the east, these clayey lenses thin out and disappear gradually (Al-Agha, 1997). The aquifer is
unconfined in many places in the strip, thus the infiltration of contaminants (sewage, fertilizers,
pesticides and other sources) is easy through the surface soil layer. The annual recharge of Gaza
Coastal is about 55-65 Mcm/yr (PWA, 2005).

32


Figure 1.9 Groundwater Basins in the West Band and the Gaza Strip
33
1.6.3 Groundwater Aquifer Systems in the West Bank


First Aquifer: The Shallow Aquifer

The Holocene (alluvial) aquifer, Pleistocene (Lisan Formation) aquifer, Miocene-Pliocene (Beida
Formation) aquifer and Eocene (Jenin Subseries) aquifer represent the shallow aquifer. They are
locally important.

Holocene (Alluvial Formation) aquifer

This aquifer occurs in the Jordan Valley. It is important to agricultural uses. It is built up of sub-
recent terrigenous deposits (alluvial fans) formed along the outlets of major wadis that flow eastward
to the Jordan Valley and its thickness ranges from 0 to 100 m (see Figure 1.10). These alluvial fans
are still accumulating after large floods and consist of debris from neighbouring lithologies which are
deposited according to their transport energy. The biggest clasts are found close to the apex and the
smallest close to the fan margin. Transport normally takes place along alternating channels or after
heavy rain as sheet flow. Thus permeable horizons alternate with impermeable lithologies within the
deposits. The yield of the wells in this aquifer is about 20-100 m
3
/hr. The water quality is variable
(from 100 mg/1 to more than 2000 mg/l). Estimates of transmitting properties show that the aquifer
varies from low potential to fair potential. The alluvial aquifer often directly overlies the Pleistocene
gravel with which it is in hydraulic contact.

Pleistocene (Lisan Formation) aquifer/ aquitard

The Lisan formation is not considered an aquifer or an aquitard but rather both: an aquifer/aquitard.
It is continuous along the Jordan Valley and varies in thickness; it may be up to 200 m thick. The
Lisan Aquifer consists of unconsolidated beds of sand, gravel, cobbles, and boulders separated by
impermeable layers of saline marls and other lacustrine deposits (see Figure 1.10). These deposits
are composed of clastic rocks of limestone, dolomite, and chert with a sand and clay matrix that form
alluvial fans. It extends from Jericho in the south to Marj Naja and lower Wadi Faria to the north.

The aquifer supplies agriculture in the Jordan Valley. Borehole yields vary from 20 to 100 m
3
/h. Water
quality is variable, with chloride concentrations from 50 mg/l up to 2200 mg/l in areas influenced by
salt domes, hyper saline brines and/or Dead Sea water inflows south of Jericho. The sulphate
concentration rises from 100 mg/l in the west to 900 mg/l near Jericho.

Miocene Pliocene (Bedia Formation) aquifer (sometimes known as Neogene aquifer)

This is the lower part of the Dead Sea group. Beida consists of three lithologies, well-cemented
conglomerates, highly permeable, some indurated marl and sandstone and few freshwater limestone
of minor aquifer potential (see Figure 1.10). Beida is of local importance at the northeastern
boundary of the West Bank in the Jordan Valley and Wadi Faria especially near the Bardala and Ein
Beida areas. The thickness of the three combined lithologies can be up to 350 m in places. However,
the aquifer is of limited extent and in most places only about 100 m thick. Water quality in the
aquiferous conglomeratic portion is good (about 70 mg/l chloride).

Eocene (J enin Formations) aquifer

In this aquifer groundwater normally occurs within 100 m from ground surface and for this reason it is
extensively used for irrigation. It consists of nummulitic limestone with chalk, chert bands and marl.
The limestone is of limited thickness and contains chalk, chert and intercalations of marl, which
reduce the groundwater supply potential of the aquifer. It has limited storage and water transmitting
properties. The yield of this aquifer is highly dependent on rainfall. The thickness of this aquifer
ranges between 90 670 m.

34
An individual well yield is in the range from 20-100 m
3
/hr. The water quality of the aquifer varies
depending on location. The Eocene is separated from the underlying Upper Aquifer by a 200-500 m
thick sequence of chalks and marls belonging to the K/T-C series which serves as a confining unit to
the Upper Aquifer. Water Quality tends to deteriorate towards the Jenin area due to over-pumping
and heavy irrigation activities. TDS reaches 1650 mg/l in some parts of the aquifer, while chloride
concentration reaches 679 mg/l, whereas the average nitrate concentration in the aquifer is 41 mg/l.

The Eocene is separated from the underlying Upper Aquifer by a 100-500 m thick sequence of chalks
and marls belonging to the Nablus Group (Senonian series), which acts as the confining unit to the
Upper Aquifer (see Figure 1.10). In some parts of the Northeastern Aquifer Basins, the Nablus Group
may form a local aquifer.


Second Aquifer: The Upper Aquifer

This aquifer consists of the Turonian (Jerusalem Formation), Upper Cenomanian (Bethlehem and
Hebron formations).

Turonian (J erusalem) aquifer

This formation consists of massive limestone (sometimes thinly bedded limestone), and dolomitic
limestone with well developed karst features. It is part of the Upper Aquifer, but it is isolated from the
main part of the Upper Aquifer in the south and parts of the eastern West Bank wherever the
underlying Bethlehem Formation becomes a weakly permeable aquitard (see Figure 1.10). The
Jerusalem Formation is of large lateral distribution and thickness in the Tulkarem and Qalqilya areas
(approximately 130 m thick). It forms a good aquifer especially where the saturation thickness is in
tens of meters. Water quality is generally good but in some areas there is evidence of deterioration
because of pollution by sewage and agro-chemicals.

Upper Cenomanian (Bethlehem and Hebron Formations) aquifer

The Upper Cenomanian aquifer consists of the Bethlehem and Hebron Formations which are mainly
interbedded dolomite and chalky limestone (see Figure 1.10). In the southern and eastern part of
the West Bank, the Bethlehem Formation is considered an aquitard, while to the north and west it has
aquiferous characteristics. The Aquifer is an important regional source of water supply for domestic
uses. It is heavily exploited in the areas near Tulkarem and Qalqilya. The well yields range from 40-
400 m
3
/hr. The well depths are less than 400m with some exceptions. The depth to water is rarely
more than 200 m below ground surface. The Aquifer has high recharge values. Its water quality is
generally good (30-70 mg/1 of chloride). The Lower Yatta Formation hydraulically separates the two
regional aquifers (Upper and Lower Aquifers) across most of the West Bank, although to the north,
the presence of Yatta limestone gives rise to minor springs and seepage. Water levels (heads) in the
Upper Aquifer are generally higher than in the Lower Aquifer.


Third Aquifer: The Lower Aquifer

The Albian (Lower Beit Kahil Formation) and to a lesser extent the Albian (Upper Beit Kahil Formation)
and sometimes the lower part of Yatta Formation form the Lower Aquifer, which is a deep confined
aquifer across most the West Bank. It is a regional source of drinking water. Individual well yields
across the West Bank range from 150-450 m
3
/hr. Well depths vary from 500 to 850 m. The high
water bearing capacity and productivity is owed to the great thickness of dolomitic limestones and
limestones (see Figure 1.10). Water quality is generally good with chloride values in the 20-50 mg/1
range, though slightly higher salinities have been encountered towards the Jordan Valley.



35
Fourth Aquifer: The Deep Aquifer


Lower Albian (Ein Qinya) aquifer

The aquifer is not yet understood and it seems there is a great change in the characteristics of this
aquifer from the middle to the north of the West Bank. In general, the aquifer seems to be of low
potential. However, it was tested while drilling Ein Senia Well No.7 in Ramallah District. The test
shows that it has some low aquifer potential that is not really sufficient for pumping water from it.

Neocomian (Ramali) aquifer

It is mainly of Neocomian age (see Figure 1.10). The Ramali is composed of primarily sandstone.
Very little information is available on these deeper sediments because few wells penetrated to these
depths. Edwin & Pauly, Phillips, and John Mecum oil companies drilled deep exploration wells for oil in
Halhul (Halhul No.1) in Hebron District, and Abu Shkeidem (Ramallah No.1). The logs for these wells
suggest that Ramali aquifer consists of sandstone of older formation. Its thickness is about 70 meters.

(Oxfordian) Maleh aquifer

The Maleh aquifer system is mainly of Oxfordian age from the Jurassic period. It is made up of
dolomitic limestone, interbedded ferruginous limestone, and marls. It is the lowest aquifer system
expected in the West Bank (see Figure 1.10). There is very little information on this aquifer system
because no monitoring or production wells have been drilled to this depth.


1.6.4 Groundwater Aquifer in the Gaza Strip


The aquifer is composed of clastic sediment from the Pleistocene age overlaying impervious clay of
the Miocene age. The Pleistocene sequence consists of continental and marine units composed of
sandstone, calcareous sand, siltstone and red loamy soils. The bottom formation consists of thick
compact marine clay (see Figure 1.11). This layer is dipping toward the sea at an average slope of
10 meters per Km. At the eastern part near the foothills, the limestone formation is overlapping and
subsurface inflow is expected to recharge the aquifer (Abu Jabal et al, 2005).

Groundwater in the Gaza Strip is found in three shallow sub-aquifers composed mainly of quaternary
sand, calcareous sandstone and pebbles with interbeds of impervious and semi- pervious clay,
gradually sloping westward. The three aquifers are of a thickness range from 120 meters near the
coast to 10 meters in the east, where the Seat is located. They are divided into sub-aquifers that
overlay each other in certain places separated by impervious and semi-impervious clayey layers.

The upper sub-aquifer lies closest to the sea and extends to two kilometers inland at a depth mainly
below sea level. The middle sub-aquifers are situated below the upper sub-aquifer near the coastline
and rise in an eastward direction according to the general slope of the geological layers. The lower
sub-aquifers extend further inland. Deeper permeable strata are present at depths of 200-300 meters
and consist of carbonates and sandstone, with salinity concentration reaching a value of 2,000 mg/l,
(Abu Jabal et al, 2005).
36


Figure 1.10 Stratighraphical Section of the West Bank (Hydrogeological Map of the West Bank,
SUSMAQ Project)
37



Figure 1.11 Stratighraphical Section of the Gaza Strip





1.6.5 Surface Catchments

There are two surface catchments areas in Palestine: the western catchments areas that drain in the
Mediterranean Sea, and the eastern catchments areas which drain into the Jordan River and the Dead
Sea Basin. The total quantity of surface runoff which originates from the Palestinian territories in the
Western catchments is 72 Mcm/year with the total surface area being equal to 2950 km
2
inside the
Palestinian territories. The eastern catchments are all presented as part of the Jordan River and Dead
Sea Basins.


J ordan River Basin

The Jordan River Basin is the most important surface water resource in the region. The total natural
flow of the Jordan River, in the absence of extraction, ranges from 1485 to 1671 Mcm/yr at the
entrance to the Dead Sea. The total area of the Jordan River Basin covered by isohyetes over 300 mm
is 14847 km
2
. Of this area, 1638 km
2
(11%) is within Palestinian territories. Israel is the greatest user
of the Jordan River water where its present use is around 54% of the total flow. Israel transfers huge
quantities of surface water through the National Water Carrier from Upper Jordan to Naqab, where,
these quantities equal 420 Mcm/yr. At the same time, Palestinians have been denied use of the
Jordan River water due to the Israeli occupation since the 1967 war. In addition, Jordan uses 22% of
the Jordan River flow, Syria uses 11%, and Lebanon uses around 0.3% of total natural flow.

38
The total catchments area of the eastward draining wadis of the Dead Sea and the Jordan River Basin
(including Wadi Araba) is 40,650 Km
2
of which Wadi Araba is 11,300 km
2
. The total area inside the
Palestinian territories is 2750 km
2
or 6.8%. Most of wadis within the Dead Sea basin originate and
drain within the borders of each riparian state, except Wadi Abu Moraden which originates inside
Palestinian territories and crosses the green line into Israel and then drains into the Dead Sea. The
total average flow from the West Bank, as shown in the Table is 17.4 Mcm/year.

Israel transfers huge quantities of surface water through the National Water Carrier from the Upper
Jordan to the Naqab (about 420 Mcm/year), in addition to local consumption in the Tiberias Basin and
the Huleh Valley which all sum up to the annual discharge of the three main tributaries of the Jordan
River. Also, Israel gains 25 Mcm/year from the Yarmouk River and any runoff value that can be
captured (around 50 Mcm/year) according to the 1995 Peace Treaty with Jordan. In essence, this is
an illegal treaty that affects other riparian rights and systematically steals their water.

It must be noted that the Palestinians had used and developed the water resources in the Jordan
River Basin pre-1967. Around 150 pumps on the Jordan River had been used for irrigation of lands in
the Jordan Valley. This fact alone solidifies the rights of Palestinians to use the Jordan River water
resources according to International Water Law.

Most of the Jordan River riparian countries consume the Jordan River water in order to fulfill their
needs from the river basin and consequently the small quantity that reaches the West Bank is of bad
quality and cannot be utilized. In addition, agricultural return flows and mismanagement of untreated
wastewater by the Israeli colonies in the Jordan Valley are additional main sources of pollution to the
Lower Jordan River.





Wadis in West Bank and Gaza

Western Wadis

The total quantity of surface runoff in the western catchments surface runoff that originate from the
Palestinian territories is 72 Mcm/year, whereas their total catchments area equals 2950 km
2
inside the
Palestinian territories. The eastern catchments are all presented as part of the Jordan River Basin and
Dead Sea Basin.

Wadi Gaza

The surface water system in the Gaza Strip consists of wadis, which only flood during very short
periods, except for Wadi Gaza. Wadi Gaza is the major wadi in the Gaza Strip that originates in the
Naqab Desert in a catchment area of 3500 Km2 and with an estimated average annual flow of 20 to
30 Mcm/year. However, rainfall varies significantly from one year to another and annual discharge can
range from 0 to 100 Mcm/year. In addition, Wadi Gaza at present is diverted by the Israelis towards
reservoirs for artificial recharge and irrigation. This means that nowadays, only a little water out of the
huge floods may reach the Gaza Strip, if any, due to the Israeli practices. There are two other
insignificant wadis in the Gaza Strip, namely Wadi El Salqa in the south and Wadi Beit Hanon in the
north, that are almost always dry. Finally, it should be mentioned that the main reason for the drying-
up of Wadi Gaza is the Israeli practices upstream of the Wadi. Based on the above, Palestinian surface
water rights are 262 Mcm/year distributed as follows: 173 Mcm/year from the Jordan River, 17.2 Mcm
from Dead Sea Basin, 72 Mcm/year from Western Wadis.




39
1.7 Worked Examples on Chapter One


Example 1.1 Evaporation

A farmer has a reservoir with vertical sides and a surface area of 10,000 m
2
. Following the rainy
season, the reservoir is filled to a depth of 3 m. During the dry season, the reservoir loses 6 cm
of water per week to evaporation. If the average irrigation demand during the dry season is 350
m
3
/day, how many weeks can the farmer irrigate from the reservoir?


Answer 1.1

Volume of water available = 3x10,000 = 30,000 m
3
.
Losses to evaporation per week = 0.06x10,000 = 600 m
3
.
Irrigation demand per week = 350 X 7 = 2450 m
3
.
Water lost to evaporation and used to irrigation per week = 600 + 2450 = 3050 m
3
.

Number of weeks to irrigate from the reservoir
= (30,000 m
3
)/(3050 m
3
/month) = 9.84 weeks.




Example 1.2 Water Balance

A groundwater basin in a coastal area has an area of 510 km
2
. The land area is 500 km
2
and the
area of the river is 10 km
2
. There is no stream flow or groundwater flow into the basin. A water
budget for the basin has the following long-term average annual values.

Precipitation Evapotranspiration Overland flow Baseflow Runoff
Sub-sea
outflow
875 mm/yr 575 mm/yr 75 mm/yr 150 mm/yr 225 mm/yr 75 mm/yr

Notes:
In order to prepare a water budget, identify all parameters in and out for each
component assuming steady conditions.
River flow or runoff is a combination of land flow and Baseflow.

1 Prepare an annual water budget for the basin as a whole.
2 Prepare an annual water budget for the river.
3 Prepare an annual water budget for the groundwater reservoir.
4 What is the annual river flow from the basin in m
3
/sec?
5 What is the average rate of groundwater recharge in million m
3
per day per km
2
of
surface area?




40
Answer 1.2

1 Water Budget for the Whole Basin


In Out
Precipitation = 875 mm
Evaporation = 575 mm
Runoff = 225
Sub-sea flow = 75 mm
Sum 875 875

2 Water Budget for the River


In Out
Over land flow = 75 mm
Runoff = 225
Base flow = 150 mm
Sum 225 225

3 Water Budget for the Groundwater Reservoir


In Out
Prec. - Overland flow - Evap.
= 875 75 575 (mm)
Baseflow = 150 mm
Sub-sea flow = 75 mm
Sum 225 225


4 Runoff = 225 mm/yr

= (0.225 m x 510x10
6
m
2
) / (365x24x60x60)
= 3.64 m
3
/sec.


5 Recharge = 225 mm/yr

= 0.225 m/yr = 0.225 m/ 365 = 6.164x10
-4
m/day.

= 6.164 x10
-4
m
3
/m
2
per day = 6.164x10
-4
m
3
/ (m
2
x10
-6
km
2
/m
2
xday)

= 6.164 x 10
-4
x 10
6
m
3
per day per km
2


= 1.164x10
-4
million m
3
per day per km
2
.








41
Example 1.3 Surface Water Resources

The discharge Q is generally determined on the basis of water level recordings in combination
with stage discharge relation curve, called a rating curve.

The rating curve can often be represented adequately by an equation of the form:

b
o
H H a Q ) ( =

The following observations of head and corresponding discharge were obtained for a stream:
Head (m) 0.64 0.88 1.25 1.58
Q (m
3
/s) 0.052 0.153 0.408 0.747

1 Determine the constants a, b, knowing that the height of zero flow is 0.3 m.
2 What will be the discharge of the stream when the head = 2 m?

Answer 1.3

1
b
o
H H a Q ) ( = , where H
o
=0.3 m.
Taking logs gives:
a H H b Q
o
log ) log( log + =

Now, plotting log Q against log (H-H
o
), should give a straight line with a slope b and y-intercept
log a.
H H
o
0.34 0.58 0.95 1.28
log (H-H
0
) -0.469 -0.237 -0.022 0.107
log (Q) -1.284 -0.815 -0.389 -0.127

Rating curve
-1.4
-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
log (H-H0)
l
o
g

Q


42
From the rating curve,

Slope = 2.01 b= 2.01
And y-intercept = -0.34 log a = -0.34 a= 0.46.


2
b
o
H H a Q ) ( =
where,
a=0.46, b=2.01, H= 2m and H
0
=0.3 m


. sec / 34 . 1
) 3 . 0 2 ( 46 . 0
3
01 . 2
m
Q
=
=




Example 1.4 Groundwater as a Storage Medium

The flow of a river at the start of a Baseflow recession is 233 m
3
/sec; after 60 days the flow
declined to 89 m
3
/sec.

1 Find the recession constant for the basin.

2 What would the flow be after 112 days?


Answer 1.4

1
at
o
e Q Q

=
then,
1 2
3
3
10 6 . 1
233
89
ln
60
1
ln
1
ln

= = =
day
s
m
s
m
days
a
Q
Q
t
a
Q
Q
at
Q
Q
e
o o o
at




2
at
o
e Q Q

=

( )
s
m
m
e m Q
days day
3
3
112 10 6 . 1 3
8 . 38
1667 . 0 sec / 233
sec / 233
1 2
=
=
=





43
Example 1.5 Groundwater Recharge from Short Lived Wadis



Background

The annual precipitation of the West Bank is much less than the potential evapotranspiration
leaving a moderate scope of direct groundwater recharge. Therefore, an assessment of direct
recharge by infiltration of water through wadi beds during floods is an important element of
water resources evaluation. This is the subject of this question. The case study is taken about
Wadi Misk.


Given Data


Figure 1.10.

Wadi Misk is 40 km long, with a uniform width of 50 m.

The flood hydrographs upstream (at distance 0 km) and downstream (at distance 40
km) of the wadi are shown in Figure 1.10. The distance between gauging stations is 40
km.

Evaporation data are calculated by installing class A pan near the stream of Wadi
Misk to determine daily evaporation. The level in the pan is observed every 12 hours.

Rainfall and evaporation are given in Figure 1.10.



Required



1 Determine the total volume of flood water at the gauging stations upstream and
down stream shown in Figure 1.10.

2 Calculate the average daily evaporation as mm/day.

3 Calculate the total volume of water evaporated over the entire event period.

4 Calculate the total recharge volume through the stream bed over the entire flood
event.





44

Figure 1.10



45
Answer 1.5

1 Upstream flood volume = 0.5 x (72-12) hr x 60 min x 60 sec x 130 m
3
/sec

= 14.04 x 10
6
m
3



Downstream flood volume = 0.5 x (56-12) hr x 60 min x 60 sec x 50 m
3
/sec

= 2.88 x 10
6
m
3


2 The average wadi evaporation per 12-hr period = (5 + 6 + 12 + 6 + 3)/5

= 6.4 mm per 12-hr period

= 12.8 mm/day


3. Total evaporation rate over the 72 hours = 5 + 6 + 12 + 6 + 3 = 32 mm

Volume lost to evaporation = evaporation rate x surface area of the wadi

= 0.032 m x 50 m x 40,000 m

= 6.4 x 10
4
m
3



4 Total transmission over the 40 km stream = 14.04 x 10
6
2.88 x 10
6


= 11.16 x 10
6
m
3


Groundwater recharge = 11.16 x 10
6
6.4 x 10
4


= 11.096 x 10
6
m
3













46

Example 1.6: Clear Lake has a surface area of' 708,000 m2. For the month of March,
this lake had an inflow of 1.5 m2/s and an outflow of 1.25 m2/s. A storage
change of +708,000 m3 was recorded. If the total depth of rainfall
recorded at the local raingauge was 225 mm for the month, estimate the
evaporation loss from the lake. State any assumptions that you make in
your calculations.































































































































































Figure 1.3 The water balance of (a) a lake or reservoir; and (b) a catchment area
Solution:
Note:
The evaporation loss may be computed by rearranging Equation (1.2):
E = P + Q
i n
-Q
out
- S
in which seepage is assumed to be negligible. The individual components are then
computed as follows:
precipitation, P: 225 mm x 708,000 m
2
/ 1000 mm/m = 159,300 m
3

inflow, Q
in
: 1.5 m
3
/s x 86,400 s/d x 31 d/month = 4,017,600 m
3

outflow, Q
out
: -1.25 m
3
/s x 86,400 s/d x 31 d/month = -3,348,000 m
3

change in storage = - 708,000 m
3

hence evaporation, E = 159,300 + 4,017,600 - 3,348,000 - 708,000 = 120,900
m
3
or 120,900 m
3
x 1000 mm/m / 708,000 m
3
= 171 mm over the lake area.
The calculation can also be made directly in terms of mm depth; the important
point is to be consistent in terms of units in any water balance as well as in the
sign of each term, ie what is an input and what is an output to the control
volume.
In contrast, if the control volume is a catchment or drainage area bounded by its
topographic divide or watershed, as shown in Figure 1.3b, the inputs consist of
precipitation, P, and possibly groundwater inflow, G
in
, and the outputs comprise the
discharge, Q, at the catchment outlet, transpiration from the vegetation growing within the
catchment and evaporation from precipitation intercepted on the vegetal canopy held in
storage on the ground, E, and possibly groundwater outflow, G
out
. The changes in storage, S,
to be considered are principally those in the sub-surface unsaturated and saturated zones,
leading to
47

Q = P E + G
in -
G
out
S (1.3)

Example 1.7: During the water-year 1994/95, a catchment area of 2,500 (km)
2
received
1,300 mm of precipitation. The average discharge at the catchment outlet
was 30 m
3
/s. Estimate the amount of water lost due to the combined effects
of evaporation, transpiration and percolation to groundwater. Compute the
volumetric runoff coefficient for the catchment in the water-year.
Solution:
Assuming that the changes in storage, S, are negligible, Equation (1.3)
becomes
E + G
out
- G
in
= P - Q
the runoff, Q = 30 m
3
/s x 86,400 s/d x 365 d/annum x 1000 mm/m / [2,500
(km)
2
x (1000 m/km)
2
] = 378 mm
hence the combined loss = 1,300 - 378 = 922 mm
The volumetric runoff coefficient, C, is the ratio of the total volume of runoff to
the total volume of rainfall during a specified time interval; in this case,
C = 378 mm / 1,300 mm = 0.29, ie only 29 per cent of the rainfall reached the
catchment outlet within the water-year.
If the underlying geology of the catchment is such that the groundwater divide coincides with
the topographic divide, ie the catchment is watertight, then the terms, G
in
and G
out
, may be
deleted. Moreover, if the period over which the balance is considered is sufficiently long, ie
the annual seasonal cycle or water year, then S can be considered to be zero. Of the
remaining terms, Q may be measured using standard hydrometric methods, and if sufficient
raingauges can be deployed to evaluate spatial variations, P may also be estimated. Although
standard methods are available to measure the evaporation from an open water surface or to
estimate the evaporation from a uniform stand of vegetation, E for a heterogeneous mixture of
both short and tall plants and bare soil is difficult to evaluate independently. Hence
E - P - Q (1.4)
Provided that care is taken with the boundary conditions, ie the topography and geology, and
the choice of the period over which the balance applies, Equation (1.4) can provide useful
results, despite its apparent simplicity. Indeed, this approach has been employed extensively
to calibrate indirect methods of estimating the evaporation from an open water body.