One of the most effective engineering approaches for the control of air

contaminants in industry is the use of local exhaust ventilation (LEV). LEV is a

ventilation system comprised of:

hood(s), 1.
ductwork, 2.
(an) air cleaning device(s) 3.
and air moving device. 4.
These component parts are identified in the illustration below.
Figure 6-1

LEV systems are designed to collect air contaminants at the source or point of
generation before these air contaminants can enter the worker's breathing zone.
If LEV systems are designed correctly nearly 100% of the air contaminants can
be captured and removed from the work environment so that employee
exposures can be kept at or below acceptable levels.

LEV Advantages
There are several reasons why safety professionals and industrial hygienists
should consider LEV.
For example, LEV systems:

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1. remove the air contaminant at the source before it can enter the workers'
breathing zones. This control is especially useful when employees are working
with highly toxic chemicals that may cause harm from short term (acute) or long
term (chronic) exposures.

2. usually requires less volumetric air flow (Q) , measured in cubic feet of air
per minute or ft
3
/min to control employee exposures to air contaminants .
Usually less air is required to capture and remove the contaminant at the source
than would be required to dilute or exhaust the contaminant after it has been
released into the ambient workroom air.

3. can effectively control multiple types/forms of air contaminants. Gases,
vapours, and particulate may be effectively removed from the workplace using
this method.

4. operating costs are usually less with LEV than general dilution/exhaust
ventilation because less air is needed to control the air contaminant. This can
result in tremendous cost savings to the employer in terms of energy costs.
Remember, workroom air may need to be heated in the winter and cooled in the
summer. The cost of heating and/or cooling air is directly related to the volume of
air that needs to be treated each day.
LEV Disadvantages
The use of LEV to control air contaminants has some disadvantages. However,
in many situations the advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.

Some disadvantages are that LEV systems:

1. must be designed following good industrial hygiene practice to control air
contaminants cost effectively and efficiently.

2. can require a larger capital investment up front than general ventilation
systems to pay for design, construction and installation materials,

3. may be more complex in design than general ventilation systems,

4. may require a more rigorous maintenance schedule than general ventilation
systems.

In order to effectively evaluate LEV systems it is important to be comfortable
with the manner in which LEV systems are designed.
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Air Flow (Principles & Pressures)
With ventilation systems designers attempt to create pressure differences to
control exposures to air contaminants. In LEV systems, designers attempt to
create a low pressure zone at the hood opening so that air is drawn into the hood
along with the air contaminants released from a process. Furthermore, after the
fan, a high pressure zone is created so that the collected air and contaminants
can be discharged.

By applying these basic principles and understanding some additional concepts,
simple or complex systems can be designed.

In physics most of us learned that one (1) atmosphere of pressure at standard
temperature and sea level is equivalent to the pressure exerted on one square
inch by a column of mercury 29.92" high. This pressure would be equivalent to a
pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch.

In industrial ventilation, pressure differences are described and measured in
terms of inches of water (" of H
2
O) or inches water gauge ("wg). One
atmosphere of pressure (at standard temperature, at sea level) would be
equivalent then, to the pressure exerted on one square inch of surface by a
column of water approximately 407 inches high. Pressures above 407" of H
2
O
are referred to as positive pressure while those below are referred to as negative
pressure conditions.

Like most gases, air flows from an area of high pressure to an area of low
pressure. Designers of ventilation systems create high and low pressure areas in
workrooms using various kinds of air moving devices. In LEV systems this is
usually accomplished with a fan. Consider the following illustration.

Atmospheric or ambient air pressures inside the duct and outside the duct
are the same with no appreciable movement of air into or out of the duct.

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When a fan is added inside the ductwork (and turned on), the following situation
could result.

In this situation a low pressure zone or vacuum is created ahead of the fan. If
ambient atmospheric pressure (at sea level) were 29.92" of mercury
(equivalently ~407" of water), the pressure in this "zone " of the duct would be
less than atmospheric ambient pressure. How much less would depend upon the
size and power of the fan, the duct length, diameter, material of duct
construction and other parameters.

After the fan, the air pressure in the duct would be greater than atmospheric.
That is, a high pressure zone was created when the fan is turned on and the air
pressure in this region of the ductwork would be greater than 29.92" of mercury
(equivalently ~407" of water).

Static Pressure (SP)
Static pressure is defined as potential pressure exerted in all directions by a fluid
at rest. For a fluid in motion it is measured in a direction normal or perpendicular
to the direction of flow. Furthermore, it can be visualized to some degree as the
tendency to collapse or burst the ductwork. In short, depending upon where one
measures static pressure, it can be 0, positive or negative. That is it can be equal
to, above or below atmospheric ambient pressure, respectively.
Velocity pressure is defined as the kinetic pressure exerted in the direction of
flow necessary to cause a fluid at rest to flow at a given velocity.

VP is also described and measured in inches of H
2
O or inches water gauge.
Velocity pressure is exerted in the direction of flow, is always positive (i.e.
greater than atmospheric pressure) when a fluid is moving, and is measured in
the direction of airflow. It is also related to velocity by the following formula:
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V =4005 ( Square Root of VP)

Using this formula , the velocity of air at any point in the ventilation system can
be determined by taking a velocity pressure reading.

It is important to understand that VP is not uniform across the duct. In short,
air tends to move faster near the centre and slower near the walls of the duct.
Therefore, VP measurements will vary when a series of measurements are made
when conducting a duct traverse using a pitot tube. (This topic will be discussed
in greater detail later under the Ventilation Testing section of this module).

Total Pressure (TP)
The last head component that evaluators of LEV systems must be aware of is
total pressure. Total pressure (TP) is simply the algebraic sum of SP and VP.
That is:
TP =SP +VP

TP, like SP and VP, is described or measured in terms of inches of H
2
0 water or
inches water gauge ("wg). Therefore, TP can be zero, positive or negative when
compared to ambient atmospheric pressure.
The relationship between TP, VP and SP can be found in the illustrations below.
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When an LEV system is fitted the designer must take into consideration several
important factors. These factors include:

Process & Nature of the Air Contaminant
Hood Design, Selection & Placement
Volumetric Airflow Rate (Q) Requirements
Capture Velocity
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Transport Velocity
Other Exhaust and Supply Considerations
Safety professionals must consider the process when designing any ventilation
system. The location, size, number and design of hoods, duct work, air cleaning
device(s), fan(s), and discharge stack(s) will be influenced by process parameters
such as the number of emission points, available space, employee access needs,
and the specific chemical/physical properties of the air contaminant(s).

For example, systems can be designed to remove gases/vapors, particulate, or
both. The volumetric air flow rate required to collect these air contaminants and
transport them through the LEV system, with adequate duct velocity, can vary
considerably. Generally LEV systems require less air to control gases/vapors than
heavy particulate (e.g. grinding dust).

There are many different hood designs to choose from.
Hood placement is also an important consideration. Generally, hoods should be
located as close to the point of air contaminant release as practicable to maximize
air contaminant capture and removal.

In general LEV hoods fall into four categories:

(1)Booth-type hoods -have three sides and an open face (front).
Examples include spray booths and laboratory hoods.
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(2) Enclosures -typically used for high toxicity and/or radioactive
substances. These hoods are completely enclosed and are typically
held under negative pressure so that if leakage is inward. Examples
include the glove or dry box and some abrasive blasting cabinets
that utilize sand containing crystalline free silica as the abrasive
material.
Glove Box


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(3) Receiving hoods -designed and positioned to take advantage of
the contaminant release characteristics of the process or operation
they serve. Examples include canopy-type hoods that extend above
open surface tanks. Generally, they are less preferred than other
hoods especially where the operator must reach over or into the
tank. The canopy hoods can draw the contaminant through the
worker's breathing zone and their capture of contaminants is readily
influenced by cross-drafts. Another example is the hood provided on
pedestal type grinders.
Canopy Hoods


(4) Exterior hoods -reach beyond their own boundaries to draw in
and capture the contaminant before it reaches the worker's breathing
zone. Slotted hoods provided at open surface tanks (e.g.
electroplating tanks ) are examples.
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Volumetric Airflow Rate (Q)
Within an LEV system it is important to determine the volumetric air flow rate
(Q) that is needed to create a sufficient capture velocity in front of the hood. The
capture velocity that is created in front of the hood entry must be sufficient to
capture the contaminant and draw it into the hood and away from the worker's
breathing zone.

Volumetric airflow rate (Q) is described in cubic feet of air per minute or ft
3
/min.
In LEV systems it is not usually measured directly but is calculated. The formula
which follows is used to make this determination:

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After a LEV system is designed and installed, the system should be
tested to determine how well the installed system compares with the
designed system. Volumetric air flow rates (Q) , capture, face, and
transport velocities should be tested as should static pressures at
various locations in the system. This initial testing will serve as a
baseline against which all future measurements can be compared.

Since most field instruments do not measure Q directly, it is
necessary to determine Q by taking a series of velocity (V)
measurements at some point in the system , determining an average
velocity and then multiplying this average velocity by the cross
sectional area (A) of the opening through which the air is moving at
the location where the velocity determinations were made. Q is then
determined by the formula:

Q=AV
where:
Q=volumetric airflow rate, cfm
V=average linear velocity, fpm
A=cross-sectional area of the duct or hood
at the measurement location, ft
2

Equipment options:

Air velocity meter to determine face or duct velocity (V)
Velometer to determine face or duct velocity (V)
Tape measure to measure (length, width) of a rectangular hood
face
Pitot Tube and Magnehelic Gauge, U-tube manometer or
inclined manometer to measure duct velocity pressure (VP)
Note: Cross-sectional area (A) of a round duct can be determined by
using the formula:
A=(pi) (r
2
)

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Velocity (V) Determinations
All instruments used to make velocity determinations should be handled,
used, calibrated and repaired following the recommendations and
directions of the manufacturer. Before using any instrument the safety
professional must carefully read the manufacturer's instructions .
This is to help ensure that field measurements are conducted safely
and properly and all results are recorded and interpreted correctly.

Swinging Vane Anemometer
Today this instrument is less commonly used to assess air velocities (e.g.
face velocity, capture velocity, and transport velocity) at spray booths,
laboratory hoods, and other ventilation systems. This instrument, at one
time, was popular because it was portable, rugged and provided
instantaneous readings on an analog scale. The versatility of the
instrument was improved by adding different probes or attachments.
Diffuser and pitot probe attachments can be added to measure velocities
at air supply vents/diffusers and duct velocities.

In most cases the velometer with its fittings was calibrated as a unit.
Therefore, the fittings and attachments can not be interchanged with
another instrument. With appropriate attachments swinging vane
anemometers can also be used to measure static pressure at various points
in the LEV system.

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Digital and Analog Air Velocity Meters
These light weight instruments feature a telescopic probe and a digital or
analog read out display. They can be used to measure any of the velocities
mentioned earlier at any point in an LEV system. The tip of the telescopic
probe contains a heated ceramic sensor that cools as air passes around it.
The drop in the temperature of the ceramic sensor is related to air speed
or velocity which appears on the digital read out in feet per minute
(ft/min).

Although these instruments are extremely portable, the telescopic probe
can be damaged easily as can the heated ceramic sensor. Additionally,
hot, caustic or dust laden air streams may damage the sensor.
Furthermore, since the instrument is designed with electrical circuitry and
is battery operated, safety professionals should read the manufacturers
instruction manual to determine if the instrument can be used in
environments where flammable or explosive gases/vapours are present.

U-tube Manometer and Inclined Manometer
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A u-tube manometer contains water, oil or some other appropriate liquid
that is displaced when pressure differentials in a LEV system are found.
That is, when a tube is connected to one or both ends of the u-tube
manometer, static pressure, velocity pressure and/or total pressure can be
measured in inches water gauge.

Increased sensitivity and scale magnification can be achieved by tilting
and extending one leg of the u-tube manometer. When this is done an
inclined manometer is formed. To be used effectively, the inclined
manometer must be placed on a level surface. Although accuracy is
increased with the inclined manometer it becomes less practical to use in
the field where industrial traffic is heavy and levelling is problematic.
U-Tube Manometer
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Inclined Manometer
Pitot Tube
Pitot tubes and inclined manometers or similar gauge pressure measuring
devices can be used to measure velocity pressure and determine the
velocity of air moving through ductwork.
This is because air velocity meters may not be rugged enough to measure
air velocity directly. The pitot is a device that consists of two concentric
tubes. One tube measures total or impact pressure while the other
measures static pressure only. Therefore, the instrument can be used
effectively to measure static velocity (VP) and total pressures (TP).
Static Pressure Measurements
Static pressure (SP) can be measured at any point in the system. This can be
accomplished by using the u-tube or inclined manometer with a tube
attached. A hole is drilled in the side wall of the LEV ductwork and the SP is
measured perpendicular to airflow.
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SP can also be measured using the pitot tube attachment and inclined or
u-tube manometer.

Velocity Pressure Measurements
VP can be used to compute velocity of the air stream if the air
density is known. For standard air (where density is 0.075 Ib/ft
3
)
the relationship between velocity and velocity pressure is given
by the formula:
V =4005 (Square root of VP)
Because airflow in a section of ductwork is not uniform, it is
necessary to obtain an average by measuring VP at points of
equal area across the cross section of duct work. Usually, two
traverses are made one perpendicular to the other. Traverse
openings should be drilled and be located at least 7.5 duct
diameters downstream of any air disturbance (e.g. branch, entry,
elbow etc.) At duct or transport velocities above 2000 fpm VP
readings will be accurate to +1.0%. At air velocities below 2000
ft/min, VP readings will be less accurate.

Readings (recorded in inches water gauge) are taken at the centre
of the annular rings of equal area. For round ducts 6" and smaller,
at least 6 traverse points should be used. For round ducts larger
that 6" in diameter at least ten (10) traverse points should be
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used. For very large ducts as many as 20 traverse points may be
used.

To determine the average velocity in the section of ductwork
where the pitot traverse was made:
Record the VP readings 1.
Convert VP readings to Velocity using the formula V=4005
(Square root of VP)
2.
Add the converted velocity readings together and divide by
the number of measurements
3.
Total Pressure Measurements
To determine TP the following pitot and inclined manometer configuration is
used.


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