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ABOUT

INTRODUCTION TO COMPANY
ACCLIMITED (Former Associate Cement Company Limited) isIndiasforemostmanufacturer of
Portland cement and concrete for generalconstruction and special applications.ACCs
operations are spread throughout the countrywith14modern cement factories,19 Readymix
concrete plants, 19 salesoffices,and several zonaloffices. It has aworkforceofabout9000
persons and acountry-wide distributionnetwork ofover9,000 dealers.ACCs annual
turnoverisRS.7000 cores and annual rated capacity of 24 million tones.ACC Limitedis a part of
World-wideHOLCIM Group.ACCs research and developmentfacilityhasauniquetrack record
ofinnovativeresearch, product development andspecialized consultancyservices.Since its
inception in 1936, the company hasbeen atrend setter and importantbenchmarkfor the
cement industry irrespect of itsproduction,marketingandpersonnelmanagementprocesses. Its
commitment toenvironmentfriendliness,its highethical standards in business dealings and its
on-goingefforts incommunity welfare programs havewon it acclaim as a responsiblecorporate
citizen.ACC has made significant contributions to thenationbuildingprocessbywayofquality
products servicesandsharing its expertise.
In the70 years of its existence, ACC has been a pioneer in the manufacture of cement and
concrete and a trendsetter in many areas of cement and concrete technologyincluding
improvement in raw materialutilization, process improvement, energy conservation and
development of high performance concretesACCs brand name is synonymous with cement
and enjoys a highlevel of equity in the Indian market. It is the only cement company 2009that
figures in the list of Consumer Super Brands of India.

The companies various businesses are supported by a powerful, in-house research and
technology backup facility the only one of itskind in the Indian cement industry.This ensures
not just consistency inproduct quality but also continuous improvements in
product,processes,and application areas.


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ACC has rich experience in mining, being the largest user of limestone, and it is also one of the
principal users of coal. As the largest cement producer in India, it is one of the biggest
customers ofthe Indian Railways, and the foremost user of the road transport network
services for inward and outward movement of materials andproducts.

ACC is among the first companies in India to include commitment toenvironmental protection
as one of its corporate objectives, long before pollution control laws came into existenceThe
company installed pollution control equipment and high efficiencysophisticated electrostatic
precipitators for cement kilns, raw mills, coal mills, power plants and coolers as far back as
1966. Every factory has state-of-the air pollution control equipment and devices.

HISTORY & PROFILE OF ACC
ACC was formed in 1936 when ten existing cement companies came together under one
umbrella in a historic merger the countrys Firstnotable merger at a time when the term
mergers and acquisitions wasnot even coined.The history of ACC spans a wide canvas
beginningwiththe lonely struggle of its pioneer F E Din Shaw and other Indianentrepreneurs
like him who founded the Indian cement industry. Theirefforts to face competition for survival
in a small but aggressivemarket mingled with the stirring of a countrys nationalist pride
thattouched all walks of life including trade, commerce and business.The first success came
in a move towards cooperation .In the countrysyoung cement industry and culminated in the
historic merger of tencompanies to form a cement giant. These companies belonged to
Fourprominent business groups Tatas, Khataus, Killick Nixon and F EDin Shaw groups. ACC
was formally established on August 1, 1936.Sadly,F E Din Shaw,the man recognized as the
founder of ACC, diedin January 1936.Just months before his dream could be realized.ACC
stands out as the most unique and successful merger in Indianbusiness history, in which the
distinct identities of the constituentcompanies were melded into a new cohesive organization
one thathas survived and retained its position of leadership in industry. In asense, the
formation of ACC represents a quest for the synergy ofgood business practices, values
andshared objectives. The use of theplural in ACCs full name, The Associated Cement
CompaniesLimited, itself indicates the companys origins from a merger. Many years later,
some stockbrokers in the countrys leading stockexchanges still refer to this company simply as
The Merger2009The ACC Board comprises of 13 persons. These include executive,non-
executive, and objectives and broad policies of the Company -consistent with the primary
objective of enhancing long-termshareholder value.The Board meets once a month. Two other
small groups of directors -comprising Shareholders/Investors Grievance Committee and
AuditCommittee of the Board of Directors - also meet once a month onmatters pertaining to
the
finance and share disciplines. During the lastdecade, there has been a streamlining of the
senior managementstructure that is more responsive to the needs of the Companies
primebusiness. A Managing Committee - comprising, in addition to theManaging Director and
the two executive directors, the presidentsrepresenting multifarious disciplines: finance,
production, marketing,research and consultancy, engineering and human resources
meetsonce a week. Besides these bodies, there are senior executives and other regional
managers based at the Companys corporate office andat its marketing offices and
manufacturing units who contribute to thedevelopment and operation of the various
functions.While thesegroups form the core management team that frames and
guidescorporate policy, ACC is proud of its manpower strength of about9,000 people, who
comprise experts in various disciplines assisted bya dedicated workforce of skilled
persons.Quite a number of themhave logged many years of service with the organization. They
comefrom all parts of the country and belong to a variety of ethnic, culturaland religious
backgrounds. Because of such a cosmopolitan make-up, ACC can rightly be said to embrace
within its fold a family that formsa mini-India.
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PLANT AND PROCESS LAYOUT





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INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT

The importance of maintenance functions for maintenance management in commonly industries
has growing rapidly. A lot of researches and publications in the field maintenance decision models
have been published to improve the effectiveness of maintenance process. Productionsystems
have changed tremendously in recent years. Attention has shifted fromeconomy of scale to
economy of scope. Todays market conditions are characterized by more emphasis on variety,
delivery performance, and quality. Product life cycles are shrinking. To respond to these new
stringent requirements, manufacturers are turning to high-tech equipment such as flexible
manufacturing systems. They are also adopting new material control methodologies such as the
just-in-time philosophy which calls for production systems working without inventory at all. Set-up
and adjustment times are also reduced to a minimum. All these factors are shifting the focus to
maintenance, since unplanned unavailability of machines will result in serious problems. This new
reality explains the renewed interest in maintenance and the increased attention it is receiving
from management. Unfortunately, in many organizations maintenance productivity is very low.
However, the maintenance function can no longer be neglected. In order to meet todays
challenges; companies must constantly strive for excellence in maintenance through serious
comprehensive maintenance improvement program.

In order to measure the effectiveness of any maintenance system, we need to measure its
productivity and identify the areas where improvements can be made. Audits are used to assess
the current status of the maintenance system so that appropriate improvement program can be
formulated.Auditing a maintenance system uses the following steps:(1) A survey carried out using
a well-designed questionnaire. The questions areaimed at comparing the current practices with
what they should be.(2) Analysis of the data gathered in step 1.(3) Formulation of improvement
program based on the analysis of the previous step.

The importance of Maintenance in Cement Industries:
The importance of maintenance increases when the grade of automation and mechanization
increases .In cement manufacturing the equipment at the beginning was not so complicated for
the technical point of view and more people were t required to keep the cement production lines
in operation. The maintenance activity in the cement industry couldnt influence the productivity
so much. It was important to keep equipment running but the maintenance department couldnt
contribute much to productivity because the quality and quantity of cement was to large extent
decided by the skill of the workers and his capacity to work fast .In connection with technical
development the importance of maintenance was increased as high productivity and quality can
be achieved by mean of well developed and organized maintenance. Maintenance must be
controlled in a way that the equipment is stopped for maintenance in a planned stoppage
schedule. it Is not acceptable if equipment stops unplanned .to achieve the right productivity and
quality of product ,it is important to procure the right equipment from the very beginning.
Maintenance does not start when equipment s delivered and installed, if it starts at an early stage
in the projects and the procurement work.

There are many reasons why maintenance is becoming increasingly important In developing
countries like India .maintenance problems are rising for e.g. in the ACC Cement plant bargarh ,
half of the production lines have been operating on average for more then 25 years and most of
them are fully automatically controlled .Due to the increase in automation, any breakdown will
have as serious impact on production and measures to minimize and reduce breakdowns become
a must. Therefore the main aims of the maintenance activities in cement plants are to preserve
the equipment and installation. in order to achieve that all maintenance activities should be
performed and executed to high standard through accurate planning and scheduling for all
resources. The main step in doing so is auditing of the existing maintenance system.



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CEMENT CLINKER
Portland cement clinker is the essential ingredient of Portland cement. Portland cement is
obtained by grinding clinker with only minor amounts of a few other minerals, so its
composition does not depart far from that of clinker. Other cements (i.e. non-Portland
cements, for example pozzolanic cements, blast furnace slag cements, limestone cements and
masonry cements) contain larger amounts of other minerals and have a much wider
composition range. Although the other potential ingredients may be cheap natural materials,
clinker is made in an energy-intensive chemical process - in a kiln - and its production is the
main concern of this website. Between one and two billion tons a year of clinker are made
world-wide, and the details of its formation are therefore of great economic significance,
since no viable alternative ingredients for making cement-like materials currently exist.
Unlike many other thermal products (e.g. aluminium, pig-iron), clinker is a fairly complex
mixture of different minerals, and so its production depends on a multi-dimensional control
of raw materials and a multi-staged heat treatment. It has been likened to a "man-made
igneous rock", and an understanding of its structure and chemistry requires the application of
many principles of geochemistry.Clinker produced by early
static kilns was in the form of large pumice-like lumps.
Rotary kiln clinker on the other hand, because of the rolling action of the kiln, emerges as
fairly regular roughly spherical hard nodules of diameter typically 5-50 mm, together with a
certain amount of dust abraded from the nodule surfaces.
Clinker minerals react with water to produce the hydrates that are responsible for cements
setting and strength-giving properties. Reaction with water occurs only at the surface of the
clinker particle, and so only proceeds rapidly if the clinker is finely ground to produce a large
reaction surface. Un-ground clinker, when exposed to humid air, is hydrated only very
gradually, and clinker can be kept in a dry place for several months without appreciable
deterioration. It can also be transported from one plant to another in ordinary bulk ships and
vehicles, and is traded internationally.
TYPE OF CEMENTS MANUFACTURED BY ACC
ACC manufactures the following types of cement, in addition to which, it provides Bulk
Cement and Ready Mix Concrete.
Ordinary Portland Cements
43 Grade Cement (OPC 43 Grade)ACC Cement is the most commonly used cement in all
constructions including plain and reinforced cement concrete, brick and stone masonry,
floorsand plastering. It is also used in the finishing of all types of buildings, bridges, culverts,
roads, water retaining structures, etc.
Portland Cement Clinkerconsist essential of 4 minerals:
alite
belite
tricalcium aluminate
tetracalcium aluminoferrite
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What is more, it surpasses BIS Specifications (IS 8112-1989 for 43 grade OPC) on
compressive strength levels.
53 Grade Cement
This is an Ordinary Portland Cement which surpasses the requirements of IS: 12269-53
Grade. It is produced from high quality clinker ground with high purity gypsum. ACC 53
Grade OPC provides high strength and durability to structures because of its optimum
particle size distribution, superior crystalline structure and balanced phase composition.
Blended Cements
Fly-ash based Portland Pozzolana Cement
This is a special blended cement, produced by inter-grinding higher strength Ordinary
Portland Cement clinker with high quality processed fly ash - based on norms set by the
company's R&D division. This unique, value-added product has hydraulic binding properties
not found in ordinary cements.
What is special about ACC Fly-ash based PPC?

ACC Fly-ash based PPC is made by inter grinding high strength clinker with specially
processed fly ash. This imparts a greater degree of fineness to ACC Fly-ash based PPC
cement, improved workability properties while mixing, and makes concrete more corrosion
resistant and impermeable. All of this makes for better long-term strength and improved
corrosion resistance and therefore, greater life for your constructions. ACC Fly-ash based
PPC is an eco-friendly cement
What are the advantages of using ACC Fly-ash based PPC ?

In concrete made from ordinary cements, moisture reacts with calcium hydroxide in
concrete to form calcium bicarbonate, which leaches out of the concrete, leaving pores that
reduce its strength. ACC Fly-ash based PPC has ingredients which react with calcium
hydroxide to form CSH gel, to provide additional strength, which actually makes the
concrete grow in strength over the years. It also produces less heat of hydration and offers
greater resistance to the attack of aggressive waters than normal Portland cement.
Can ACC Fly-ash based PPC be used for all jobs in construction?
ACC Fly-ash based PPC easily replaces OPC and provides additional advantages for
practically all types of construction applications - commercial, residential, bungalows,
complexes, foundation, columns, beams, slabs and RCC jobs. It is especially recommended
for mass concreting work, and where soil conditions and the prevailing environment take
heavy toll of constructions made with ordinary cements.

How does ACC Fly-ash based PPC stand up to corrosive environments?

Due to its inherent characteristics, ACC Fly-ash based PPC makes very corrosion resistant
concrete that is superior to concrete made with OPC. It is more impermeable to oxygen, CO2,
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chlorides, etc. Leaching of alkalis is reduced and the alkaline environment around steel is
maintained.
Portland Slag Cement
This is a slag-based blended cement that imparts strength and durability to all structures. It
is manufactured by blending and inter-grinding OPC clinker and granulated slag in suitable
proportions as per our norms of consistent quality. PSC has many superior performance
characteristics which give it certain extra advantages when compared to Ordinary Portland
Cement
What is special about ACC PSC?

Compared to OPC, ACC PSC imparts some important additional advantages
Reduction in free lime leaching.
Ultimate higher strength.
Improved workability, reduced bleeding as well as segregation and corrosion.
Denser, less permeable concrete, and mortar.
Better resistance to sulphates, chlorides, and CO2 and alkali-aggregates reaction.
Less heat, reduced plasticity and drying shrinkage.
Increased static modulus of elasticity.
Increased serviceability with less deflection of members and micro cracks and
reduced cost of construction and maintenance.
All these factors make for a strong, durable, and longer lasting construction. ACC PSC
benefits the structure, protects the environment by reducing CO2 emissions and helps
conserve energy. Which is why it is often referred to as an eco-friendly cement.
The Federation International de la Precontrainte (FIP) Guide to Good Practice for "concrete
constructions in hot weather," states that if concrete is likely to be exposed to an
environment of sulphate-bearing water or soil, it is preferable to use a proven type of
blended cement containing ground granulated blastfurnace slag. Concrete made with ACC
PSC has a higher density than concrete made with OPC, and hence it improves the durability
of concrete structures.
It can, therefore, be used for all purposes where OPC or PPC is used.






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DIFFERENT UNITS OF KILN SECTION
1.KILN INPUT UNITS :
1.1 Blending and Storage Silo
Normally there are various sources of limestone, each with different qualities, which are added with
various additives to get the required composition of raw mix. As there are various sources of raw
materials, it becomes necessary to blend and homogenize these different materials efficiently to
counteract fluctuation in the chemical composition of the raw meal. The variations in the
composition of kiln feed have very adverse impacts on the efficiency of the kiln. It results in
undesired coating and ring formation inside the kiln. In order to blend and homogenize the raw
materials properly, continuous blending silos are used.
1.2Preheater
The most important activity in cement manufacturing is clinkering (or burning) of raw material.
Clinkering takes place in the kiln and the preheater system. Preheater systems offer heat transfer
from the hot kiln gases.
1.3 Coal Mill Building
The coal mill building houses the mill for grinding lumpy coals. This fine ground coal is used for
burning in the kiln.The mills used for coal grinding and drying are either trumbling mills (tube mills)
or roller mills.
1.4 Bag House
The term bag house is applied to large filters containing a number of tubular bags mounted in a
usually rectangular casing. The dust laden air is drawn through them by suction. The bag house is
used to remove dusty particles from discharge of different equipment such as cement mill, coal mill
and kiln. In a bag house system discharge gas containing dusty particles is passed through a series of
bags made of strong fabrics.
2. ROTARY CLINKER KILN
A kiln is the heart of any cement plant. It is basically a long cylindrical-shaped pipe, and rotates ina
horizontal position. Its internal surface is lined by refractory bricks. Limestone and additives
arecalcined in this. The output of the kiln is called clinker.
3.KILN OUTPUT UNITS:
3.1 Cooler
The clinker coming out of the kiln is hot. It is cooled in a set-up called a cooler. In the cooler, cold air
is blown to effect heat exchange between hot clinker and cold air.
3.2 Gas Conditioning Tower and ESP
The conditioning tower is used to reduce the temperature and to increase the moisture level of the
dusty exhaust gas from the kiln, before it is passed through the bag house and ESPs. It is called a
conditioning tower because it conditions the hot gas, thus making it more suitable for the ESP and
bag house to extract dust from it.
The Electrostatic Precipitators are used in cement plants particularly for removal of dust from the
exit gases of cement kilns and from the exhaust air discharged by dryers, combined grinding and
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drying plants, finishing mills and raw mills through water injection. Through ESPs, the dust-laden gas
is made to flow through a chamber usually horizontally, during which it passes through one or more
high voltage electric fields formed by alternate discharge electrodes and plate type collecting
electrodes. By the action of electric field, the dust particles, which have become electrically charged
by negative gas ions which are formed at the discharge electrodes and attach themselves to the
particles, fly to the collecting electrodes and are deposited there. The dust is dislodged from these
electrodes by rapping and thus falls into the receiving hopper at the base of the precipitator casing.

3.3Deep Bucket Conveyor
The deep bucket conveyor is essentially an equipment to lift material vertically.
3.4 Clinker/Gypsum Storage
The output of the kiln is stored before it is fed to the cement mill for conversion to cement. This
storage is called clinker storage, if it is used for clinker storage purpose. If the storage space is used
for gypsum storage, it is called gypsum storage.
The storage may be of silo type or covered stacker reclaimer type or simply a gantry type. Silo type
clinker storage has the advantage that there is no dust pollution and spillage of clinker.
sameadvantage can be achieved through stacker reclaimer type as well. However, there is a little bit
of dust generated. Gantry type is not used in modern cement plants because of its environmental
unfriendly nature.





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CEMENT KILN
Cement kilns are used for the pyroprocessing(Pyroprocessingis a process in whichmaterials
are subjected to high temperatures (typically over 800C) in order to bring about a chemical
or physical change) stage of manufacture of Portland and
other types of hydraulic cement, in which calcium
carbonate reacts with silica-bearing minerals to form a
mixture of calcium silicates. Over a billion tonnes of
cement are made per year, andcement kilns are the heart
of this production process: their capacity usually define
the capacity of the cement plant. As the main energy-
consuming and greenhouse-gasemitting stage of cement
manufacture, improvement of kiln efficiency has been the
central concern of cement manufacturing technology.

KILN HISTORY
Portland cement clinker was first made (in 1825) in a modified form of the traditional static
lime kiln. The basic, egg-cup shaped lime kiln was provided with a conical or beehive shaped
extension to increase draught and thus obtain the higher temperature needed to make
cement clinker. For nearly half a century, this design, and minor modifications, remained the
only method of manufacture. The kiln was restricted in size by the strength of the chunks of
rawmix: if the charge in the kiln collapsed under its own weight, the kiln would be
extinguished. For this reason, beehive kilns never made more than 30 tons of clinker per
batch. A batch took one week to turn around: a day to fill the kiln, three days to burn off,
two days to cool, and a day to unload. Thus, a kiln would produce about 1500 tons per year.
A kiln is basically an industrial oven, and although the term is generic, several quite
distinctive designs have been used over the years.Although perhaps more normally
associated with pottery making, both Bottle and their very close relatives Beehive kilns,
were also the central feature of any cement works. Early designs tended to be updraft kilns,
which were often built as a straight sided cone into which the flame was introduced at, or
below, floor level. Reaching heights of up to 70 ft, the dome or bottle shape of the kiln,
known as the hovel, would be quite a prominent landmark. As well as protecting the inner
kiln or crown, the opening at the top of the hovel also acted as a flue, to remove the smoke
and exhaust gases that were produced during the production process. There was a three to
four foot gap between the outer wall of the hovel and inner shell of the crown. Due to the
fact that the 1-foot-thick (0.30 m) crown wall would expand and contract during firing,it was
strengthened with a number of iron bands, known as bonts. These were set twelve inches
apart and ran right around the circular oven. The development of downdraft kilns in the
early 20th Century proved to bemuch more fuel efficient and were designed to force the
heated air to circulate more around the kiln. The design incorporated a gentle curve at the
'shoulders' of the kiln, which served to reflect the rising heat from the fire at the bottom of
the kiln, back down again over the material. The smoke and exhaust was then sucked out
through holes at the bottom of the kiln via a flue,whichwasconnected to anearby chimney.
The chimney would also serve a number of neighbouring kilns as well. The kiln would be
fired for several days to achieve the high temperatures required to produce cement clinker,
and although the above methods were successful, the problem with any batch kiln was that
it was intermittent and once the product had been produced, the fire had to be
extinguished and the contents allowed to cool. This not only wasted a lot of the heat, but
also added to the expense of the finished product.
In order to save money on fuel, a kiln was required that could run almost continuously,
whilst the raw material was somehow fed through it. It was this scenario that lead to the
development of the Chamber kiln in the late 1850s. This particular kiln comprised a
number of individual chambers, which were arranged so that the hot flue gases from one
chamber, were drawn off and used to pre-heat the material in the following chambers,
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before they were drawn up the chimney. Once the first chamber had been filled with raw
material, coal was added through the roof holes of the chamber and was then set alight. At
the same time, the second chamber was being filled with raw material. The airflow from the
first chamber was then adjusted, using a number of dampers, to funnel the hot air through
to the second chamber to pre-heat the material. More coal was then poured into the
second chamber and ignited, as the third chamber was being filled and so on. This process
continued along the length of the kiln, so that by the time the last chamber had been fired,
the first chamber had already been cleared and re-filled with more raw material so that the
process could start again. Although such chamber kilns were still being installed as late as
1900, the development of the rotary kiln was already starting to have a major impact. The
rotary kiln was a major advancement for the industry as it provided the continuous
production of a much more uniform product in larger quantities.
Around 1885, experiments began on design of continuous kilns. One design was the shaft
kiln, similar in design to a blast furnace. Rawmix in the form of lumps and fuel were
continuously added at the top, and clinker was continually withdrawn at the bottom. Air
was blown through under pressure from the base to combust the fuel. The shaft kiln had a
brief period of use before it was eclipsed by the rotary kiln, but it had a limited renaissance
from 1970 onward in China and elsewhere, when it was used for small-scale, low-tech plants
in rural areas away from transport routes. Several thousand such kilns were constructed in
China. A typical shaft kiln produces 100-200 tones per day.
From 1885, trials began on the development of the rotary kiln, which today accounts for
more than 95% of world production


THE WET PROCESS AND THE DRY PROCESS KILN

From the earliest times, two different methods of rawmix preparation were used: the
mineral components were either dry-ground to form a flour-like powder, or were wet-
ground with added water to produce a fine slurrywith the consistency of paint, and with a
typical water content of 4045%.
The wet process suffered the obvious disadvantage that, when the slurry was introduced
into the kiln, a large amount of extra fuel was used in evaporating the water. Furthermore, a
larger kiln was needed for a given clinker output, because much of the kiln's length was used
up for the drying process. On the other hand, the wet process had a number of advantages.
Wet grinding of hard minerals is usually much more efficient than dry grinding. When slurry
is dried in the kiln, it forms a granular crumble that is ideal for subsequent heating in the
kiln. In the dry process, it is very difficult to keep the fine powder rawmix in the kiln,
because the fast-flowing combustion gases tend to blow it back out again. It became a
practice to spray water into dry kilns in order to "damp down" the dry mix, and thus, for
many years there was little difference in efficiency between the two processes, and the
overwhelming majority of kilns used the wet process. By 1950, a typical large, wet process
kiln, fitted with drying-zone heat exchangers was 3.3 x 120 m in size, made 680tones per
day, and used about 0.250.30 tones of coal fuel for every tonne of clinker produced. Before
the energy crisis of the 1970s put an end to new wet-process installations, kilns as large as
5.8 x 225 m in size were making 3000 tones per day.
An interesting footnote on the wet process history is that some manufacturers have in fact
made very old wet process facilities profitable through the use of waste fuels. Plants that
burn waste fuels enjoy a negative fuel cost (they are paid by industries needing to dispose of
materials that have energy content and can be safely disposed of in the cement kiln thanks
to its high temperatures and longer retention times). As a result the inefficiency of the wet
process is an advantageto the manufacturer.By locating waste burning operations at older
wet process locations, higher fuel consumption actually equatesto higher profits for the
manufacturealthough it produces correspondingly greater emission of CO
2
. Manufacturers
who think such emissions should be reduced are abandoning the use of wet process.
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THE ROTARY KILN
General layout of a rotary kiln
The rotary kiln consists of a tube made from steel plate, and lined with firebrick. The tube
slopes slightly (14) and slowly rotates on its axis at between 30 and 250 revolutions per
hour. Raw mix is fed in at the upper end, and the rotation of the kiln causes it gradually to
move downhill to the other end of the kiln. At the other end fuel, in the form of gas, oil, or
pulverized solid fuel, is blown in through the "burner pipe", producing a large concentric
flame in the lower part of the kiln tube. As material moves under the flame, it reaches its
peak temperature, before dropping out of the kiln tube into the cooler. Air is drawn first
through the cooler and then through the kiln for combustion of the fuel. In the cooler the air
is heated by the cooling clinker, so that it may be 400 to 800 C before it enters the kiln, thus
causing intense and rapid combustion of the fuel.
The earliest successful rotary kilns were developed in Pennsylvania around 1890, and were
about 1.5 m in diameter and 15 m in length. Such a kiln made about 20 tons of clinker per
day. The fuel, initially, was oil, which was readily available in Pennsylvania at the time. It was
particularly easy to get a good flame with this fuel. Within the next 10 years, the technique
of firing by blowing in pulverized coal was developed, allowing theuse of the cheapest
available fuel. By 1905, the largest kilns were 2.7 x 60 m in size, and made 190 tons per day.
At that date, after only 15 years of development, rotary kilns accounted for half of world
production. Since then, the capacity of kilns has increased steadily, and the largest kilns
today produce around 10,000 tons per day.
In contrast to static kilns, the material passes through quickly: it takes from 3 hours (in
some old wet process kilns) to as little as 10 minutes (in short precalciner kilns). Rotary kilns
run 24 hours a day, and are typically stopped only for a few days once or twice a year for
essential maintenance. One of the main maintenance works on rotary kilns is tyre and roller
surface machining and grindingworks which can be done while the kiln works in full
operation at speeds up to 3,5 rpm. This is an important discipline, because heating up and
cooling down are long, wasteful and damaging processes. Uninterrupted runs as long as 18
months have been achieved.

Kiln Shell
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This is made from rolled mild steel plate, usually between 15 and 30 mm thick, welded to
form a cylinder which may be up to 230 m in length and up to 6 m in diameter. This will be
usually situated on an east/west axis to prevent eddy currents.
Upper limits on diameter are set by the tendency of the shell to deform under its own
weight to an oval cross section, with consequent flexure during rotation. Length is not
necessarily limited, but it becomes difficult to cope with changes in length on heating and
cooling (typically around 0.1 to 0.5% of the length) if the kiln is very long.this is cylindrical.
Refractory Lining
The purpose of the refractory lining is to insulate the steel shell from the high temperatures
inside the kiln, and to protect it from the corrosive properties of the process material. It may
consist of refractory bricks or cast refractory concrete, or may be absent in zones of the kiln
that are below around 250C. The refractory selected depends upon the temperature inside
the kiln and the chemical nature of the material being processed. In some processes, such as
cement, the refractory life is prolonged by maintaining a coating of the processed material
on the refractory surface. The thickness of the lining is generally in the range 80 to 300 mm.
A typical refractory will be capable of maintaining a temperature drop of 1000C or more
between its hot and cold faces. The shell temperature needs to be maintained below
around 350C in order to protect the steel from damage, and continuous infrared scanners
are used to give early warning of "hot-spots" indicative of refractory failure.
Tyres and Rollers
Tyres, sometimes called riding rings, usually consist of a single annular steel casting,
machined to a smooth cylindrical surface, which attach loosely to the kiln shell through a
variety of "chair" arrangements. These require some ingenuity of design, since the tyre must
fit the shell snugly, but also allow thermal movement. The tyre rides on pairs of steel rollers,
also machined to a smooth cylindrical surface, and set about half a kiln-diameter apart. The
rollers must support the kiln, and allow rotation that is as nearly frictionless as possible. A
well-engineered kiln, when the power is cut off, will swing pendulum-like many times before
coming to rest. The mass of a typical 6 x 60 m kiln, including refractories and feed, is around
1100 tons, and would be carried on three tyres and sets of rollers, spaced along the length
of the kiln. The longest kilns may have 8 sets of
rollers, while very short kilns may have only two.
Kilns usually rotate at 0.5 to 2 rpm, but sometimes
as fast as 5 rpm. The Kilns of most modern cement
plants are running at 4 to 5 rpm. The bearings of the
rollers must be capable of withstanding the large
static and live loads involved, and must be carefully
protected from the heat of the kiln and the ingress
of dust. In addition to support rollers, there are
usually upper and lower "retaining (or thrust)
rollers" bearing against the side of tires, that
prevent the kiln from slipping off the support rollers.
Friction between tire and rollers causes concave, convex or conical wear on both surfaces of
tire and rollers. This wear deforms the cylindrical shape of these units and causes vibration,
14

shell deformation, more power consumption and if not resurfaced these problems takes the
level up to changing the shell andtire which takes more budget and shut down time.
Drive Gear
The kiln is usually turned by means of a single Girth Gear surrounding a cooler part of the
kiln tube, but sometimes it is turned by driven rollers. The gear is connected through a gear
train to a variable-speed electric motor. This must have high starting torque in order to start
the kiln with a large eccentric load. A 6 x 60 m kiln requires around 800 kW to turn at 3 rpm.
The speed of material flow through the kiln is proportional to rotation speed, and so a
variable speed drive is needed in order to control this. When driving through rollers,
hydraulic drives may be used. These have the advantage of developing extremely high
torque. In many processes, it is dangerous to allow a hot kiln to stand still if the drive power
fails. Temperature differences between the top and bottom of the kiln may cause the kiln to
warp, and refractory is damaged. It is therefore normal to provide an auxiliary drive for use
during power cuts. This may be a small electric motor with an independent power supply, or
a diesel engine. This turns the kiln very slowly, but enough to prevent damage.

BURNING IN KILN FORMATION OF CLINKER
The process is to heat the blended mixture of raw ingredients (the raw mix) to convert it
into a granular material called cement clinker. This requires maximum temperatures that
are high enough to partially melt the raw mix. Because the raw ingredients are not
completely melted, the mix must be agitated to ensure that the clinker forms with a uniform
composition. This is accomplished by using a long cylindrical kiln that slopes downward and
rotates slowly.
To heat the kiln, a mixture of fuel and air is injected into the kiln and burned at the
bottom end . The hot gases travel up the kiln to the top, through a dust collector, and out a
smokestack. A variety of fuels can be used, including pulverized coal or coke, natural gas,
lignite, and fuel oil. These fuels create varying types and amounts of ash, which tend to
have compositions similar to some of the aluminosilicate ingredients in the raw mix. Since
the ash combines with the raw mix inside the kiln, this must be taken into account in order
to correctly predict the cement compassion. There is also an increasing trend to use waste
products as part of the fuel, for example old tires. In the best-case scenario, this saves
money on fuel, reduces CO
2
emissions, and provides a safe method of disposal.
The burning process
The raw mix enters at the upper end of the kiln and slowly works its way downward to the
hottest area at the bottom over a period of 60-90 minutes, undergoing several different
reactions as the temperature increases. It is important that the mix move slowly enough to
allow each reaction to be completed at the appropriate temperature. Because the initial
reactions are endothermic (energy absorbing), it is difficult to heat the mix up to a higher
temperature until a given reaction is complete.
The general reaction zones are as follows:
Dehydration zone (up to ~ 450C): This is simply the evaporation and removal of the free
water. Even in the dry process there is some adsorbed moisture in the raw mix. Although
15

the temperatures required to do this are not high,this requires significant time and energy.
In the wet process, the dehydration zone would require up to half the length of the kiln,
while the dry process requires a somewhat shorter distance.
Calcination zone (450C 900C): The term calcination refers to the process of
decomposing a solid material so that one of its constituents is driven off as a gas. At about
600C the bound water is driven out of the clays, and by 900C the calcium carbonate is
decomposed, releasing carbon dioxide. By the end of the calcination zone, the mix consists
of oxides of the four main elements which are ready to undergo further reaction into
cement minerals. Because calcination does not involve melting, the mix is still a free-
flowing powder at this point.
Solid-state reaction zone (900 - 1300C): This zone slightly overlaps, and is sometimes
included with, the calcination zone. As the temperature continues to increase above ~
900C there is still no melting, but solid-state reactions begin to occur. CaO and reactive
silica combine to form small crystals of C
2
S (dicalcium silicate), one of the four main cement
minerals. In addition, intermediate calcium aluminates and calcium ferrite compounds
form. These play an important role in the clinkering process as fluxing agents, in that they
melt at a relatively low temperature of ~ 1300C, allowing a significant increase in the rate
of reaction. Without these fluxing agents, the formation of the calcium silicate cement
minerals would be slow and difficult. In fact, the formation of fluxing agents is the primary
reason that portland (calcium silicate) cements contain aluminum and iron at all. The final
aluminum- and iron-containing cement minerals (C
3
A and C
4
AF) in a portland cement
contribute little to the final properties. As the mix passes through solid-state reaction zone
it becomes sticky due to the tendency for adjacent particles to fuse together.
Clinkering zone (1300C 1550C): This is the hottest zone where the formation of the
most important cement mineral, C
3
S (alite), occurs. The zone begins as soon as the
intermediate calcium aluminate and ferrite phases melt. The presence of the melt phase
causes the mix to agglomerate into relatively large nodules about the size of marbles
onsisting of many small solid particles bound together by a thin layer of liquid.
Inside the liquid phase, C
3
S forms by reaction between C
2
S crystals and CaO. Crystals of
solid C
3
S grow within the liquid, while crystals of belite formed earlier decrease in number
but grow in size. The clinkering process is complete when all of silica is in the C
3
S and C
2
S
crystals and the amount of free lime (CaO) is reduced to a minimal level (<1%).
Cooling zone: As the clinker moves past the bottom of the kiln the temperature drops
rapidly and the liquid phase solidifies, forming the other two cement minerals C
3
A
(aluminate) and C
4
AF (ferrite). In addition, alkalis (primarily K) and sulfate dissolved in the
liquid combine to form K
2
SO
4
and Na
2
SO
4
. The nodules formed in the clinkering zone are
now hard, and the resulting product is called cement clinker. The rate of cooling from the
maximum temperature down to about 1100C is important, with rapid cooling giving a more
reactive cement. This occurs because in this temperature range the C
3
S can decompose
back into C
2
S and CaO, among other reasons. It is thus typical to blow air or spray water
onto the clinker to cool it more rapidly as it exits the kiln.

16

KILN OPERATION TARGET
1.Highest clinker production of about 2800-3000 TPD with Good quality clinker
And Stable kiln operation
2.Oxygen level as low as possible
Gas and fuel oil 1.0 to 1.5%
Coal and coke around 2.0% (depending on the variations in fuel mixture)
3.Kiln exit temperature as low as possible
Flame as short as possible (with respect of the burning zone refractory)
Keep burning zone short in front of the kiln
4.Secondary air temperature as high as possible but stable
Temperature not above liquid phase temperature in front of kiln to protect refractory and
coating
Run with an under grate pressure as high as possible
Compatible with the cooler fans static pressure capacity
5.Primary air as low as possible
As combustion air to replace by hot air from cooler as much as possible
6.Clinker Temperature
Not to exceed 230oF (110oC) as it could promote quality problems (false set) during the
grinding process
KILN MAINTENANCE:

VARIABLES WHICH THE OPERATOR CANNOT CONTROL
Quality and characteristics of the raw materials
Quality of the fuel used as a example: heat value, ash content, volatile matter and moisture
level
Dust quality and quantity returned to the kiln
Accuracy of the feeders
Chain system design
Accuracy and good response of all control loops and sensors of the kiln system
For these variables that he cannot control, the operator should be kept informed of any
changes done and should make sure that those variables are kept inside an acceptable
range to maintain a good kiln stabilization.

VARIABLES WHICH THE OPERATOR CAN CONTROL
Material feed to the kiln
Fuel feed to the kiln
Speed rotation of the kiln
Temperature profile along the kiln
Draft at the feed end of the kiln
Supply of combustion air
Retention time of the material in the kiln
Temperature of the combustion air
Flame shape
Observation of instruments, and correct reaction to their readings
Observation of the kiln burning zone, and correct reaction to this evaluation
However, some restrictions are sometimes given on the utilization of those variables and
may vary from plant to plant due to local conditions and are usually the following:
Set point on the maximum speed of the kiln
17

Set point on the maximum feed rate to the kiln
Automatic loop set point for oxygen level and ID fan speed.
Settings on the burner pipe and its position
Primary air settings and fuel tip velocity
Set point on cooler fans flow
Set point for the under grate pressure and the clinker bed depth in the cooler


MONITORING OF A ROTARY KILN

The advantages of daily monitoring of critical items and components on a rotary kiln can
lead to substantial costs savings. The items that should be monitored on a daily basis and
corrected with immediate detection of a fault are the following:
Shell temperatures provides an indication of the condition of the refractory lining and
slag/ash ring build up inside the rotary kiln. By monitoring the kiln shell, this will create an
early warning system for refractory wear and possible damage to the refractory inside the
rotary kiln. The wear on the refractory inside the rotary kiln can create hot spots on the
kiln shell. This will create enormous damage to the rotary kiln itself and leads to distortion
of the kiln shell. The monitoring of shell temperatures will give the client an early warning
system regarding slag / ash build up inside the rotary kiln. The build-up of slag / ash is
dangerous for the safe operation of a rotary kiln, it will create a back pressure affect
within the rotary kiln and damage to inlet seals and other mechanical items will occur. It
also has an effect on the production of the rotary kiln by retarding the steady flow of
material down the length of the rotary kiln. To remove the slag build-up inside the kiln is a
costly and very dangerous exercise; it could also lead to premature shutdown of a rotary
kiln.

Girth gear and pinion condition if gear rooting is occurring this will result in an
increase in the amperage of the rotary kiln, which in turn will result in an increase in
electricity consumption and related operating cost. Mechanical failure and or excessive
damage to drive mesh will also occur. The girth gear and pinion is the unit that turns the
rotary kiln. This section with the support rollers is critical to the life of the kiln. Therefore the
proper maintenance is critical at this point.
During shutdown phase the following should be inspected and corrective action taken (all
settings to be done to accommodate the hot state of the rotary kiln) to minimise any
breakdowns during the running phase of the rotary kiln;
Rooting of girth gear and pinion
Pitting/chipping of girth gear and pinion
Correct mesh alignment of girth gear and pinion
Rotary kiln main drive gearboxes to be inspected and drive gears to be checked
Alignment of drive couplings
18

If any deviation from recommended practice is noted, these should be corrected before kiln
start up.
During normal running of the rotary kiln the following must be inspected on a daily basis;
Correct lubrication of girth gear and pinion
Girth Gear/Pinion lubrication pump. Ensure that the pump is working
Lubrication spray nozzles
Meshing of pinion and girth Gear
Rooting of girth gear and pinion.
Support roller monitoring for possible bearing failure - the collapse of a rotary
kiln support roller bearing could cause immense damage to inlet seals and girth and pinion
gears, which will result in loss of production.The collapse of a support roller bearing can
cause immense damage to a rotary kiln. The girth gear will settle into the pinion gear and
chipping, pitting and burring to the teeth of the gears will occur. The amperage of the main
drive motors will increase and the cost of electricity will become very costly. It is
recommended that the following parameters should be monitored on a weekly basis:
Bearing temperature
Correct lubrication
Grease spillage
Plummer block seals
Rotary kiln inlet and discharge seals if not monitored correctly and the seal is
damaged, excess air will enter the rotary kiln which will result in excessive fuel being
required to correct the air-fuel mixture to fire the rotary kiln. If not corrected this will lead
to excessive costs and unburned fuel creating a pollution problem. There is furthermore
possible damage to the electrostatic precipitators.
Main drive gearboxes if not checked daily and faults identified for immediate planned
correction, could lead to downtime, resulting in a major financial loss of the operating
company.

KILN OPERATION PRIORITIES
1. Protection of the personnel working in and around the kiln system is a basic safety rule
that must be strictly followed at all times.
2. Protection of the equipment:.
Around the kiln, the safety of the equipment is mainly related to overheating problems and
could be:
a) Back-end of kiln : Do not exceed 840oF (450oC) at precipitator inlet
b) Feed: Do not exceed 10 minutes without feed as the feed end temperature would go
high.
c) Chain inlet temperature: Do not exceed metallurgical maximum temperature of chain
system. (usually approximately 1900oF or 1038oC)
d) Burning zone: Do not over-heat; keep the raw load near end of flame.
Set a maximum amps level on kiln motor.
19

e) Cooler :Avoid overloaded cooler grates, cut kiln speed down to protect the cooler grates.
Avoid high exhaust gas temperature; could damage dust filter system.
Avoid high clinker temperature; could damage the clinker evacuation circuit.
3. Quality:.
To produce a well-burned clinker with good free-lime at the desired liter-weight
4. Stability:.
Continuous operation should always have priority over maximum production.
Stable kiln operation is the key to long refractory life, high fuel efficiency and uniform
quality clinker.
5. Optimization:.
Strive for optimum production level at the lowest possible cost.

TYPICAL KILN PROBLEMS
List of most frequent factors at work when kiln operation is unsatisfactory
1) High leakage, pre-heater only into feed end seal (more than 5%)
2) Faulty suspension results in high pre-heater outlet temperatures, thus reduces capacity
(bleed air)
3) Poor operating practices (burning techniques)
4) Reducing conditions in kiln
5) Reducing conditions in burning zone due to flame impingement with load
6) Lack of momentum at burner tip leads to long, lazy flame
7) High primary air, (30%+) due to direct firing of coal, (critical in dry process kiln)
8) High level of volatile elements in raw feed particularly chlorine
9) Systematically hot burning
10) Inadequate chain system
11) Poor cooler heat recovery due to cooler fan design
12) Poor cooler heat recovery due to excessive air flows, insufficient pressure in under grate
compartments
13) Chemically variable raw mix C3S, more than 10 points over a shift
14) Variable slurry moisture (more than 3 points)
15) Variable addition of hi-alkali or hi-volatile dust from precipitator (over a period of more
than one-half hour)
16) Erratic feed rate
17) Erratic fuel rate (wet coal)
18) High leakage into hood seal (more than 10% of combustion air)
19) Inadequate or obsolete design of equipment or facilities
20) High leakage into pre-heater and down-comer duct
21) Flame erosion on lining could create premature brick failure
22) Kiln misalignment, excessive tire clearances and other factors of shell deflection
23) Bricking techniques lead to rings not tight enough
24) Low slurry moisture
25) High slurry moisture


List of Typical Kiln Operating Problems

1) Heat consumption higher than normal
Long dry: Higher than 3.4 MBtu/ton
Long wet: Higher than 5.2 MBtu/ton
20

Four stage Pre-heater: Higher than 3.1 MBtu/ton
2) Output lower than nominal and / or standard
3) Kiln is unstable and requires frequent massive shutdowns
4) Kiln is cycling spontaneously without any action of operator
5) Kiln is out of draft with output below nominal
6) Stack stinks SO2 emissions are high
7) Mud ring in chain section on wet kiln
8) Back-spills on wet kiln
9) Burning zone rings
10) Discharge end rings
11) Snowmen in cooler
12) Frequent burning zone burnouts (brick life is less than 3 months)
13) High dust return (above 20% of clinker) causes handling problems
14) Cyclones plug-ups (four stage pre-heater)
15) Build-ups in pre-heater feed box (four stage pre-heater)
16) Cooler exhaust system seems undersized/under-designed
- Hood frequently under pressure (during pushes)
- Exhaust temperature is higher than normal
- Bleed in damper is open very often
- Frequent bag burnouts in cooler bag house
17) Red grates in the cooler all the time. Frequent grates burnouts
18) Red rivers on side of cooler
19) Under pushes, cooler speed up to maximum, yet some fans stop blowing any air
(pressure overload)
20) Kiln drive seems undersized, kicks out upon start-up after a short





KILN EMERGENCY CONDITIONS
RED SPOT ON KILN SHELL
Indicators:
By visual observations
Shell scanner sharp and rapid shell temperature increase to level above 850oF (450oC)
Visual observations of loose refractory bricks in the material load of the kiln or in the clinker
at the cooler discharge

Possible Effects and Danger
Severe warping and damage to kiln shell
Shell temperature between 900 and 1100oF (480 and 590oC), deep red color on shell
Shell temperature over 1200oF (650oC), very bright red and shell bulges and warps


Recommended Actions to Take
A) For small red spot located in the upper transition or center of burning zone
Continue normal operation of kiln but:
Place shell cooling fans in the area of red spot
Shorten flame to bring black feed over area of red spot in attempt to form new coating
21

Keep watching the shell temperature trend
Maintain normal burning zone temperature
Change kiln feed chemistry to obtain an easier burning mix
B) For large red spot located under or near a kiln tire or in areas were no coating is formed
SHUT DOWN KILN IMMEDIATELY
Warning: Under no circumstances should a water spray be used on the red spot, as this
could result in severe kiln shell damage.
Possible Measures to Prevent Re-occurrence
Make sure flame configuration and characteristics are not causing localized coating erosion
or continuous and excessive overheating
Employ proper refractory installation methods
Minimize frequency of kiln shutdowns and upsets
Minimize frequency of clinker type changes over
Avoid hard burning mixes (i.e. ensure sufficient percentage of liquid content in mix to
promote coating formation)

RAW, UNBURNED FEED IN CLINKER COOLER
Indicators:
On rush of raw feed into and beyond burning zone
Black feed position advanced more than way under the flame
Black-out in burning zone
Red grates in cooler
Rapid rise in cooler grate and clinker discharge temperatures
Cooler drag-chain amperage increases rapidly

Possible Effects and Danger
Thermal damage to cooler grates and grate drive mechanism
Fire on clinker conveyor belts
Excessive high temperatures in coal mill air circuit

Warning: Watch for incomplete combustion when visibility in burning zone is severely
restricted.
Actions to Take
First and foremost, do not wait until raw feed is in the cooler; act when the first signs of
impending problems are visible in the burning zone.
Immediately reduce kiln speed to minimum (or turn on auxiliary drive)
Reduce fuel and ID fan speed in accordance with standard slowdown procedures to protect
the kiln back end temperature
Reduce cooler grate drive speed (switch to manual control) to allow material in cooler more
time for cooling
Adjust cooler air flow rates to obtain maximum cooling without the hood pressure going
positive
Advise all unauthorized personnel to stay clear of the firing floor, cooler and coal mill area

Preventive Measures to Avoid Re-occurrence
Accelerate frequency of visual observations of burning zone for early detection of
impending cooler upsets
Evaluate kiln output rates vs. capabilities and kiln operating stability

22


LARGE RING BROKEN LOOSE IN KILN
Indicators
Visual observations of large junks in burning zone
Sudden drop in kiln back end draft
Large drop in oxygen content of kiln exit gases
Hood pressure tending towards positive side
Sudden change in kiln drive amperage

Possible Effects and Dangers
Overloading cooler with unburned feed
On rush of excessive amounts of feed into the burning zone
Damage to cooler drives and grates
Large pieces jamming cooler hammer crusher
Red hot clinker leaving cooler

Actions to Take
When amount of feed and ring fragments in burning zone are extremely large:
Immediately reduce kiln speed to minimum
Reduce fuel and ID fan speed to keep back end temperature under control
Switch cooler grate control to manual and reduce grate speed
Adjust cooler air flows to maximum flow possible, without the hood pressure going positive
Have personnel on standby to watch the cooler and the hammer crusher for possible
overloading, overheating and jamming

Possible Preventive Measures to Avoid Re-occurrence
Laboratory to reevaluate chemistry of kiln feed (including dust return rates) for possible
elimination of ring formation if no solution in this area possible, then
Initiate regular schedule to remove rings and heavy build-up by means of special devices
design for this purpose
Initiate regular procedures to displace the burning zone location on a daily basis

BURNING ZONE DANGEROUSLY HOT
Indicators
Clinker balling in burning zone
Material load sausage-like
Coating dripping off the wall
Sliding molten clinker bed in burning zone
Burning zone recording temperature too high
Cooler under grate pressure too high
Material load turning to liquid in burning zone
Very brilliant and white burning zone

Possible Effects and Dangers
Loss of coating and thermal damage to refractory
Red spot in the kiln shell
Thermal damage to cooler and kiln hood components

Possible Actions
23

Reduce fuel flow rate to minimum until sausaging stops
Increase kiln speed approximately 10 rph until sausage is broken
Provide maximum air in cooler (without hood pressure going positive)
The kiln rotation to be adapted is the aspect of the material near to fall into the cooler. No
liquid material in the cooler, stop kiln rotation if needed.
Reduced primary air flow, then as soon as the objective of breaking the agglomeration is
accomplished,
Reduced the kiln and ID fan speed then increase fuel flow rate to normal operating
conditions

Preventive Measures
If sausaging is frequent and result of easy-burning mix, have laboratory evaluate
possibility of providing a mix with less percentage of liquid content
Make more frequent, vigilant observation of the burning zone conditions
Evaluate flame position and shape to determine if thinner, longer flame is possible

SUDDEN, SHARP RAISE IN BACK-END TEMPERATURE
Possible Reasons
Feed shortage
Combustion in exit gas
ID fan speed too high
Kiln speed too low
Chain fire

Possible Effects and Dangers
Chain fire on wet and dry kilns
Thermal damage to back end, dust collector and pre-heater tower equipment
Delayed ignition of fuel in back end of kiln

Possible Actions
Immediately de-energize electrostatic precipitator
Immediately reduce fuel flow rate and ID fan speed to obtain less than 0.3% oxygen in exit
gas

Warning: Do not cut off fuel flow rate completely as this could trigger an explosion.
Increase kiln speed and feed rate
Warn personnel to stay clear of kiln back-end
Do not open any doors in kiln back-end

Then as soon as the primary objective of bringing the kiln back-end temperature under
control is accomplished:
Return kiln control variables to normal to restore operating conditions
Check out back-end to determine if thermal damage had occurred

Preventive Measures
Do not operate kiln without feed for more than 10 minutes
Provide alarms and properly maintain kiln instrumentation to obtain warnings before the
back-end temperature gets out of maximum range
24

Maintain close vigilance over combustion, back-end and flow conditions during kiln starts,
shutdowns and upsets

BLACK SMOKE EMMISION FROM KILN STACK
Indicators
Combustibles in exit gases
Oxygen in exit gas too low
Flame extinguished for poor ignition conditions
Burning zone temperature too low
Excessive fuel rates and/or insufficient kiln draft

Possible Actions
Immediately de-energize electrostatic precipitator
Immediately reduce fuel flow rate (do not shut off)
Increase ID fan speed to obtain:
a) Zero combustible in exit gas
b) Oxygen between 0.2 and a maximum of 0.5% in exit gas
After black smoke has cleared, maintain the low oxygen/zero combustibles for at least 10
minutes before restoring kiln variables to normal

Preventive Measures
Improve control over flame and firing conditions
Make frequent, vigilant observation of fuel flow rates, gas analysis, flame and kiln draft
conditions during kiln starts and upsets

DISTORTED FLAME SHAPE
Indicators
Irregular and unusual flame shape
Fragmented flame where part of flame impinges on lining near kiln discharge area

Possible Effects and Dangers
Inspect burner pipe for damage or plugged circuit
If flame is erratic and severely impinges upon lining near the kiln discharge area:

Shutdown kiln immediately!
If flame is only slightly distorted; adjust burner position and primary air flow
Check shell temperature on kiln scanner
Schedule a burner pipe repairs for next kiln shutdown

Preventive Measures
Frequent visual inspection when looking inside the kiln
Regular inspection and maintenance of burner pipe during each prolonged kiln shutdown
Improve protection (castable, air cooling) for burner pipe
Maintain primary air flow for at least 2 hours after a kiln has been shutdown or pull back the
burner pipe immediately when kiln is being shutdown

LOSS OF SECTION OF REFRACTORY LINING
Indicators
Loose bricks in clinker bed of burning zone
25

Delineated (linear instead of round) red spot on kiln shell
Rapid rise in kiln shell temperature

Possible Effects and Dangers
Thermal damage and distortion of kiln shell and tire
Further collapse of large sections of linings (especially in alumina brick sections)

Possible Actions
Immediately shutdown the kiln

Preventive Measures
Employ proper refractory installation methods and procedures
Make annual checks of kiln alignment and shell ovality
Have refractory manufacturer provide uniform shapes and proper expansion allowance
for each type of brick

Avoid excessive turning when kiln is cold during shutdowns

COOLER DRIVES OR CLINKER BELT STOPPED
Indicators
Cooler overloaded
Large chunks of coating in cooler
High under grate pressure
High cooler drive amps prior to drive stop
Clinker transfer chutes plugged

Possible Effects and Dangers
Thermal damage to cooler components

Possible Actions
Immediately reduce kiln speed to minimum and attempt to restart clinker belt and/or cooler
drive
If drives cannot be restarted within 5 minutes, shutdown the kiln

Note: After kiln has been shutdown, consider possibility of turning the kiln in less frequent
intervals to prevent further overloading of cooler. (Kiln still had to be rotated periodically
nevertheless)
Preventive Measures
Know at what amperage the cooler drive is likely to fail and provide alarm for overload
Adjust kiln parameters (namely kiln speed) before cooler can become overloaded at the
times when heavier feed load is observed in the burning zone


RED CLINKER AT COOLER DISCHARGE
Indicators
High drag chain amps
Sudden drop in under grate pressure (grate out)
Excessively high under grate pressure (cooler overloaded)
Cooler drive amps and clinker bed depth too high
26

Cooler loaded with coating and ring fragments
Snowman formation at cooler inlet

Possible Effects and Dangers
Thermal damage to cooler components
Thermal damage to clinker transport equipment

Possible Actions
Immediately make a visual check of the cooler to determine reason for red-clinker discharge
If cooler grate out, shutdown kiln
If cooler overloaded, reduce kiln speed to minimum and reduce cooler grate drive speed to
allow more time for cooling
Increase air flow into cooler
Activate water spray at cooler discharge and reroute clinker to prevent damage to conveyor
belts

Preventive Measures
a) On frequent grate failures
Investigate for possible faulty grate installation methods by maintenance department
Investigate quality of grates and bolts used
b) On frequent one-sided loading of cooler bed
Investigate possible cooler design changes
Investigate possibilities for elimination of stalagmite (snowmen) formation at cooler inlet
c) On frequent overloading of cooler due to upsets
Slow down kiln speed before raw feed enters cooler or cooler can become overloaded
(make your corrective moves before things get out of control)

RAPID RAISE OF TEMPERATURE IN COAL SYSTEM
Possible Effects and Dangers
Explosion
Thermal damage to coal system


Possible Actions
Warning: Do not open any door in the system that could provide the oxygen for an
explosion or a more serious fire.
Inject inert gas (CO2) into coal mill inlet
Flood coal mill with kiln feed or excessive coal
Warn all personnel to stay clear of system
Stop or reduce air flow to coal mill to minimum

Preventive Measures for Re-occurrence
Provide coal mill inlet with magnetic device to extract metal fragments from coal feeder belt
Keep paper, rags, etc. out of coal storage pile
Do not feed coal mill with coal that has undergone spontaneous ignition (smothering) while
in storage
Keep coal mill de-tramp chute clear
Provide coal mill system with automatic fire-extinguishing devices
Do not operate coal mill above predetermined safe temperature for any given type of coal
27


POWER FAILURE
Possible Effects and Dangers
Warping of kiln shell
Thermal damage to burner pipe, instrumentation and equipment at kiln discharge area

On coal-fired kilns, settlement of ground coal in coal system that could lead to a fire and/or
explosion

Possible Actions
Immediately start auxiliary power generator and primary air fan (coal mill fan on direct fired
kilns)
Retract burner pipe and protect TV monitor in kiln hood
Start turn on kiln not later than 10 minutes after the power failure
If available, close feed-end damper manually to prevent hot gases from escaping from kiln
by natural draft

Power Failure Main Procedures
Start generator or auxiliary drive
If it is raining, carry out turn as described previously
Close kiln back-end, ID fan damper, or precipitator inlet damper if power failure is of long
duration
Keep primary air fan running to cool down the burner pipe (and pre-calciner burners) or pull
the burners out of the kiln
Try to restore power as soon as possible

The following should be connected on the auxiliary power system:
Emergency light in control room
Emergency light in kiln platform
Telephone system for outside calls
Radio system inside the plant
ID fan louvers and precipitator inlet damper
Kiln auxiliary drive
Primary air fan
Recirculation pump for the industrial water system (water cooling system)
Instructions should be given to all members of the shift for specific responsibilities during a
power failure as example:
Operator A:
Carry out safety procedures on kiln system
Start the auxiliary power system
Close kiln back end (if on auxiliary system)
Rotate the kiln
If it is raining continuously, rotate kiln as soon as possible
Protection of burner pipe (pull out of kiln
Call the power company

Operator B:
Get to main power breaker and try to reset it
Go to kiln back-end and close ID fan louvers (if they are not connected on the auxiliary drive)
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If the auxiliary drive control is not remote, make kiln rotation in local

A CHAIN FIRE
Indicators
Rapid, sudden rise in intermediate and exit gas temperatures
By visual observation

Possible Effects and Dangers
Melt-down and loss of chains
Damage to kiln shell in chain system area
On wet process kilns; steam explosion
Thermal damage to kiln back-end equipment

Possible Actions
Warning: Under no circumstances should water be added at the feed end.

Immediately reduce fuel rate to minimum (but dont shut fuel off completely)
At the same time, reduce ID fan speed to obtain zero combustibles and less than 0.3%
oxygen
Increase kiln speed and feed rate to maximum until the back end temperature is under
control
On wet process kilns, clear all personnel from firing floor

Preventive Measures
Avoid operating the kiln for more than 10 minutes when there is feed shortage
Establish and enforce maximum permissible operating limits for intermediate and/or exit
gas temperatures

HEAVY RAIN OR THUNDERSTORMS
Possible Effects and Dangers
On kilns that are exposed to elements;
Loss of coating and collapse of refractory lining
Thermal damage and warping of kiln shell
Possibility of power failure

Possible Actions
If storm occurs shortly after a kiln shutdown;
Jack (turn) kiln more frequently or continuously on auxiliary drive
Start auxiliary power generator in preparation for a possible power failure


SUDDEN, HIGH POSITIVE HOOD PRESSURE
Possible Reasons
ID fan failure
Large ring or build-up broken loose inside kiln
Instrumentation failure of cooler air flow, cooler stack damper, or ID fan control

Steam explosion on wet-process kilns

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Possible Effects and Dangers
All personnel on firing floor is in danger
Thermal damage to equipment on firing floor and hood
Danger of backfire in coal system

Possible Actions
Immediately clear all personnel from firing floor
Immediately reduce fuel rate to minimum and increase ID fan speed
Reduce cooler air flow rates into under grate compartments
Open cooler excess air damper manually

OVERHEATED KILN BEARINGS
(Procedure needs to be approved by your Maintenance Department)
Slow down kiln speed near minimum 20 rph. Do not stop the kiln (bearing will seize)
Open reset door on top of bearing and pour in sulfur until noise stops
You can add also powdered graphite to the bearing lubricating oil
The sulfur must be poured on the shaft and not on the bearing casing
Keep a bag of sulfur near the control room location
Call the Maintenance Supervisor
Check if the oil heating is on or not, and stop it if it is in operation (breaker location must be
known to all)
Check if the water or glycol circulation is okay. If there is no circulation, open the water
valve very slowly
If you cannot reach the Maintenance Supervisor, call for an Oiler and a Maintenance man
Install a water hose to get cold water in the bearing (not a close circuit loop)
Drain the oil and add new oil until the new oil has reached its normal temperature (below
120oF/50oC you should have a temperature gauge showing the oil temperature on each
bearing)
Temperature sometimes requires from 6 to 12 hours to reach 120oF/50oC
Type of oil to use for the bearings to be confirmed by your maintenance department
KILN HAZARDOUS CONDITIONS
Shooting Rings with Gun
Do not allow any employees other than the gun crew on the firing hood during ring shooting
Do not tamper with the ammunition
Keep all live ammunition locked up and away from the firing floor when not in use
Permit only experienced and trained persons to operate the kiln gun
Use ear muffs when firing gun
Cotton stuffed in the ear is not adequate
Clean gun at frequent intervals and do not attempt to fire an apparent defective gun
If kiln has no chain section, keep all persons away from the kiln back end and rope this area
off before shooting

Clinker, Fuel Oil and Coal Dust Spills
Clean up spills immediately
Provide adequate clean-up cans and facilities for easy removal of spills
Initiate repair action when spills are caused by leaks that can be repaired

Gas, Fuel Oil, Coal and Steam Leaks in Fuel System
Report any gas odor on the firing floor immediately to the shift supervisor
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Provide for periodic inspection of fuel and steam lines and system to detect leaks and other
defects as a preventive measure against major breaks in the system

Burner Hood, Porthole and Cooler Doors
Do not allow anyone to look into the burning zone while the kiln is on operation unless
approved safety equipment for viewing is used
Use proper protective clothing when working near open burner hood and cooler doors
while the kiln is in operation
Instruct all persons to stay clear of the portholes whenever the hood pressure is temporarily
on the positive side

Relining the Kiln with Refractory Bricks and Materials
Use protective screen when working under loose refractory and coating, if no alternate
procedure is possible
Any employee working inside the kiln should have positive means, such as locking out the
kiln drive with his own lock, to assure that the kiln cannot be started while he is inside
Have proper posture and steady footing when lifting bricks or scaling coating
Do not work underneath the burner hood bridge while material is being hauled in and out of
the kiln
Do not test run cooler fans when workmen are inside the kiln
Do not run ID fan when workmen are at kiln rear or in chain section

Working Near or on Dust Collecting Equipment
Wear extra protective clothing to guard against burns from hot dust
Wash skin thoroughly with clear water after contact with alkaline dust
Have a second workman as safety man standing by whenever working under or in bins or
hoppers containing material
Do not allow workmen to work inside hopper without being properly secured on safety lines
and belts
When working on plugged flue hangers, be constantly on guard against potential dust
flushes and cave in of overhanging materials

Backfire and explosion During Kiln Light-up
Open either one cooler or burner hood door before lighting fire in kiln
Secure proper draft in kiln before fire is lighted (very important)
Do not allow unauthorized person to stand near the burner hood during light-up
Stay clear of burner hood ports when igniting the fuel
Avoid excessive fuel flow on initial light-up of flame
Start the primary air fan before opening the fuel valve

When firing coal, make sure that no coal dust spills are present on firing floor, around coal
feeder, or in the primary air pipe

Setting any Kiln Machinery into Motion During Start-up
Make sure all persons are clear of kiln equipment before each unit started
Sound horn to signal startup
Inspect all circuit breakers before the startup to make sure that all safety tags and locks
have been removed
Make sure all machine guards are in place before any equipment is started
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Relining the Kiln with Refractory Bricks
Construct a proper bridge across the burner hood from firing floor to kiln nose
Inspect coating and remove loose overhangs before passing underneath.

KILN CYCLING
This is an unstable condition when the load in the kiln decreases, causing the temperature
of the burning zone to rise and forcing the operator to reduce the fuel rate.
Then, the burning zone starts to cool off in turn forcing the operator to increase the fuel
rate. In severe cases, the temperature continue
to drop, even though the fuel rate is at maximum and it become necessary to reduce the
kiln speed to slow down the entry of the feed into the burning zone. Once a kiln gets into an
upset such as this, the cycle will repeat.
Kiln cycling could be related to the following reasons;
Variations in kiln feed: physical or chemical,
Variations in dust re-introduction to kiln,
Variations in the water spray control system in kiln inlet (if any),
Materials hold up in the chain system (for wet process kilns),
Poor chain system design (for wet process kilns),
Variations in hood pressure control
Poor cooler settings and control which promote secondary air temperature variations,
Operating the kiln above its production capacity,
Variations in the quality and the quantity of the fuel supply to the kiln,
Bad operating practices, especially over reacting with the kiln speed and
Volatile recirculation inside the kiln system especially chlorine

So all the above reasons should be investigated in order to find the cause of the cycling
problem and corrected.
HOW TO BREAK A CYCLE IN A KILN
Reduce feed/speed ratio by approximately 10% in order to change the material load in the
kiln (also mainly to change the material load in the chain system).

Increase the fuel flow rate by 5% above the normal setting of the current production level.

Keep the oxygen level above 2% and try to control the back end temperature variations as
much as possible by using fuel rate and ID fan variations.


Let the kiln amps vary and do not attempt to chase them by varying the kiln speed. Just try
to control them if they get above or below the critical range by varying the fuel flow rate.

If the kiln speed need to be varied than it should be done with very small variations, in order
to avoid upsetting the material in the kiln.

If the kiln speed needs to be increased to go back to normal production level, then it should
be carried out more slowly than normal.

As you get to normal production level, fuel settings should be held above normal before
returning to normal operation settings.
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LOOKING INSIDE A KILN

Viewing the kiln interior
This may sound somewhat elementary, but we should never forget that we are looking into
an extremely luminous source. Although filtering glasses are used, the light source is so
strong that focusing the eyes into it for too long a time could cause partial blindness. One
should look no longer than one minute at a time into the fire. If longer viewing is required,
look a side for few seconds occasionally to rest the eyes. Looking steadily too long at the
flame results in the eye losing its ability to see details, hence the need for a short rest every
minute or so.
The question of what type of colored filter glass to use must be left to the operators.
Burning with a natural gas flame usually makes necessary a darker colored than oil fire
would require, because of the greater luminosity of the flame. As a rule, one should always
use a glass that enables him to see under and behind the flame. Once a certain glass has
been chosen, the operators should stay with this glass at all times in order to properly judge
the burning zone conditions. How frequently should one look into the burning zone? There
is no set answer to this question. Experienced operators sometimes become over-confident
and think that it would be perfectly safe to leave the kiln alone for periods in excess of 30
minutes. This action however, is against good burning practice. The secret of every good
operator is his ability to recognize a change in kiln condition at the time a change takes
place and not later. For this reason, a good operator will never leave a kiln too long a time
unchecked. When things are going smoothly, the kiln should be checked every half hour,
with more frequent checks if adjustments are being made. There is no such thing as
operating a kiln by the instrument alone, as the instruments do not show, for example
heavier and lighter loads entering the burning zone until it is almost too late to make the
necessary adjustment.

Appearance of burning zone
Good or bad visibility
Bright white or dark red color
Good appearance is an orange-yellow color
The gas stream should be calm without great turbulence

Appearance of coating
Coating should begin approximately diameter of kiln size from the nose ring
Color of coating tells a great deal about the condition in burning zone as coating acts as heat
storage in burning zone
Overall thickness of coating should be between 9 and 12 inches and is dependent of the
type of raw mix
Check for ring formation near lower or upper section of the kiln
If the surface of the coating appears smooth, then the burning zone in this area is hot
If the coating appears lumpy then the burning zone is okay
A bare spot without coating could be due to flame erosion, thick brick or high flame
temperature in this location

Appearance of the coating falling off from the top of the kiln shell:
Large pieces: normal
Fine noodles dripping: too hot
The location where the coating pieces are falling from the top of the kiln wall, above the end
of the flame is generally where the raw load is. So whenever the raw load cannot be seen in
the bottom and behind the flame of the kiln, try to look at the top.


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Appearance of material load
Is clinker balling or fine?
Is material sticky?
Is material heavy or light?
Is material movement fast or slow?
Is material climbing low or high in the wall? (material should climb up +/- to the 10 oclock
position in normal operation)
Appearance of material before falling in the cooler, fine or nodular

Upper burning zone section
Are rings building up or not?
Is coating formation seem normal?
Try to evaluate the length of the coating (50 to 100 feet from burning zone to far up)

Raw feed location
Look behind the flame at the bottom of the kiln
Normal position is approximately diameter distance under the flame
Never allow raw feed to come way under the flame as kiln speed will have to be reduced
to control it (kiln low speed)
An advancing or receding dark feed is the earliest indication of a burning zone that is
warming up or cooling down. So that is why it is important for the kiln operation to be able
to see this load. Every effort should be done during normal operation to keep this load in
sight.

Flame appearance
Should always be evaluated during stable kiln condition
Long (100 ft) or short (30 ft)
Hard or lazy
Bushy or narrow
Bright or dark
White or orange yellow
Eroding the coating or the brick wall
Aiming high, low or in the center
Eroding the material load
If fuel is burning in suspension or in the material load
Position of the ignition point when coal or coke is used
The flame temperature should be as hot as possible as long as it does not create problems
with the coating and the kiln refractory. Whenever a change is made on the flame shape, a
close monitoring of the shell temperature should be done.

Coal flames
Coal normally burns with longer flame than oil
A coal flame normally starts at 3 to 5 feet from the burner tip
Coal fineness to be about 85% passing 200 mesh
Keep the coal system air flow at about 70 ft/sec to avoid coal deposit inside pipe, while
keeping primary air to minimum (direct system and burner design)
On direct firing system, coal fan damper setting should be set at minimum value and the
fuel rate changes made only by making changes with the coal feeder system in order to
keep the flame shape short and as constant as possible.

Burner pipe appearance
Is the tip of the blast pipe in good condition?
Is the burner cast-able in good condition?
34

Is the burner pipe aimed correctly?
How is the pipe location relative to the nose ring?
Are snowmen building up on top of burner pipe?
Whenever a bad condition deflecting the flame is observe, a quick evaluation should be
done to evaluate if the kiln can continue its operation or if it needs to be shut down to fix
the burner pipe.

Nose ring appearance
-able or the refractory on the top of the nose ring if okay



Secondary air
Calm or upset
Dusty if the clinker is fine
Clear if clinker is balling
Foggy and white if temperature is hot

The secondary air temperature has a major influence on the flame and its shape.

Primary air
Should be as low as possible to obtain satisfactory heat recuperation from cooler
Has an important influence on the shape of the flame (bushy or narrow)
Pressure should be as constant as possible
When good settings of the flame have been found, the primary air settings should not be
changed in normal operation unless a high temperature condition in the kiln refractory has
raised and required to change the flame.

When the kiln is down
Look for ball or ring formation at upper section of burning zone
Evaluate length of coating if okay, too long means we burned the kiln too far up
Load level inside kiln if even and normal
Appearance on load during kiln jacking (sticky or normal)
Look at the sealing efficiency of the kiln back end (no suction or gases movement inside of
kiln should be observed).
When kiln is shutdown, the gases should be bottled inside of the kiln as fast as possible by
closing the kiln back end damper or its equivalent and by adjusting the hood pressure set
point, slightly positive.
The procedure need to be done to avoid heat loss from the kiln to insure a slow cooling of
the refractory and avoid thermal shocks on the bricks.














35


DECLARATION



I ,SWAET PRAKASH BHOI ,do here by to Declare that ,the project report on
ADVANCEMENT IN OPERATION & MAINTENANCE OF CEMENT
KILN, is submitted by me is original to the best of my knowledge & brief .It
has been prepared by me with my own idea and creativity under direct
supervision of my project guide.

Any resemblance to earlier project or research work is purely co-incident.



Place:Bargarh cement works , Bargarh
Date:

































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