India in the Eighteenth Century

Bahadur Shah 1 (1707-12)

Muzam succeeded Aurungzeb after latters death in 1707
He acuired the title !f Bahadur Shah"
#h!ugh he $as uite !ld (%&) and his rule uite sh!rt there are man'
signi(cant achie)ements he made
He re)ersed the narr!$ minded and antag!nistic *!licies !f Aurungzeb
Made agreements $ith +a,*ut states
-ranted sardeshmu.hi t! Marathas but n!t /hauth
+eleased Shahu,i (s!n !f Sambha,i) fr!m *ris!n ($h! later f!ught $ith
#arabai)
#ried t! ma.e *eace $ith -uru -!bind Sahib b' gi)ing him a high Mansab"
After -urus death0 Si.hs again re)!lted under the leadershi* !f Banda
Bahadur" #his led t! a *r!l!nged $ar $ith the Si.hs"
Made *eace $ith /hhatarsal0 the Bundela chief and /huraman0 the 1at chief"
State (nances deteri!rated
1ahandar Shah (1712-12)
3eath !f Bahadur Shah *lunged the em*ire int! a ci)il $ar
A n!ted feature !f this time $as the *r!minence !f the n!bles
1ahandar Shah0 s!n !f Bahadur Shah0 ascended the thr!ne in 1712 $ith hel*
fr!m 4ul(.ar 5han
6as a $ea. ruler de)!ted !nl' t! *leasures
4ul(.ar 5han0 his $azir0 $as )irtuall' the head !f the administrati!n
45 ab!lished ,iz'ah
7eace $ith +a,*uts8 1ai Singh !f Amber $as made the -!)ern!r !f Mal$a" A,it
Singh !f Mar$ar $as made the -!)ern!r !f -u,arat"
/hauth and Sardeshmu.h granted t! Marathas" H!$e)er0 Mughals $ere t!
c!llect it and then hand it !)er t! the Marathas"
/!ntinued the *!lic' !f su**ressi!n t!$ards Banda Bahadur and Si.hs
9,arah8 (re)enue farming) the g!)ernment began t! c!ntract $ith re)enue
farmers and middlemen t! *a' the g!)ernment a (:ed am!unt !f m!ne'
$hile the' $ere left free t! c!llect $hate)er the' c!uld fr!m the *easants
1ahandhar Shah defeated in 1anuar' 1712 b' his ne*he$ ;arru.h Si'ar at
Agra
;arru.h Si'ar (1712-1<)
=$ed his )ict!r' t! Sai'id Br!thers8 Hussain Ali 5han Barah!$ and Abdullah
5han
Abdullah 5han8 6azir0 Hussain Ali8 Mir Ba.shi
;S $as an inca*able ruler" Sai'id br!thers $ere the real rulers"
Sai'id Br!thers
o 5n!$n the 9ndian Hist!r' as 5ing Ma.ers
o ad!*ted the *!lic' !f religi!us t!lerance" Ab!lished ,iz'ah (again>)"
7ilgrim ta: $as ab!lished fr!m a number !f *laces
o Marathas8 -ranted Shahu,i s$ara,'a and the right t! c!llect chauth and
sardeshmu.hi !f the si: *r!)inces !f the 3eccan
o #he' failed in their e?!rt t! c!ntain rebelli!n because the' $ere faced
$ith c!nstant *!litical ri)alr'0 uarrels and c!ns*iracies at the c!urt"
o @!bles headed b' @izam-ul-Mul. and Muhammad Amin 5han began t!
c!ns*ire against them
o 9n 171<0 the Sai'id Br!thers .illed and !)erthre$ ;S"
o #his $as f!ll!$ed b' *lacing0 in uic. successi!n0 !f t$! '!ung *rinces
$h! died !f c!nsum*ti!n
o Murder !f the em*er!r created a $a)e !f re)ulsi!n against the SB"
#he' $ere l!!.ed d!$n as Anama. haram
@!$0 the' *laced 1B 'ear !ld Muhammad Shah as the em*er!r !f 9ndia
9n 17200 the n!bles assassinated Hussain Ali 5han0 the '!unger !f the SB"
Abdullah 5han $as als! defeated at Agra
Muhammad Shah A+angeela (171<-17CB)
6ea.-minded0 fri)!l!us and !)er-f!nd !f a life !f ease
@eglected the a?airs !f the state
9ntrigued against his !$n ministers
@aizam ul Mul. Din Dulich 5han0 the $azir0 relinuished his !Ece and
f!unded the state !f H'derabad in 172C
o FHis de*arture $as s'mb!lic !f the Gight !f l!'alt' and )irtue fr!m the
Hm*ireI
Heriditar' na$abs ar!se in Bengal0 H'derabad0 A$adh and 7un,ab
Marathas c!nuered Mal$a0 -u,arat and Bundel.hand
172B8 9n)asi!n !f @adir Shah
@adir Shahs 9n)asi!n (172B)
Attracted t! 9ndia b' its fabul!us $ealth" /!ntinual cam*aigns had made
7ersia ban.ru*t
Als!0 the Mughal em*ire $as $ea."
3idnt meet an' resistance as the defense !f the n!rth-$est fr!ntier had been
neglected f!r 'ears
#he t$! armies met at 5arnal !n 12
th
;eb 172<" Mughal arm' $as summaril'
defeated" MS ta.en *ris!ner
Massacre in 3elhi in res*!nse t! the .illing !f s!me !f his s!ldiers
7lunder !f ab!ut 70 cr!re ru*ees" /arried a$a' the 7eac!c. thr!ne and 5!h-i-
n!!r
MS ceded t! him all the *r!)inces !f the Hm*ire $est !f the ri)er 9ndus
Signi(cance8 @adir Shahs in)asi!n e:*!sed the hidden $ea.ness !f the
em*ire t! the Maratha sardars and the f!reign trading c!m*anies
Ahmed Shah Abdali
=ne !f the generals !f @adir Shah
+e*eatedl' in)aded and *lundered 9ndia right d!$n t! 3elhi and Mathura
bet$een 17CB and 17%1" He in)aded 9ndia ()e times"
17%18 #hird battle !f 7ani*at" 3efeat !f Marathas"
As a result !f in)asi!ns !f @adir Shah and Ahmed Shah0 the Mughal em*ire
ceased t! be an all-9ndia em*ire" B' 17%1 it $as reduced merel' t! the
5ingd!m !f 3elhi
Shah Alam 99 (17&<-
Ahmed Bahadur (17CB-&C) succeeded Muhammad Shah
Ahmed Bahadur $as succeeded b' Alamgir 99 (17&C-&<)
o 17&%8 Abdali *lundered Mathura
Alamgir 99 $as succeeded b' Shah 1ahan 999
Shah 1ahan 999 succeeded b' Shah Alam 99 in 17&<
Shah Alam s*ent initial 'ears $andering f!r he li)ed under the fear !f his
$azir
9n 17%C0 he ,!ined f!rces $ith Mir Dasim !f Bengal and Shu,a-ud-3aula !f
A$adh in declaring a $ar u*!n the British Hast 9ndia c!m*an'" #his resulted
in the Battle !f Bu:ar
7ensi!ned at Allahabad
+eturned t! 3elhi in 1772 under the *r!tecti!n !f Marathas
3ecline !f the Mughal Hm*ire
After 17&<0 Mughal em*ire ceased t! be a militar' *!$er"
9t c!ntinued fr!m 17&< till 1B&7 !nl' due t! the *!$erful h!ld that the Mughal
d'nast' had !n the minds !f the *e!*le !f 9ndia as a s'mb!l !f the *!litical
unit' !f the c!untr'
9n 1B020 the British !ccu*ied 3elhi
;r!m 1B02 t! 1B&70 the Mughal em*er!rs merel' ser)ed as a *!litical fr!nt !f
the British"
#he m!st im*!rtant c!nseuence !f the fall !f the Mughal em*ire $as that it
*a)ed $a' f!r the British t! c!nuer 9ndia as there $as n! !ther 9ndian *!$er
str!ng en!ugh t! unite and h!ld 9ndia"
Successi!n States
#hese states ar!se as a result !f the asserti!n !f aut!n!m' b' g!)ern!rs !f
Mughal *r!)inces $ith the deca' !f the central *!$er
Bengal0 A$adh0 H'derabad
H'derabad and the /arnatic
;!unded b' @izam-ul-Mul. Asaf 1ah in 172C
#!lerant *!lic' t!$ards Hindus
o A Hindu0 7uran /hand0 $as his 3e$an"
Hstablished an !rderl' administrati!n in 3eccan !n the basis !f the ,agirdari
s'stem !n the Mughal *attern
He died in 17CB
@a$ab !f /arnatic freed himself !f the c!ntr!l !f the Jicer!' !f the 3eccan
and made his !Ece hereditar'
o Saadutullah 5han !f /arnatic made his ne*he$ 3!st Ali his success!r
Bengal
17008 Murshid Duli 5han made the 3e$an !f Bengal
;reed himself !f the central c!ntr!l
;reed Bengal !f ma,!r u*risings
o #hree ma,!r u*risings during his time8 Sitaram +a'0 Kdai @ara'an and
-hulam Muhammad0 and then b' Shu,at 5han0 and (nall' b' @a,at
5han
/arried !ut fresh re)enue settlement" 9ntr!duced the s'stem !f re)enue-
farming"
+e)enue farming led t! the increased distress !f the farmers
Laid the f!undati!ns !f the ne$ landed arist!crac' in Bengal
MD5 died in 1727" Succeeded b' Shu,a-ud-din"
172<8 Ali)ardi 5han .illed and de*!sed Shu,a-ud-dins s!n0 Sarfaraz 5han0
and made himself the @a$ab
All three @a$abs enc!uraged merchants0 b!th 9ndian and f!reign"
Safet' !f r!ads and ri)ers" #hanas and /h!$.ies at regular inter)als"
Maintained strict c!ntr!l !)er the f!reign trading c!m*anies
#he'0 h!$e)er0 did n!t (rml' *ut d!$n the increasing tendenc' !f the
Hnglish Hast 9ndia /!m*an' t! use militar' f!rce0 !r t! threaten its use0 t! get
its demands acce*ted"
#he' als! neglected t! build a str!ng arm'
A$adh
17228 Saadat 5han Burhan-ul-Mul.
Su**ressed rebelli!ns and disci*lined the 4amindars
;resh re)enue settlement in 1722
3id n!t discriminate bet$een Hindus and Muslims" #he highest *!st in his
g!)ernment $as held b' a Hindu0 Mahara,a @a$ab +ai
3ied in 172<" Succeeded b' Safdar 1ung"
S1s reign $as an era !f *eace
made an alliance $ith the Maratha sardars
/arried !ut $arfare against +!helas and Bangash 7athans
=rganized an euitable s'stem !f ,ustice
3istinct culture !f Luc.n!$ de)el!*ed during his *eri!d
M's!re
Haidar Ali0 in 17%10 !)erthre$ @an,ara, and established his !$n auth!rit'
!)er M's!re
17&&8 Hstablished a m!dern arsenal at 3indigal $ith the hel* !f ;rench
e:*erts
/!nuered Bidnur0 Sunda0 Sera0 /anara and Malabar
He c!nuered Malabar because he $anted access t! the 9ndian =cean
;irst and Sec!nd Angl!-M's!re 6ar
17B28 Succeeded b' #i*u Sultan
#S $as an inn!)at!r" 9ntr!duced a ne$ calendar0 a ne$ s'stem !f c!inage
and ne$ scales !f $eights and measures"
5een interest in ;rench +e)!luti!n
o 7lanted a Atree !f libert' at Sriranga*atnam and became a member !f
the 1ac!bin /lub
Made e?!rts t! build a m!dern na)'
M's!re G!urished ec!n!micall' under H'der Ali and #i*u Sultan
Sent missi!ns t! ;rance0 #ur.e'0 9ran and 7egu M'anmar t! de)el!* f!reign
trade
S!me hist!rians sa' that #i*u $as a religi!us fanatic" But facts d!nt su**!rt
this asserti!n"
5erala
3i)ided int! large number !f feudal chiefs in the 1B
th
centur'
;!ur im*!rtant states
o /alicut (under 4am!rin)0 /hira..al0 /!chin and #ra)anc!re
9n 172<0 #ra)anc!re r!se t! *r!minence under 5ing Martanda Jarma
/!nuered Duil!n and Hla'adam0 and defeated the 3utch
;r!m 17%% Haidar Ali in)aded 5erala and anne:ed n!rthern 5erala u* t!
/!chin
+e)i)al !f Mal'alam literature
o #ri)andram became a fam!us centre !f Sans.rit sch!larshi*
+a,*ut States
+a,*utana states c!ntinued t! be di)ided as bef!re
+a,a Sa$ai 1ai Singh !f Amber $as the m!st !utstanding ruler !f the era
o ;!unded the cit' !f 1ai*ur
o Made 1ai*ur a great seat !f science and art
o Astr!n!mer" Hrected !bser)at!ries at 1ai*ur0 K,,ain0 Jaranasi0 and
Mathura
o 3re$ u* a set !f tables0 entitled 4i, Muhammadshahi0 t! enable *e!*le
t! ma.e astr!n!mical !bser)ati!ns
o #ranslated Huclids FHlements !f -e!metr'I int! Sans.rit
o S!cial ref!rmers" +educe la)ish marriage e:*enditures"
1ats
1at *easants re)!lted in 1%%< and 1%BB
1at state !f Bharat*ur set u* b' /huraman and Badan Singh
+eached its highest gl!r' under Sura, Mal0 $h! ruled fr!m 17&% t! 17%2
Si.hs
Si.hsim transf!rmed int! a militant religi!n during -uru Harg!bind (1%0%-C&)0
the si:th guru"
-uru -!bind Singh $aged c!nstant $ar against the armies !f Aurangzeb and
the hill ra,as
After -uru -!bind Singhs death (170B)0 leadershi* *assed t! Banda Singh
(Banda Bahadur)
o He struggled $ith the Mughal arm' f!r B 'ears
o 7ut t! death in 171&
Banda Bahadur failed because
o Mughal centre $as still str!ng
o K**er classes and castes !f 7un,ab ,!ined f!rces against him
o He c!uld n!t integrate all the anti-Mughal f!rces because !f his
religi!us big!tr'
After the $ithdra$al !f Abdali fr!m 7un,ab0 Si.hs $ere again resurgent
Bet$een 17%& and 1B00 the' br!ught the 7un,ab and 1ammu under their
c!ntr!l
#he' $ere !rganized int! 12 misls
+an,it Singh
o /hief !f the Su.ercha.ia Misl
o /a*tured Lah!re (17<<) and Amritsar (1B02)
o /!nuered 5ashmir0 7esha$ar and Multan
o 7!ssessed the sec!nd best arm' in Asia
o #!lerant and liberal
o ;a.ir Azizuddin and 3e$an 3ina @ath $ere his im*!rtant ministers
o F.n!$n t! ste* d!$n fr!m his thr!ne t! $i*e the dust !? the feet !f
Muslim mendicants $ith his l!ng gre' beardI
o @egati)e *!int8 He did n!t rem!)e the threat !f British" He !nl' left it
!)er t! his success!rs" And s!0 after his death0 $hen his .ingd!m $as
t!rn b' intense internal struggle0 Hnglish c!nuered it"
Marathas
Maratha ;amilies
o 7esh$a M 7une
o -ae.$ad M Bar!da
o Bh!sle M @ag*ur
o H!l.ar M 9nd!re
o Scindia - -$ali!r
#he m!st *!$erful !f the successi!n states
/!uld n!t (ll the *!litical )acuum because
o Maratha Sardars lac.ed unit'
o Lac.ed the !utl!!. and *r!gramme $hich $ere necessar' f!r f!unding
an all-9ndia em*ire
Shahu,i
o S!n !f Sambha,i
o 9m*ris!ned b' Aurungzeb
o +eleased in 1707
o /i)il $ar bet$een Shahu and his aunt #arabai $h! ruled in the name !f
her infant s!n Shi)a,i 99
o #he c!nGict ga)e rise t! a ne$ era !f Maratha leadershi*0 the era !f
7esh$a leadershi*
Bala,i Jish$nath
o 17128 7esh$a !f 5ing Shahu
o 9nduced 4ul(.ar 5han t! grant the chauth and sardeshmu.hi !f the
3eccan
o Hel*ed the Sai'id br!thers in !)erthr!$ing ;aru.h Si'ar
o Maratha sardars $ere bec!ming indi)iduall' str!ng but c!llecti)el'
$ea.
o 3ied in 1720" Succeeded b' his s!n Ba,i +a! 9
Ba,i +a! 9
o the greatest e:tent !f guerrilla tactics after Shi)a,i
o Jast areas ceded b' the Mughals
o Marathas $!n c!ntr!l !)er Mal$a0 -u,arat and *arts !f Bundel.hand
o +i)alr' $ith @izam ul Mul.
o /!m*elled the @izam t! grant chauth and sardeshmu.hi !f the 3eccan
*r!)inces
o 17228 /am*aign against Sidis !f 1an,ira and the 7!rtuguese (Salsette
and Bassein)
o 3ied in 17C0
o /a*tured territ!ries but failed t! la' the f!undati!ns !f an em*ire
o Succeeded b' Bala,i Ba,i +a! (@ana Saheb)
Bala,i Ba,i +a! (17C0-%1)
o Shahu died in 17C<" 7esh$as became the de fact! rulers
o Shifted the ca*ital t! 7!!na
o /a*tured =rissa
o M's!re f!rced t! *a' tributes
o 9n 17&20 hel*ed 9mad-ul-Mul. t! bec!me the $azir
o Br!ught 7un,ab under their c!ntr!l and e:*elled the agent !f Ahmad
Shah Abdali
#his led AS Abdali t! c!me t! 9ndia t! settle acc!unts $ith
Marathas in the #hird Battle !f 7ani*at
o #hird Battle !f 7ani*at
ASA f!rmed an alliance $ith @a,ib-ud-daulah !f +!hil.hand and
Shu,a-ud-daulah !f A$adh"
Saran,ami s'stem>
S!cial and ec!n!mic c!nditi!n

Administrative Organization of the British

Army
Arm' ful(lled f!ur im*!rtant functi!ns8
1" 9nstrument t! c!nuer 9ndian *!$ers
2" 3efended the British Hm*ire in 9ndia against f!reign ri)als
2" Safe-guarded against internal re)!lt
C" /hief instrument f!r e:tending and defending the British Hm*ire in Asia and
Africa"
Bul. !f the arm' c!nsisted !f 9ndians" 9n 1B&70 !f the t!tal strength !f 211C000
ab!ut 2%&<00 $ere 9ndians" Highest 9ndian ran. $as that !f Subedar"
British c!uld c!nuer and c!ntr!l 9ndia thr!ugh a *red!minantl' 9ndian arm'
because8
1" #here $as absence !f m!dern nati!nalism at that time
2" #he c!m*an' *aid its s!ldiers regularl' and $ell0 as !**!sed t! the 9ndian
rulers and chieftains"
Police
/!rn$allis $as res*!nsible f!r the creati!n !f a m!dern *!lice s'stem in 9ndia" He
established a s'stem !f #hanas (!r circles) headed b' a dar!ga" #he *!lice8
1" 7re)ented !rganizati!n !f a large-scale c!ns*irac' against f!reign c!ntr!l
2" 6as used t! su**ress the nati!nal m!)ement"
Judiciary
#h!ugh started b' Hastings0 the s'stem $as stabilized b' /!rn$allis"
Civil Cases
3istrict8 3i$ani Adalat (ci)il c!urt) *resided !)er b' the 3istrict 1udge
7r!)incial /!urt8 A**eal fr!m ci)il c!urt
Sardar 3i$ani Adalat8 Highest a**eal
#here $ere als!0 bel!$ the 3istrict /!urt0 +egistrars /!urt (headed b' Hur!*eans)
and sub!rdinate c!urts headed b' 9ndians .n!$n as munsifs !r amins"
Criminal Cases
C di)isi!ns !f Bengal *residenc'" Hach had a /!urt !f /ircuit *resided !)er b' the
ci)il ser)ants" A**eals c!uld be made t! Sardar @izamat Adalat"
6illiam Bentinc.8
Ab!lished the *r!)incial c!urts !f a**eal and circuit
#heir $!r. $as assigned t! 3istrict /!llect!rs
+aised the status and *!$er !f 9ndians in the 1udicial ser)ice"
9n 1B%&0 High /!urts $ere established at Madras0 /alcutta and B!mba'"
British br!ught ab!ut unif!rmit' in the s'stem !f la$" 9n 1B220 the g!)ernment
a**!inted La$ /!mmissi!n headed b' Macaula' t! c!dif' 9ndian La$s" #his
e)entuall' resulted in the 9ndian 7enal /!de0 /!de !f /i)il and /riminal 7r!cedures
and !ther c!des !f la$s"
Spread of Modern Education
17B18 Hastings set u* the /alcutta Madrasah f!r the stud' and teaching !f Muslim
la$ and related sub,ects
17<18 1!nathan 3uncan started a Sans.rit /!llege at Jaranasi f!r the stud' !f Hindu
la$ and *hil!s!*h'"
1B128 /harter !f 1B12 directed the /!m*an' t! s*end +s" 1 la.h f!r *r!m!ting
m!dern sciences in the c!untr'" #his sum $as h!$e)er made a)ailable !nl' in 1B22"
1B2&8 Macaula's minute"
Hnglish $as made the medium !f instructi!n in sch!!ls" Hducati!n !f masses $as
h!$e)er neglected" British ad)!cated the Ad!$n$ard (ltrati!n the!r' f!r educati!n"
As *er this the!r'0 since the all!cated funds c!uld educate !nl' a handful !f 9ndians0
it $as decided t! s*end them in educating a fe$ *ers!ns fr!m the u**er and middle
classes $h! $ere e:*ected t! assume the tas. !f educating the masses and
s*reading m!dern ideas am!ng them"
1BCC8 /!m*ulsi!n f!r a**licants f!r g!)ernment em*l!'ment t! *!ssess .n!$ledge
!f Hnglish" #his made the Hnglish medium sch!!ls m!re *!*ular"
1B&C8 6!!ds 3is*atch as.ed the g!)ernment !f 9ndia t! assume res*!nsibilit' f!r
the educati!n !f the masses" 9t thus re*udiated the Ad!$n$ard (ltrati!n the!r'" As
a result0 3e*artments !f Hducati!n $ere instituted in all *r!)inces and uni)ersities
$ere setu* in 1B&7 at Madras0 /alcutta and B!mba'"
#he main reas!n $h' British ad!*ted s!me measures t!$ards educati!n in 9ndia
$as because8
1" #he' needed educated *e!*le t! man their s'stem !f administrati!n" 9t $as
n!t *!ssible t! get en!ugh Hnglishmen t! man all the *!sts"
2" An!ther im*!rtant m!ti)e $as the belief that educated 9ndians $!uld hel*
e:*and the mar.et f!r British manufactures in 9ndia"
2" Lastl'0 it $as e:*ected t! rec!ncile the *e!*le !f 9ndia t! British rule"
Ma,!r dra$bac.s !f the Hnglish educati!n s'stem8
1" @eglect !f mass educati!n" Mass literac' in 9ndia $as hardl' better in 1<21
than in 1B21" High fees in sch!!ls and c!lleges led t! the educati!n
bec!ming a m!n!*!l' !f the rich"
2" Alm!st t!tal neglect !f the educati!n !f girls" As late as 1<21 !nl' 2 *ercent
9ndian $!men c!uld read and $rite"
2" @eglect !f scienti(c and technical educati!n"
C" #he g!)ernment $as ne)er $illing t! s*end m!re than a scant' sum !n
educati!n"
Development of Education
/harter act !f 1B12
o Sancti!ned 1 la.h ru*ees annuall' f!r *r!m!ting educati!n and
m!dern sciences
o @!t made a)ailable till 1B22
=rientalist-Anglicist /!ntr!)ers'
L!rd Macaula's minute (1B2&)
6!!ds 3es*atch (1B&C)
o +e,ected the d!$n$ard (ltrati!n the!r'
o As.ed the g!)ernment !f 9ndia t! assume the res*!nsibilit' !f
educati!n !f the masses
o Hnglish as medium f!r higher studies and )ernaculars at sch!!l le)el
1B&78 Kni)ersit' !f /alcutta0 B!mba' and Madras
Hunter /!mmissi!n (1BB2-B2)
o State care reuired f!r *r!m!ti!n and s*read !f *rimar' and sec!ndar'
educati!n
o #ransfer c!ntr!l !f *rimar' educati!n t! district and munici*al b!ards
+aleigh /!mmissi!n0 1<02
Kni)ersities Act 1<0C
Saddler Hducati!n /!mmissi!n (1<17-1<)
o Sch!!l c!urse sh!uld c!)er 12 'ears
o Less rigidit' in framing uni)ersit' regulati!ns
Hart!g /!mmittee (1<2<)
o @! hast' e:*ansi!n !r c!m*ulsi!n !f educati!n
6ardha Scheme !f basic educati!n (1<27)
o J!cati!n based educati!n
Social and Cultural Awakening
Raja Rammohan Roy
++M +!' $as a s!cial ref!rmer and intellectual in the earl' nineteenth centur'
Bengal" He is m!st $idel' .n!$n f!r f!unding the Brahm! Sama, and his relentless
cam*aign against the *ractice !f Sati and child marriage"
!e"endranath #agore
Brahmo Samaj
BS $as f!unded in 1B2B b' +a,a +am M!han +!' $ith the *ur*!se !f *urif'ing
Hinduism and t! *reach m!n!theism !r belief in !ne -!d"
9ntr!ducti!n
9ndian nati!nal m!)ement8 =ne !f the biggest" 9ns*ired man' !thers"
-andhian 7!litical Strateg' )er' im*!rtant"
Hlements !f -andhian Strateg' can be seen in the S!lidarit' M!)ement in
7!land b' Lech 6alesa
6HN 9S #HH 9@39A@ @A#9=@AL M=JHMH@# K@9DKH
9n the 9ndian nati!nal m!)ement0 the -ramscian *ers*ecti)e !f $ar !f
*!siti!n $as successfull' *racticed"
9t *r!)ides the !nl' hist!rical e:am*le !f a semi-dem!cratic !r dem!cratic
t'*e !f *!litical structure being successfull' re*laced !r transf!rmed"
State *!$er $as n!t seized in a m!ment !f re)!luti!n0 but thr!ugh *r!l!nged
*!*ular struggle !n m!ral0 *!litical and ide!l!gical reser)es"
9t is als! an e:am*le !f h!$ the c!nstituti!nal s*ace !?ered b' the e:isting
structure c!uld be used $ith!ut getting c!!*ted b' it"
3i)erse *ers*ecti)es and ide!l!gies
6HN S#K3N @A#9=@AL M=JHMH@#>
#he *ath that 9ndia has f!ll!$ed since 1<C7 has dee* r!!ts in the struggle f!r
inde*endence"
=K#S#A@39@- ;HA#K+HS =; #HH ;+HH3=M S#+K--LH
Jalues and m!dern ideals !n $hich it $as based
Jisi!n !f the leaders8 dem!cratic0 ci)il libertarian and secular 9ndia0 based !n
a self-reliant0 egalitarian s!cial !rder and an inde*endent f!reign *!lic'
#he m!)ement *!*ularized dem!cratic ideas and instituti!ns in 9ndia
#he str!ng ci)il libertarian and dem!cratic traditi!n !f the nati!nal m!)ement
$as reGected in the c!nstituti!n !f inde*endent 9ndia"
7r!-*!!r !rientati!n
Secular
A n!n-racist0 anti-im*erialist !utl!!. $hich c!ntinues t! characterize 9ndian
f!reign *!lic' $as the *art !f the legac' !f the anti-im*erialist struggle"
9ndias freed!m struggle $as basicall' the result !f fundamental c!ntradicti!n
bet$een the interests !f the 9ndian *e!*le and that !f British c!l!nialism"
Revolt of $%&'
3uring the -!)ern!r--eneral L!rd /anning
Ma' 110 1B&7" #he Meerut incident" /a*ture !f 3elhi" 7r!claiming B S 1azar
as the em*er!r"
Alm!st half the /!m*an's se*!' strength !f 22222C !*ted !ut !f their
l!'alt' t! their regimental c!l!urs"
5an*ur8 @ana SahebO Luc.n!$8 Begum Hazrat MahalO Bareill'8 5han
BahadurO 1agdish*ur (Ara)8 5un$ar SinghO 1hansi8 +ani La.shmi Bai
=nl' the Madras arm' remained t!tall' l!'al" Si.h regiment as $ell
remained largel' l!'al"
Causes for the revolt
#he re)!lt $as a result !f the accumulated grie)ances !f the *e!*le against
/!m*an's administrati!n and a l!athing f!r the character and *!licies !f the
c!l!nial rule" #he causes can be classi(ed as s!cial0 ec!n!mic0 religi!us and militar'"
P9n class n!tesQ
6HN 393 #HH SH7=NS +HJ=L#>
#he c!nditi!ns !f ser)ice in the /!m*an's arm' and cant!nments
increasingl' came int! c!nGict $ith the religi!us beliefs and *re,udices !f
the se*!'s"
#he unha**iness !f the se*!'s (rst surfaced in 1B2C $hen the C7
th

+egiment !f Barrac.*ur $as !rdered t! g! t! Burma" #! the religi!us
Hindu0 cr!ssing the sea meant l!ss !f caste" #he se*!'s refused" #he
regiment $as disbanded and th!se $h! led the !**!siti!n $ere hanged"
#he rum!rs ab!ut the -!)ernments secret designs t! *r!m!te
c!n)ersi!ns t! /hristianit' further e:as*erated the se*!'s"
#he greased cartridges
#he' $ere als! unha**' $ith the em!luments
3iscriminati!n and racism
Miser' br!ught t! the *easants b' the British rule" H"g" the land re)enue
s'stem im*!sed in =udh0 $here ab!ut 7&000 se*!'s came fr!m0 $as )er'
harsh"
#he ci)ilians als! *artici*ated
After the ca*ture !f 3elhi0 a letter $as issued t! the neighb!ring states
as.ing f!r su**!rt"
A c!urt !f administrat!rs $as established in 3elhi
9ll-eui**ed0 the rebels carried !n the struggle f!r ab!ut a 'ear
#he c!untr' as a $h!le $as n!t behind them" #he merchants0
intelligentsia and 9ndian rulers n!t !nl' .e*t al!!f but acti)el' su**!rted
the British"
Alm!st half the 9ndian s!ldiers n!t !nl' did n!t re)!lt but f!ught against
their !$n c!untr'men"
A*art fr!m a c!mm!nl' shared hatred f!r alien rule0 the rebels had n!
*!litical *ers*ecti)e !r de(nite )isi!n !f the future
3elhi fell !n Se*tember 200 1B&7"
+ani !f 1hansi died (ghting !n 1une 170 1B&B
@ana Saheb esca*ed t! @e*al h!*ing t! re)i)e the struggle"
5un$ar Singh died !n Ma' <0 1<&B
#antia t!*e carried !n guerrilla $arfare until A*ril 1<&< after $hich he $as
betra'ed b' a zamindar0 ca*tured and *ut t! death"
Important Persons relating to the Revolt
Bahadur Shah (afar8 BS4 $as the last Mughal em*er!r !f 9ndia"
@ana Saheb
+ani La.shmi Bai
5un$ar Singh
@a$ab 6a,id Ali Shah
Bir,is Dadr8 #he s!n !f 6a,id Ali Shah and the leader !f the re)!lt in Luc.n!$"
Shah Mal8 He bel!nged t! a clan !f 1at culti)at!rs in *arganan Bar!ut in K7" 3uring
the re)!lt0 he m!bilized the headmen and culti)at!rs !f chaurasee des (BC )illages8
his .inshi* area)0 m!)ing at night fr!m )illage t! )illage0 urging *e!*le t! rebel
against the British"
Maul)i Ahmadullah Shah8 Maul)i Ahmadullah Shah $as !ne !f the man' maulvis
$h! *la'ed an
im*!rtant *art in the re)!lt !f 1B&7" 1B&%0 he $as seen m!)ing fr!m )illage t!
)illage *reaching jehad (religi!us $ar) against the British and urging *e!*le t!
rebel" he $as elected b' the mutin!us 22nd @ati)e 9nfantr' as their leader" He
f!ught in the fam!us Battle !f /hinhat in $hich the British f!rces under Henr'
La$rence $ere defeated"
Begum Hazrat Mahal8
/ha*ter 28 /i)il +ebelli!ns and #ribal K*risings
#he bac.b!ne !f the rebelli!ns0 their mass base and stri.ing *!$er came
fr!m the rac.-rented *easants0 ruined artisans and dem!bilized s!ldiers
/AKSHS
#he ma,!r cause !f the ci)il rebelli!ns $as the ra*id changes the British
intr!duced in the ec!n!m'0 administrati!n and land re)enue s'stem"
#he re)enues $ere enhanced b' increasing ta:es"
#h!usands !f zamindars and *!ligars l!st c!ntr!l !)er their land and its
re)enue either due t! the e:tincti!n !f their rights b' the c!l!nial state !r b'
the f!rced sale !f their rights !)er land because !f their inabilit' t! meet the
e:!rbitant land re)enue demanded"
#he ec!n!mic decline !f the *easantr' $as reGected in t$el)e ma,!r and
numer!us min!r famines fr!m 1770 t! 1B&7
#he ne$ c!urts and legal s'stem ga)e a further (lli* t! the dis*!ssess!rs !f
land and enc!uraged the rich t! !**ress the *!!r"
#he *!lice l!!ted0 !**ressed and t!rtured the c!mm!n *e!*le at $ill"
#he ruin !f 9ndian handicraft industries *au*erized milli!ns !f artisans
#he sch!larl' and *riestl' classes $ere als! acti)e in inciting hatred and
rebelli!n against f!reign rule"
Jer' f!reign character !f the British rule
+HBHLL9=@S
;r!m 17%2 t! 1B&%0 there $ere m!re than f!rt' ma,!r rebelli!ns a*art fr!m
hundreds !f min!r !nes"
San'asi +ebelli!n8 (17%2-1B00)
/huar u*rising (17%%-1772 R 17<&-1B1%)O +ang*ur and 3ina,*ur (17B2)O
Bishnu*ur and Birbhum (17<<)O =rissa zamindars (1B0C-17) and Sambal*ur
(1B27-C0) and man' !thers
6HN ;A9LH3>
#hese rebelli!ns $ere l!cal in their s*read and $ere is!lated fr!m each !ther"
#he' $ere the result !f l!cal causes and grie)ances0 and $ere als! l!calized
in their e?ects"
S!ciall'0 ec!n!micall' and *!liticall'0 the semi-feudal leaders !f these
rebelli!ns $ere bac.$ard l!!.ing and traditi!nal in !utl!!."
#he su**ressi!n !f the ci)il rebelli!ns $as a ma,!r reas!n $h' the re)!lt !f
1B&7 did n!t s*read t! S!uth 9ndia and m!st !f Hastern and 6estern 9ndia"
#+9BAL K7+9S9@-S8 /AKSHS
#he c!l!nial administrat!rs ended their relati)e is!lati!n and br!ught them
full' $ithin the ambit !f c!l!nialism"
9ntr!duced ne$ s'stem !f land re)enue and ta:ati!n !f tribal *r!ducts
9nGu: !f /hristian missi!naries int! the tribal areas
#he' c!uld n! l!nger *ractice shifting agriculture
=**ressi!n and e:t!rti!n b' *!lice !Ecials
#he c!m*lete disru*ti!n !f the !ld agrarian !rder !f the tribal c!mmunities
*r!)ided the c!mm!n fact!r f!r all the tribal u*risings
K7+9S9@-S
Santhals
5!ls !f /hh!tanag*ur (1B20-27)
Birsa Munda (1B<<-1<00)
/HA7#H+ 28 7easant K*risings
Man' dis*!ssessed *easants t!!. t! r!bber' and dac!it'"
9ndig! +e)!lt !f 1B&<-%0
B' the end !f 1B%0 indig! culti)ati!n $as )irtuall' $i*ed !ut fr!m the
districts !f Bengal
A ma,!r reas!n f!r the success !f the 9ndig! re)!lt $as the tremend!us
initiati)e0 c!!*erati!n0 !rganizati!n and disci*line !f the r'!ts"
An!ther $as the c!m*lete unit' am!ng Hindu and Muslim *easants
An!ther signi(cant feature $as the r!le !f intelligentsia !f Bengal $hich
!rganized a *!$erful cam*aign in su**!rt !f the rebelli!us *easantr'"
#he g!)ernments res*!nse t! the re)!lt $as rather restrained and n!t as
harsh as in the case !f ci)il rebelli!ns and tribal u*risings"
#he g!)ernment a**!inted the 9ndig! /!mmissi!n t! enuire int! the
*r!blems !f indig! culti)ati!n" #he re*!rt !f the c!mmissi!n e:*!sed the
c!erci!n and c!rru*ti!n in indig! culti)ati!n
#he g!)ernment issued a n!ti(cati!n in @!)ember 1<%0 that r'!ts c!uld n!t
be c!m*elled t! s!$ indig! and all dis*utes $ere t! be settled b' legal
means"
CHAPER ! " #
)hy did national movement arise*
9ndian nati!nalism r!se t! meet the challenges !f f!reign d!minati!n
#he British rule and its direct and indirect c!nseuences *r!)ided the
material and the m!ral and intellectual c!nditi!ns f!r the de)el!*ment !f a
nati!nal m!)ement in 9ndia"
/lash !f interest bet$een the interests !f the 9ndian *e!*le $ith British
interests in 9ndia
9ncreasingl'0 the British rule became the ma,!r cause !f 9ndias ec!n!mic
bac.$ardness
H)er' class graduall' disc!)ered that their interests $ere su?ering at the
hands !f the British
o 7easant8 -!)t t!!. a large *art !f *r!duce a$a' as land re)enue" La$s
fa)!ured the 4amindars
o Artisans8 ;!reign c!m*etiti!n ruined the industr'
o 6!r.ers8 #he g!)ernment sided $ith the ca*italists
o 9ntelligentsia8 #he' f!und that the British *!licies $ere guided b' the
interests !f British ca*italists and $ere .ee*ing the c!untr'
ec!n!micall' bac.$ard" 7!liticall'0 the British had n! c!mmitment !f
guiding 9ndia t!$ards self-g!)ernment"
o 9ndian ca*italists8 the gr!$th !f 9ndian industries $as c!nstrained b'
the unfa)!urable trade0 tari?0 ta:ati!n and trans*!rt *!licies !f the
g!)ernment"
o 4amindars0 landl!rds and *rinces $ere the !nl' !nes $h!se interests
c!incided $ith th!se !f the British" Hence the' remained l!'al t! them"
Hence0 it $as the intrinsic nature !f f!reign im*erialism and its harmful e?ect
!n the li)es !f the 9ndian *e!*le that led t! the rise !f the nati!nal
m!)ement" #his m!)ement c!uld be called the nati!nal m!)ement because it
united *e!*le fr!m di?erent *arts !f the c!untr' as ne)er bef!re f!r a single
cause"
)hat factors strengthened and facilitated the national movement*
Administrati!n and Hc!n!mic Kni(cati!n !f the c!untr'
o 9ntr!ducti!n !f m!dern trade and industries !n all-9ndia scale had
increasingl' made 9ndias ec!n!mic life a single $h!le and interlin.ed
the ec!n!mic fate !f *e!*le li)ing in di?erent *arts !f the c!untr'"
o 9ntr!ducti!n !f rail$a's0 telegra*h and uni(ed *!stal s'stem br!ught
t!gether di?erent *arts !f the c!untr' and *r!m!ted c!ntact am!ng
*e!*le li.e ne)er bef!re"
o #his uni(cati!n led t! the emergence !f the 9ndian nati!n
6estern #h!ught and Hducati!n
o A large number !f 9ndians imbibed a m!dern rati!nal0 secular0
dem!cratic and nati!nalist *!litical !utl!!.
o #he' began t! stud'0 admire and emulate the c!ntem*!rar' nati!nalist
m!)ements !f Hur!*ean nati!ns
o #he $estern educati!n *er se did n!t create the nati!nal m!)ement" 9t
!nl' enabled the educated 9ndians t! imbibe $estern th!ught and thus
t! assume the leadershi* !f the nati!nal m!)ement and t! gi)e it a
dem!cratic and m!dern directi!n
o M!dern educati!n created a certain unif!rmit' and c!mmunit' !f
!utl!!. and interests am!ng the educati!n 9ndians"
+!le !f 7ress and Literature
o Large number !f nati!nalist ne$s*a*ers a**eared in the sec!nd half !f
the 1<
th
centur'
o #he' criticized the *!licies !f the British g!)ernment and *ut f!rth the
9ndian *!int !f )ie$
o @ati!nal literature in f!rm !f essa's0 n!)els and *!etr' als! *la'ed an
im*!rtant r!le" Bam.in /handra0 #ag!re8 BengaliO Bhartendu
Harishchandra8 HindiO La.shmi.anth Bezbarua8 AssameseO Jishnu
Shastri /hi*lun.ar8 MarathiO Subraman'a Bharti8 #amilO Altaf Husain
Hali8 Krdu
+edisc!)er' !f 9ndias *ast
o #he British had l!$ered the self c!n(dence !f the 9ndian thr!ugh the
*r!*aganda that 9ndians are inca*able !f self-g!)ernment
o @ati!nalist leaders referred t! the cultural heritage !f 9ndia t! c!unter
this *r!*aganda" #he' referred t! *!litical achie)ements !f rulers li.e
Ash!.a0 /handragu*ta Ji.ramadit'a and A.bar"
o H!$e)er0 s!me nati!nalists $ent t! the e:tent !f gl!rif'ing the *ast
uncriticall'" #he' em*hasized !n the achie)ements !f ancient 9ndia and
n!t medie)al 9ndia" #his enc!uraged the gr!$th !f c!mmunal
sentiments"
+acial arr!gance !f the rulers
o Hnglishmen ad!*ted a t!ne !f racial su*eri!rit' in their dealings $ith
the 9ndians
o ;ailure !f ,ustice $hene)er an Hnglishman $as in)!l)ed in a dis*ute
$ith an 9ndian"
o 9ndians .e*t !ut !f Hur!*ean clubs and !ften $ere n!t *ermitted t!
tra)el in same c!m*artment as Hnglishmen
Rise of Indian +ational Congress
7redecess!rs !f 9@/
Hast 9ndia Ass!ciati!n
o B' 3adabhai @a!r!,i in 1B%% in L!nd!n
o #! discuss the 9ndian uesti!n and t! inGuence the British *ublic men
t! discuss 9ndian $elfare
o Branches !f the ass!ciati!n in *r!minent 9ndian cities
9ndian Ass!ciati!n
o Surendranath Baner,ee and Ananda M!han B!se in 1B7%0 /alcutta
o #he aim !f creating str!ng *ublic !*ini!n in the c!untr' !n *!litical
uesti!ns and the uni(cati!n !f the 9ndian *e!*le !n a c!mm!n
*!litical *r!gramme
7!!na Sar)a,ani. Sabha
o 1ustice +anade0 1B70
Madras Maha,an Sabha
o Jiraragha)achari0 Anand /harl!!0 - Subramanian Ai'er0 1BBC
B!mba' 7residenc' Ass!ciati!n
o 7her!zshah Mehta0 5 # #elang0 Badruddin #'ab,i0 1BB&
#hese !rganizati!ns $ere narr!$ in their sc!*e and functi!ning" #he' dealt
m!stl' $ith l!cal uesti!ns and their membershi* $ere c!n(ned t! a fe$
*e!*le bel!nging t! a single cit' !r *r!)ince
Indian +ational Congress
9ndian @ati!nal /!ngress $as f!unded !n 2B 3ecember 1BB& b' 72 *!litical
$!r.ers" A = Hume $as the (rst secretar' and $as instrumental in
establishing the /!ngress
;irst sessi!n in B!mba'" 7resident8 6 / B!nner,ee
6ith the f!rmati!n !f 9@/0 the 9ndian @ati!nal M!)ement $as launched in a
small but !rganized manner
#he /!ngress itself $as t! ser)e n!t as a *art' but as a m!)ement
/!ngress $as dem!cratic" #he delegates t! 9@/ $ere elected b' di?erent
l!cal !rganizati!ns and gr!u*s
S!)ereignt' !f the *e!*le
9n 1B<00 5adambini -anguli0 the (rst $!man graduate !f /alcutta Kni)ersit'
addressed the /!ngress sessi!n
Safet' Jal)e #he!r'
o #he 9@/ $as started under the !Ecial directi!n0 guidance and ad)ice !f
L!rd 3u?erin0 the Jicer!'0 t! *r!)ide a safe0 mild0 *eaceful and
c!nstituti!nal !utlet !r safet' )al)e f!r the rising disc!ntent am!ng the
masses0 $hich $as ine)itabl' leading t!$ards a *!*ular and )i!lent
re)!luti!n"
!oes the safety valve theory e,-lain the formation of Congress*
#he safet' )al)e the!r' is inadeuate and misleading
9@/ re*resented the urge !f the 9ndian educated class t! set u* a nati!nal
!rganizati!n t! $!r. f!r their *!litical and ec!n!mic de)el!*ment
A number !f !rganizati!ns0 as menti!ned ab!)e0 had alread' been started b'
the 9ndians t!$ards that end
Humes *resence in /!ngress $as used t! alla' !Ecial sus*ici!ns
)hy was there a need for an All.India organization*
Jernacular 7ress Act0 1B7B
9lbert Bill (1BB2) $hich $!uld all!$ 9ndian ,udges t! tr' Hur!*eans $as
!**!sed b' the Hur!*ean c!mmunit' and $as (nall' enacted in a highl'
c!m*r!mised state in 1BBC"
#he 9ndians realized that the' c!uld n!t get the 9lbert bill *assed because
the' $ere n!t united !n all 9ndia le)el" Hence need f!r 9@/ $as felt"
9n !rder t! gi)e birth t! the nati!nal m!)ement
o /reati!n !f nati!nal leadershi* $as im*!rtant
o /!llecti)e identi(cati!n $as created
Aims of I+C
7r!m!ti!n !f friendl' relati!ns bet$een nati!nalist *!litical $!r.ers fr!m
di?erent *arts !f the c!untr'
3e)el!*ment and c!ns!lidati!n !f the feeling !f nati!nal unit' irres*ecti)e !f
caste0 religi!n !r *r!)ince
;!rmulati!n !f *!*ular demands and their *resentati!n bef!re the
g!)ernment
#raining and !rganizati!n !f *ublic !*ini!n in the c!untr'
#he (rst ma,!r !b,ecti)e !f the 9ndian nati!nal m!)ement $as t! *r!m!te
$eld 9ndians int! a nati!n0 t! create an 9ndian identit'
;uller de)el!*ment and c!ns!lidati!n !f sentiments !f nati!nal unit'
o H?!rts f!r unit'8 9n an e?!rt t! reach all regi!ns0 it $as decided t!
r!tate the c!ngress sessi!n am!ng di?erent *arts !f the c!untr'" #he
7resident $as t! bel!ng t! a regi!n !ther than $here the c!ngress
sessi!n $as being held"
o #! reach !ut t! the f!ll!$ers !f all religi!ns and t! rem!)e the fears !f
the min!rities0 a rule $as made at the 1BBB sessi!n that n! res!luti!n
$as t! be *assed t! $hich an !)er$helming ma,!rit' !f Hindu !r
Muslim delegates !b,ected"
o 9n 1BB<0 a min!rit' clause $as ad!*ted in the res!luti!n demanding
ref!rm !f legislati)e c!uncils" Acc!rding t! the clause0 $here)er 7arsis0
/hristians0 Muslims !r Hindus $ere a min!rit' their number elected t!
the c!uncils $!uld n!t be less than their *r!*!rti!n in the *!*ulati!n"
o #! build a secular nati!n0 the c!ngress itself had t! be intensel' secular
#he sec!nd ma,!r !b,ecti)e !f the earl' c!ngress $as t! create a c!mm!n
*!litical *latf!rm !r *r!gramme ar!und $hich *!litical $!r.ers in di?erent
*arts !f the c!untr' c!uld gather and c!nduct their *!litical acti)ities"
o 3ue t! its f!cus s!lel' !n *!litical issues c!ngress did n!t ta.e u* the
uesti!n !f s!cial ref!rm"
Since this f!rm !f *!litical *artici*ati!n $as ne$ t! 9ndia0 the ar!usal0
training0 !rganizati!n and c!ns!lidati!n !f *ublic !*ini!n $as seen as a ma,!r
tas. b' the c!ngress leaders"
o -!ing be'!nd the redressal !f immediate grie)ances and !rganize
sustained *!litical acti)it'"
Contri"ution of early nationalists
Harl' nati!nalists belie)ed that a direct struggle f!r the *!litical emanci*ati!n
!f the c!untr' $as n!t 'et !n the agenda !f hist!r'" =n agenda $as8
o /reati!n !f *ublic interest in *!litical uesti!ns and the !rganizati!n !f
*ublic !*ini!n
o 7!*ular demands had t! be f!rmulated !n a c!untr'-$ide basis
o @ati!nal unit' had t! be created" 9ndian nati!nh!!d had t! be carefull'
*r!m!ted"
Harl' nati!nal leaders did n!t !rganize mass m!)ement against the British"
But the' did carr' !ut an ide!l!gical struggle against them" (9m*!rtant fr!m a
-ramscian *ers*ecti)e)
Hc!n!mic critiue !f im*erialism
o Hc!n!mic critiue !f im*erialism $as the m!st im*!rtant c!ntributi!n
!f the earl' nati!nalists
o #he' rec!gnized that the essence !f British ec!n!mic im*erialism la'
in the sub!rdinati!n !f the 9ndian ec!n!m' t! the British ec!n!m'
o #he' c!m*lained !f 9ndias gr!$ing *!)ert' and ec!n!mic
bac.$ardness and the failure !f m!dern industr' and agriculture t!
gr!$
o #he' $anted the g!)ernment t! *r!m!te m!dern industries thr!ugh
tari? *r!tecti!n and direct g!)ernment aid
o 7!*ularized the idea !f s$adeshi and the b!'c!tt !f British g!!ds
o #he' *r!*!unded the Adrain !f $ealth the!r' and demanded that this
drain be st!**ed
o 3emanded reducti!n !f ta:es and land re)enue
o /!ndemned the high militar' e:*enditure
/!nstituti!nal ref!rms
o #he' $ere e:tremel' cauti!us" ;r!m 1BB& t! 1B<2 the' demanded the
e:*ansi!n and ref!rm !f the Legislati)e /!uncils
o 3ue t! their demands0 the British *assed the 9ndian /!uncils Act !f
1B<2
o #he' failed t! br!aden the base !f their dem!cratic demands" 3id n!t
demand the right t! )!te f!r the masses !r f!r $!men
Administrati)e and !ther ref!rms
o #he' demanded 9ndianisati!n !f the higher grades !f the
administrati)e ser)ices"
o #he' had ec!n!mic *!litical reas!ns f!r this" Hc!n!micall'0
a**!intment !f British !nl' t! 9/S made 9ndian administrati!n c!stl'
because the' $ere *aid )er' high" 7!liticall'0 a**!intment !f 9ndians
$!uld ma.e the administrati!n m!re res*!nsi)e t! 9ndian needs
o 3emanded se*arati!n !f the ,udicial fr!m e:ecuti)e *!$ers s! that the
*e!*le might get s!me *r!tecti!n fr!m the arbitrar' acts !f the *!lice
and the bureaucrac'"
o Krged the g!)ernment t! underta.e and de)el!* $elfare acti)ities and
educati!n
3efense !f /i)il +ights
/ethods of work of early nationalists
3!minated b' m!derates till 1<0&
Meth!d !f m!derates8 /!nstituti!nal agitati!n $ithin the f!ur $alls !f the la$0
and sl!$0 !rderl' *!litical *r!gress" #heir $!r. had t$! *r!nged directi!n8
o #! build a str!ng *ublic !*ini!n in 9ndia t! ar!use the *!litical
c!nsci!usness and nati!nal s*irit !f the *e!*le0 and t! educate and
unite them !n *!litical uesti!ns
o #he' $anted t! *ersuade the British g!)ernment and British *ublic
!*ini!n t! intr!duce ref!rms al!ng directi!ns laid d!$n b' the
nati!nalists"
9n 1BB<0 a British /!mmittee !f the 9@/ $as f!unded" 9n 1B<0 this c!mmittee
started a ,!urnal called 9ndia"
)hat a"out the role of the masses*
#he basic $ea.ness !f the earl' nati!nal m!)ement la' in its narr!$ s!cial
base"
#he leaders lac.ed *!litical faith in the masses"
Hence0 masses $ere assigned a *assi)e r!le in the earl' *hase !f the
nati!nal m!)ement"
Evaluation
#he basic !b,ecti)es !f the earl' nati!nalist leaders $ere t! la' the
f!undati!ns !f a secular and dem!cratic nati!nal m!)ement0 t! *!liticize and
*!liticall' educate the *e!*le0 t! f!rm the headuarters !f the m!)ement0
that is0 t! f!rm an all-9ndia leadershi* gr!u*0 and t! de)el!* and *r!*agate
an anti-c!l!nial nati!nalist ide!l!g'"
Jer' fe$ !f the ref!rms f!r $hich the nati!nalists agitated $ere intr!duced b'
the g!)ernment
9t succeeded in creating a $ide nati!nal a$a.ening and ar!using the feeling
!f nati!nh!!d" 9t made the *e!*le c!nsci!us !f the b!nds !f c!mm!n
*!litical0 ec!n!mic and s!cial interests and the e:istence !f a c!mm!n
enem' in im*erialism
#he' e:*!sed the true character !f the British rule thr!ugh their ec!n!mic
critiue"
All this $as t! bec!me a base f!r the nati!nal m!)ement in the later *eri!d"
6HN HKMH>
#he leaders assumed that the rulers $!uld be less sus*ici!us and less li.el'
t! attac. a *!tentiall' sub)ersi)e !rganizati!n if its chief !rganizer $as a
retired British ci)il ser)ant"
-!.hale himself stated e:*licitl' in 1<12 that if an' 9ndian had started such a
m!)ement the !Ecials $!uldnt ha)e let it ha**en"
/HA7#H+ %8 S!ci!-religi!us ref!rms
#he s!ci!-religi!us ref!rms are als! referred t! as the 9ndian renaissance
#he s!ci!-cultural regenerati!n in nineteenth centur' 9ndia $as
!ccasi!ned b' the c!l!nial *resence0 but n!t created b' it"
;!rmati!n !f the Brahm! Sama, in 1B2B"
7aramhansa Mandali0 7rathna Sama,0 Ar'a Sama,0 5a'asth Sabha8 K70
Sarin Sabha8 7un,ab0 Sat'a S!dha. Sama,8 Maharashtra0 Sri @ara'ana
3harma 7ari*alana Sabha8 5erala
Ahmadi'a and Aligarh M!)ements8 Muslims0 Singh Sabha8 Si.hs0
+ehnumai Mazde'asan Sabha8 7arsees
#heir attenti!n $as f!cused !n $!rldl' e:istence"
#he idea !f !ther$!rldliness and sal)ati!n $ere n!t a *art !f their
agenda"
At that time the inGuence !f religi!n and su*erstiti!n $as !)er$helming"
7!siti!n !f *riests str!ngO that !f $!men $ea."
/aste $as an!ther debilitating fact!r
@either a re)i)al !f the *ast n!r a t!tal brea. $ith traditi!n $as
c!ntem*lated"
+ati!nalism and religi!us uni)ersalism inGuenced the ref!rm m!)ement"
3e)el!*ment !f uni)ersalistic *ers*ecti)e !n religi!n
Le: L!ci Act *r!*sed in 1BC& and *assed in 1B&0 *r!)ided the right t!
inherit ancestral *r!*ert' t! Hindu c!n)erts t! /hristianit'"
#he culture faced a threat fr!m the c!l!nial rule"
/HA7#H+ 7
;irst0 the 9ndian intellectuals c!-!*erated $ith the British in the h!*e that
British $!uld hel* m!dernize 9ndia"
H!$e)er0 the realit' !f s!cial de)el!*ment in 9ndia failed t! c!nf!rm t! their
h!*es"
#hree *e!*le $h! carried !ut the ec!n!mic anal'sis !f British 9ndia8
o 3adabhai @a!r!,i8 the grand !ld man !f 9ndia" B!rn in 1B2&0 he became
a successful businessman but de)!ted his entire life and $ealth t! the
creati!n !f nati!nal m!)ement in 9ndia
o 1ustice Mahade) -!)ind +anade8 He taught an entire generati!n !f
9ndians the )alue !f m!dern industrial de)el!*ment"
o +!mesh /handra 3utt8 a retired 9/S !Ecer0 *ublished #he Hc!n!mic
Hist!r' !f 9ndia at the beginning !f the 20
th
centur' in $hich he
e:amined in minute detail the entire ec!n!mic rec!rd !f c!l!nial rule
since 17&7"
#he' c!ncluded that c!l!nialism $as the main !bstacle t! 9ndias ec!n!mic
de)el!*ment"
#hree as*ects !f d!minati!n !f British8 trade0 industr'0 (nance
#he *r!blem !f *!)ert' $as seen as a *r!blem !f nati!nal de)el!*ment" #his
a**r!ach made *!)ert' a br!ad nati!nal issue and hel*ed t! unite0 instead !f
di)ide0 di?erent regi!ns and secti!ns !f 9ndian s!ciet'"
#he earl' nati!nalists acce*ted that the c!m*lete ec!n!mic transf!rmati!n !f
the c!untr' !n the basis !f m!dern techn!l!g' and ca*italist enter*rise $as
the *rimar' g!al !f their ec!n!mic *!licies"
Because their $h!le-ted de)!ti!n t! the cause !f industrializati!n0 the earl'
nati!nalists l!!.ed u*!n all !ther issues such as f!reign trade0 rail$a's0
tari?s0 (nance and lab!ur legislati!ns in relati!n t! this *aram!unt as*ect"
(and hence the !bsessi!n !f @ehru $ith industrializati!n)
H!$e)er great the need !f 9ndia f!r industrializati!n0 it had t! be based !n
9ndian ca*ital and n!t f!reign ca*ital"
#he earl' nati!nalists sa$ f!reign ca*ital as an unmitigated e)il $hich did n!t
de)el!* a c!untr' but e:*l!ited and im*!)erished it"
H:*enditure !n rail$a's c!uld be seen as 9ndian subsid' t! British industries"
A ma,!r !bstacle in the *r!cess !f industrial de)el!*ment $as the *!lic' !f
free trade
High e:*enditure !n the arm'
3rain the!r' $as the f!cal *!int !f nati!nalist critiue !f c!l!nialism"
A large *art !f 9ndiaa ca*ital and $ealth $as being transferred !r
drained t! Britain in the f!rm !f salaries and *ensi!ns !f British ci)il
and militar' !Ecials $!r.ing in 9ndia0 interest !n l!ans ta.en b' the
9ndian g!)ernment0 *r!(ts !f British ca*italists in 9ndia0 and the H!me
/harges !r e:*enses !f the 9ndian -!)ernment in Britain"
#his drain am!unted t! !ne-half !f g!)ernment re)enues0 m!re than
the entire land re)enue c!llecti!n0 and !)er !ne-third !f 9ndias t!tal
sa)ings"
#he 3rain the!r' $as *ut f!r$ard b' 3adabhai @a!r!,i" He declared
that the drain $as the basic cause !f 9ndias *!)ert'"
#hr!ugh the drain the!r'0 the e:*l!itati)e character !f the British rule
$as made )isible"
#he drain the!r' *!ssessed the merit !f being easil' gras*ed and
underst!!d b' a nati!n !f *easants" @! idea c!uld ar!use *e!*le m!re
than the th!ught that the' $ere being ta:ed s! that !thers in far !?
lands might li)e in c!mf!rt"
#his agitati!n !n ec!n!mic issues c!ntributed t! the undermining !f
the ide!l!gical hegem!n' !f the alien rulers !)er 9ndian minds"
#he nati!nalist ec!n!mic agitati!n undermined the m!ral f!undati!ns
inculcated b' the British that f!reign rule is bene(cial f!r 9ndia"
/HA7#H+ B8 ;reed!m !f 7ress
=n 2<
th
1anuar' 17B00 the Hic.e's Bengal -azette !r the /alcutta -eneral
Ad)ertizer $as *ublished" 9t $as the (rst Hnglish ne$s*a*er t! be *rinted in
the 9ndian sub-c!ntinent"
#he *ress $as the chief instrument !f f!rming a nati!nalist ide!l!g'
#he res!luti!ns and *r!ceedings !f the /!ngress $ere *r!*agated thr!ugh
*ress" #ri)ia8 nearl' !ne third !f the f!unding fathers !f c!ngress in 1BB&
$ere ,!urnalists"
Main ne$s *a*ers and edit!rs
o #he Hindu and S$adesamitran8 - Subramani'a 9'er
o 5esari and Mahratta8 B- #ila.
o Bengalee8 S @ Baner,ea
o Amrita Bazar 7atri.a8 Sisir 5umar -h!sh and M!tilal -h!sh
o Sudhara.8 -5 -!.hale
o 9ndian Mirr!r8 @ @ Sen
o J!ice !f 9ndia8 3adabhai @a!r!,i
o Hindustani and Ad)!cate8 -7 Jarma
o #ribune and A.hbar-i-Am in 7un,ab
o 9ndu 7ra.ash0 3n'an 7ra.ahs0 5al and -u,arati in B!mba'
o S!m 7ra.ash0 Bangani)asi and Sadharani in Bengal
@e$s*a*er $as n!t c!n(ned t! the literates" 9t $!uld reach the )illages and
$!uld be read b' a reader t! tens !f !thers"
+eading and discussing ne$s*a*er became a f!rm !f *!litical *artici*ati!n"
@earl' all the ma,!r *!litical c!ntr!)ersies !f the da' $ere c!nducted thr!ugh
the 7ress"
A=**!se0 !**!se0 !**!se $as the m!tt! !f the 9ndian *ress"
#he secti!n 12CA !f the 97/ $as such as t! *unish a *ers!n $h! e)!.ed
feelings !f disa?ecti!n t! the g!)ernment"
#he 9ndian ,!urnalists remained !utside 12CA b' ad!*ting meth!ds such as
u!ting the s!cialist and anti-im*erialist ne$s*a*ers !f Hngland !r letters
fr!m radical British citizens
#he increasing inGuence !f the ne$s*a*ers led the g!)ernment t! *ass the
Jernacular 7ress Act !f 1<7B0 directed !nl' against 9ndian language
ne$s*a*ers"
o 9t $as *assed )er' secreti)el'
o #he act *r!)ided f!r the c!n(scati!n !f the *rinting *ress0 *a*er and
!ther materials !f a ne$s*a*er if the g!)ernment belie)ed that it $as
*ublishing sediti!us materials and had G!uted an !Ecial $arning"
o 3ue t! the agitati!ns0 it $as re*ealed in 1BB1 b' L!rd +i*!n"
S@ Baner,ee $as the (rst 9ndian t! g! t! ,ail in *erf!rmance !f his dut' as a
,!urnalist"
B - #ila.
#he man $h! is m!st freuentl' ass!ciated $ith the struggle f!r the freed!m
!f 7ress during the nati!nalist m!)ement is Bal -angadhar #ila."
9n 1BB10 al!ng $ith - - Agar.ar0 he f!unded the ne$s*a*ers 5esari and
Mahratta"
9n 1B<20 he started the *ractice !f using the traditi!nal religi!us -ana*ati
festi)al t! *r!*agate nati!nalist ideas thr!ugh *atri!tic s!ngs and s*eeches"
9n 1B<%0 he started the Shi)a,i festi)al t! stimulate nati!nalism am!ng '!ung
Maharashtrians"
He br!ught *easants and farmers int! the nati!nal m!)ement"
He !rganized a n!-ta: cam*aign in Maharashtra in 1B<%-<7
7lague in 7!!na in 1B<7"
7!*ular resentment against the !Ecial *lague measures resulted in the
assassinati!n !f +and0 the /hairman !f the 7lague /!mmittee in 7!!na0 and
Lt" A'erst b' the /ha*he.ar br!thers !n 27 1une 1B<B"
Since 1B<C0 anger had been rising against the g!)ernment due t! the tari?0
currenc' and famine *!lic'"
#ila. $as arrested and sentenced t! 1B m!nth rig!r!us im*ris!nment in
1B<7" #his led t! c!untr' $ide *r!tests and #ila. $as gi)en the title !f
L!.man'a"
#ila. $as again arrested and tried !n 2C 1une 1<0B !n the charge !f sediti!n
under article 12CA" He $as sentenced t! % 'ears !f trans*!rtati!n" #his led t!
nati!n$ide *r!tests and cl!sing d!$n !f mar.ets f!r a $ee." Later0 in 1<22
-andhi $as tried !n the same act and he said that he is *r!ud t! be
ass!ciated $ith #ila.s name"
/HA7H+ <
#he 9ndian /!uncils Act !f 1B%1 enlarged the -!)ern!r--enerals H:ecuti)e
/!uncil f!r the *ur*!se !f ma.ing la$s"
#he -- c!uld add %-12 members t! the H:ecuti)e /!uncil" #his came t! be
.n!$n as the 9m*erial Legislati)e /!uncil" 9t didnt ha)e an' *!$ers"
A3es*!tism c!ntr!lled fr!m h!me $as the fundamental feature !f British rule
in 9ndia"
#he 9ndians n!minated t! the c!uncil $ere n!t re*resentati)e !f the
nati!nalist m!)ement"
3es*ite the earl' nati!nalists belie)ing that 9ndia sh!uld e)entuall' bec!me
self-g!)erning0 the' m!)ed )er' cauti!usl' in *utting f!r$ard *!litical
demands regarding the structure !f the state0 f!r the' $ere afraid !f the
-!)ernment declaring their acti)ities sediti!us and disl!'al and su**ressing
them"
#ill 1B<20 the' !nl' demanded ref!rms in the c!uncil"
/HA7#H+ 108 #he S$adeshi M!)ement8 1<02-1<0B
+ationalist /ovement $01&.$0$%
Reasons for the growth of militant nationalism 2this is di3erent from
revolutionary terrorism4
3isillusi!nment !f the nati!nalists $ith m!derate *!licies
#he m!derates th!ught that the British c!uld be ref!rmed fr!m $ithin
7!liticall' c!nsci!us 9ndians $ere c!n)inced that the *ur*!se !f the British
rule $as t! e:*l!it 9ndia ec!n!micall'
#he nati!nalists realized that 9ndian industries c!uld n!t G!urish e:ce*t under
an 9ndian g!)ernment
3isastr!us famines fr!m 1B<% t! 1<00 t!!. a t!ll !f !)er <0 la.h li)es
#he 9ndian /!uncils Act !f 1B<2 $as a disa**!intment
#he @atu br!thers $ere de*!rted in 1B<7 $ith!ut trial
9n 1B<7 B - #ila. $as sentenced t! l!ng term im*ris!nment f!r ar!using the
*e!*le against the g!)ernment
9n 1<0C0 the 9ndian =Ecial Secrets Act $as *assed restricting the freed!m !f
the 7ress
7rimar' and technical educati!n $as n!t ma.ing an' *r!gress
#hus0 increasing number !f 9ndians $ere getting c!n)inced that self-
g!)ernment $as essential f!r the sa.e !f ec!n!mic0 *!litical and cultural
*r!gress !f the c!untr'
-r!$th !f Self-res*ect and self-c!n(dence
#ila.0 Aur!bind! and 7al *reached the message !f self-res*ect
#he' said t! the *e!*le that remed' t! their c!nditi!n la' in their !$n hand
and the' sh!uld theref!re bec!me str!ng
S$ami Ji)e.anandas messages
-r!$th !f educati!n and unem*l!'ment
9nternati!nal 9nGuences
+ise !f m!dern 1a*an after 1B%B
3efeat !f the 9talian arm' b' the Hthi!*ians in 1B<% and !f +ussia b' 1a*an in
1<0& e:*l!ded the m'th !f Hur!*ean su*eri!rit'
H:istence !f a Militant @ati!nalist Sch!!l !f #h!ught
5artition of Bengal
6ith the *artiti!n !f Bengal0 9ndian @ati!nal M!)ement entered its sec!nd
stage
=n 20 1ul'0 1<0&0 L!rd /urz!n issued an !rder di)iding the *r!)ince !f Bengal
int! t$! *arts8 Hastern Bengal and Assam $ith a *!*ulati!n !f 21 mn and the
rest !f Bengal $ith a *!*ulati!n !f &C mn"
+eas!n gi)en8 the e:isting *r!)ince !f Bengal $as t!! big t! be eEcientl'
administered b' a single *r!)incial g!)ernment
#he *artiti!n e:*ected t! $ea.en the ner)e centre !f 9ndian @ati!nalism0
Bengal"
#he *artiti!n !f the state intended t! curb Bengali inGuence b' n!t !nl'
*lacing Bengalis under t$! administrati!ns but b' reducing them t! a
min!rit' in Bengal itself as in the ne$ *r!*!sed Bengal *r!*er $as t! ha)e
se)enteen milli!n Bengali and thirt' se)en milli!n =ri'a and Hindi s*ea.ing
*e!*le"
#he *artiti!n $as als! meant t! f!ster di)isi!n !n the basis !f religi!n"
+isle'0 H!me Secretar' t! the -!90 said !n 3ecember %0 1<0C M A!ne !f !ur
main !b,ects is t! s*lit u* and thereb' $ea.en a s!lid b!d' !f !**!nents t!
!ur rule"
the nati!nalists sa$ it as a deliberate attem*t t! di)ide the Bengalis
territ!riall' and !n religi!us gr!unds
#he Swadeshi /ovement
#he S$adeshi m!)ement had its genesis in the anti-*artiti!n m!)ement
$hich $as started t! !**!se the British decisi!n t! *artiti!n Bengal"
Mass *r!tests $ere !rganized in !**!siti!n t! the *r!*!sed *artiti!n"
3es*ite the *r!tests0 the decisi!n t! *artiti!n Bengal $as ann!unced !n 1ul'
1<0 1<0&
9t became !b)i!us t! the nati!nalists that their m!derate meth!ds $ere n!t
$!r.ing and that a di?erent .ind !f strateg' $as needed"
Se)eral meetings $ere held in t!$ns such as 3ina,*ur 7abna0 ;arid*ur etc" 9t
$as in these meetings that the *ledge t! b!'c!tt f!reign g!!ds $as (rst
ta.en"
#he f!rmal *r!clamati!n !f the S$adeshi m!)ement $as made !n 7 August
1<0& in a meeting held in the /alcutta t!$n hall" #he fam!us b!'c!tt
res!luti!n $as *assed"
#he leaders li.e S@ Baner,ee t!ured the c!untr' urging the b!'c!tt !f
Manchester cl!th and Li)er*!!l salt"
#he )alue !f British cl!th s!ld in s!me !f the districts fell b' ()e t! (fteen
times bet$een Se*tember 1<0C and Se*tember 1<0&"
#he da' the *artiti!n t!!. e?ect M 1% =ct!ber 1<0& M $as declared a da' !f
m!urning thr!ugh!ut Bengal"
#he m!)ement s!!n s*read t! the entire c!untr'"
Militant nati!nalists
o #he e:tremists $ere in fa)!r !f e:tending the m!)ement t! the rest !f
9ndia and carr'ing it be'!nd the *r!gramme !f ,ust S$adeshi and
b!'c!tt t! a full Gedged *!litical mass struggle" #he m!derates $ere
n!t as $illing t! g! that far"
o #he di?erences bet$een the e:tremists and m!derates came t! had in
1<07 Surat sessi!n $here the *art' s*lit $ith seri!us c!nseuences f!r
the S$adeshi M!)ement"
o 9n Bengal0 the e:tremists acuired a d!minant inGuence !)er the
S$adeshi m!)ement"
o #he' *r!*!sed the techniue !f e:tended b!'c!tt $hich included0
a*art fr!m b!'c!tt !f f!reign g!!ds0 b!'c!tt !f g!)ernment sch!!ls
and c!lleges0 c!urts0 titles and g!)ernment ser)ices and e)en the
!rganizati!n !f stri.es"
o Aur!bind! -h!se8 7!litical freed!m is the lifebreath !f a nati!n"
o B!'c!tt and *ublic burning f!reign cl!th0 *ic.eting !f sh!*s selling
f!reign g!!ds0 became c!mm!n in rem!te c!rners !f Bengal as $ell as
in man' t!$ns acr!ss the c!untr'"
o #he militant nati!nslists0 h!$e)er0 failed t! gi)e a *!siti)e leadershi*
t! the *e!*le" #he' als! failed t! reach the real masses !f the c!untr'0
the *easants"
#he m!)ement als! inn!)ated $ith c!nsiderable success di?erent f!rms !f
mass m!bilizati!n such as *ublic meetings0 *r!cessi!ns and c!r*s !f
)!lunteers"
#he S$adesh Bandhab Samiti set u* b' Ash$ini 5umar 3utt0 a sch!!l
teacher0 in Barisal $as the m!st $ell .n!$n )!lunteer !rganizati!n"
3uring the S$adeshi *eri!d0 traditi!nal festi)als $ere used t! reach !ut t!
the masses" #he -ana*ati and Shi)a,i festi)als $ere *!*ularized b' #ila."
#raditi!nal f!l. theatres such as ,atras $ere als! used"
An!ther im*!rtant as*ect $as the great em*hasis gi)en t! self-reliance !r
Atmasa.ti as a necessar' *art !f the struggle against the g!)ernment"
Self-reliance $as the .e'$!rd" /am*aigns f!r s!cial ref!rms $ere carried !ut"
9n 1<0%0 the @ati!nal /!uncil f!r Hducati!n $as setu* t! !rganize the
educati!n s'stem"
Self-reliance als! meant an e?!rt t! set u* S$adeshi !r indigen!us
enter*rises"
Mar.ed im*act in the cultural s*here
o #he s!ngs c!m*!sed b' +abindranath #ag!0 Mu.unda 3as and !thers
became the m!)ing s*irit f!r nati!nalists"
o +abindranaths AAmar S!nar Bangla0 $ritten at that time0 $as t! later
ins*ire the liberati!n struggle !f Bangladesh and $as ad!*ted as the
nati!nal anthem !f the c!untr' in 1<71"
o @andalal B!se0 $h! left a ma,!r im*rint !n 9ndian art0 $as the (rst
reci*ient !f a sch!larshi* !?ered b' the 9ndian S!ciet' !f =riental Art
f!unded in 1<07"
#he s!cial base !f the nati!nal m!)ement $as n!$ e:tened t! include certain
zamindari secti!n0 l!$er middle class and sch!!l and c!llege students"
6!men als! *artici*ated in large numbers"
3ra$bac.8 6as n!t able t! garner the su**!rt !f the mass !f Muslims0
es*eciall' the muslim *easantr'" #he British *!lic' !f c!mmunalism
res*!nsible f!r this"
B' mid-1<0B0 the m!)ement $as alm!st !)er" #he main reas!ns $ere8
o #he g!)ernment0 seeing the re)!luti!nar' *!tential !f the m!)ement0
came d!$n $ith a hea)' hand"
o #he s*lit !f the c!ngress in 1<07 had $ea.ened the m!)ement"
o #he m!)ement lac.ed an e?ecti)e !rganizati!n and *art' structure"
o #he m!)ement decline d*artiall' because !f the l!gic !f the mass
m!)ements itself M the' cann!t be endlessl' sustained at the same
*itch !f militanc' and self-sacri(ce"
#he anti-*artiti!n m!)ement0 h!$e)er0 mar.ed a great re)!luti!nar' lea*
f!r$ard f!r 9ndian nati!nalism"
#he decline !f S$adeshi engendered the rise !f re)!luti!nar' terr!rism"
Assessing the m!)ement
o /ultural im*act
o S!cial 9m*act
o Hc!n!mic im*act
o +!le !f students and 6!men
o All 9ndia as*ect !f the m!)ement
o ;r!m *assi)e *r!test t! acti)e b!'c!tt
Revolutionary #errorism
+e)!luti!nar' '!ung men did n!t tr' t! generate a mass re)!luti!n" 9nstead
the' f!ll!$ed the strateg' !f assassinating un*!*ular !Ecials
1<0C8 J3 Sa)ar.ar !rganized Abhina) Bharat
@e$s*a*ers li.e #he Sandh'a and Nugaantar in Bengal and the 5al in
Maharashtra ad)!cated re)!luti!nar' ide!l!g'
5ingsf!rd 9ncident8 9n 1<0B0 5hudiram B!se and 7rafulla /ha.i thre$ b!mb at
a carriage the' belie)ed $as carr'ing 5ingsf!rd0 the un*!*ular ,udge !f
Muza?ar*ur"
Anushilan Samiti thre$ a b!mb at the Jicer!' L!rd Hardinge
/entres abr!ad
o 9n L!nd!n8 led b' J3 Sa)ar.ar0 Sh'ama,i 5rishna)arma and Har 3a'al
o 9n Hur!*e8 Madam /ama and A,it Singh
#he' graduall' *etered !ut" 9t did n!t ha)e an' base am!ng the *e!*le
/HA7#H+ 118 #he S*lit in the /!ngress
M!derates $ere successful t! s!me e:tent"
M!derates failed in man' as*ects" 6h'>
o #he' c!uld n!t acuire an' r!!ts am!ng c!mm!n *e!*le"
o #he' belie)ed that the' c!uld *ersuade the rulers t! change their
*!licies" H!$e)er0 their achie)ement in this regard $as meager"
o #he' c!uld n!t .ee* *ace $ith the e)ents" #he' failed t! meet the
demands !f the ne$ stage !f the nati!nal m!)ement"
#he British $ere .een !n (nishing the /!ngress because8
o H!$e)er m!derate the leaders $ere0 the' $ere still nati!nalists and
*r!*agat!rs !f anti-c!l!nialist ideas"
o #he British felt that m!derates led c!ngress c!uld be (nished !? easil'
because it did n!t ha)e a *!*ular base
9n the s$adeshi m!)ement0 all secti!ns !f 9@/ united in !**!sing the 7artiti!n
o H!$e)er0 there $as much di?erence bet$een the m!derates and the
e:tremists ab!ut the meth!ds and sc!*e !f the m!)ement
o #he e:tremists $anted t! e:tend the S$adeshi and B!'c!tt m!)ement
fr!m Bengal t! the rest !f the c!untr' and t! b!'c!tt e)er' f!rm !f
ass!ciati!n $ith the c!l!nial g!)ernment
o #he m!derates $anted t! c!n(ne the b!'c!tt m!)ement t! Bengal
and e)en there t! limit it t! the b!'c!tt !f f!reign g!!ds
After the S$adeshi m!)ement the British ad!*ted a three *r!nged a**r!ach
t! deal $ith c!ngress" +e*ressi!n-c!nciliati!n-su**ressi!n"
o #he e:tremists $ere re**ressed
o #he m!derates $ere c!nciliated thus gi)ing them an im*ressi!n that
their further demands $!uld be met if the' disass!ciated fr!m the
e:tremists" #he idea $as t! is!late the e:tremists"
o =nce the m!derates and e:tremists $ere se*arate the e:tremists
c!uld be su**ressed thr!ugh the use !f state f!rce $hile the
m!derates c!uld later be ign!red"
#he c!ngress sessi!n $as held !n 3ecember 2%0 1<07 at Surat0 !n the ban.s
!f the ri)er #a*ti"
o #he e:tremists $anted a guarantee that the f!ur /alcutta res!luti!ns
$ill be *assed"
o #he' !b,ected t! the dul' elected *resident !f the 'ear0 +ash Behari
-h!se"
o #here $as a c!nfr!ntati!n $ith hurling !f chairs and sh!es"
#he g!)ernment launched a massi)e attac. !n the e:tremists" @e$s*a*ers
$ere su**ressed" #ila. $as sent t! Mandala' ,ail f!r si: 'ears"
#he e:tremists $ere n!t able t! !rganize an e?ecti)e alternati)e *art' !r t!
sustain the m!)ement"
After 1<0B the nati!nal m!)ement as a $h!le declined"
#he m!derates and the c!untr' as a $h!le $ere disa**!inted b' the 1<0<
Mint!-M!rle' ref!rms
o #he number !f indirectl' elected members !f the 9m*erial and
*r!)incial legislati)e c!uncils $as increased"
o Se*arate elect!rates f!r Muslims $ere intr!duced"
6ith the s*lit !f /!ngress re)!luti!nar' terr!rism r!se"
9n 1<0C J 3 Sa)ar.ar !rganized Abhina) Bharat as a secret s!ciet' !f
re)!luti!naries
9n A*ril 1<0B0 7rafulla /ha.i and 5hudiram B!se thre$ a b!mb at a carriage
$hich the' belie)ed $as !ccu*ied b' 5ingsf!rd the un*!*ular ,udge at
Muzzafar*ur"
Anushilan Samit' and 1ugantar $ere t$! m!st im*!rtant re)!luti!nar'
gr!u*s"
An assessment !f the s*lit
o #he s*lit did n!t *r!)e useful t! either *art'
o #he British *la'ed the game !f di)ide and rule
o #! *lacate the m!derates the' ann!unced the M!rle'-Mint! ref!rms
$hich did n!t satisf' the demands !f the nati!nalists" #he' als!
annulled the *artiti!n !f Bengal in 1<11"
/orley./into Reforms6 $010
9ncreased the number !f elected members in the 9m*erial Legislati)e /!uncil
and the *r!)incial c!uncil
H!$e)er0 m!st !f the elected members $ere elected indirectl'
#he ref!rmed c!uncils still en,!'ed n! real *!$er0 being merel' ad)is!r'
b!dies"
9ntr!duced se-arate electorates under $hich all Muslims $ere gr!u*ed in
se*arate c!nstituencies fr!m $hich Muslims al!ne c!uld be elected" #his $as
aimed at di)iding the Hindus and Muslims" 9t $as based !n the n!ti!n that
the *!litical and ec!n!mic interests !f Hindus and Muslims $ere se*arate"
o #his later became a *!tent fact!r in the gr!$th !f c!mmunalism
o 9t is!lated the Muslims fr!m the @ati!nalist M!)ement and enc!uraged
se*aratist tendencies
#he real *ur*!se !f the ref!rms $as t! c!nfuse the m!derate nati!nalists0 t!
di)ide nati!nalist ran.s and t! chec. the gr!$th !f unit' am!ng 9ndians
+es*!nse !f M!derates
o #he' realized that the ref!rms had n!t granted much
o H!$e)er0 the' decided t! c!!*erate $ith the g!)ernment in $!r.ing
the ref!rms
o #his led t! their l!ss !f res*ect am!ng the nati!nalists and masses
7rowth of Communalism
3e(niti!n
o /!mmunalism is the belief that because a gr!u* !f *e!*le f!ll!$ a
*articular religi!n the' ha)e0 as a result0 c!mm!n secular0 that is0
s!cial0 *!litical and ec!n!mic interests"
o Sec!nd stage8 Secular interests !f f!ll!$ers !f !ne religi!n are
dissimilar and di)ergent fr!m the interests !f the f!ll!$ers !f
an!ther religi!n
o #hird stage8 #he interests !f the f!ll!$ers !f di?erent religi!ns !r !f
di?erent religi!us c!mmunities are seen t! be mutuall'
inc!m*atible0 antag!nistic and h!stile"
/!mmunalism is n!t a remnant !f the medie)al *eri!d" 9t has its r!!ts in
the m!dern c!l!nial s!ci!-ec!n!mic *!litical structure"
3i)ide and +ule
o After 1B&70 British initiall' su**ressed 9ndian muslims" H!$e)er0
after the *ublishing !f Hunters b!!. A#he 9ndian Mussalman the'
acti)el' f!ll!$ed the *!lic' !f di)ide and rule and hence started
su**!rting the Muslims"
o #he' *r!m!ted *r!)incialism b' tal.ing !f Bengal d!minati!n
o #ired t! use the caste structure t! turn the n!n-brahmins against
Brahmins and the l!$er caste against the higher castes"
o 9t readil' acce*ted c!mmunal leaders as authentic re*resentati)es
!f all their c!-religi!nists"
+eas!ns f!r gr!$th !f c!mmunal tendencies in Muslims
o +elati)e bac.$ardness8 educati!nall' and ec!n!micall'
Pinc!m*leteQ
/uslim 8eague
1<0% b' Aga 5han0 the @a$ab !f 3ha.a0 and @a$ab M!hsin-ul-Mul.
9t made n! critiue !f c!l!nialism0 su**!rted the *artiti!n !f Bengal and
demanded s*ecial safeguards f!r the Muslims in g!)ernment ser)ices"
MLs *!litical acti)ities $ere directed n!t against the f!reign rulers but
against the Hindus and the 9@/"
#heir acti)ities $ere n!t su**!rted b' all Muslims
o Arhar m!)ement $as f!unded at this time under the leadershi* !f
Maulana M!hamed Ali0 Ha.im A,mal 5han0 Hasan 9mam0 Maulana 4afar
Ali 5han0 and Mazhar-ul-Ha" #he' ad)!cated *artici*ati!n in the
militant nati!nalist m!)ement"
Muslim @ati!nalists
#he $ar bet$een =tt!man Hm*ire and 9tal' created a $a)e !f s'm*ath' f!r
#ur.e'
3uring the $ar bet$een =tt!man em*ire and 9tal'0 9ndia sent a medical
missi!n headed b' MA Ansari t! hel* #ur.e'"
As the British $ere n!t s'm*athetic t! #ur.e'0 the *r!-/ali*h sentiments in
9ndia became anti-British
H!$e)er0 the militant nati!nalists am!ng muslims did n!t acce*t an entirel'
secular a**r!ach t! *!litics
#he m!st im*!rtant issue the' t!!. u* $as n!t *!litical inde*endence but
*r!tecti!n !f the #ur.ish em*ire"
#his a**r!ach did n!t immediatel' clash $ith 9ndian nati!nalism" H!$e)er0 in
the l!ng run it *r!)ed harmful as it enc!uraged the habit !f l!!.ing at
*!litical uesti!ns fr!m a religi!us )ie$ *!int"
Hindu /!mmunalism
S!me Hindus acce*ted the c!l!nial )ie$ !f 9ndian hist!r' and tal.ed ab!ut
the t'rannical Muslim rule in the medie)al *eri!d
=)er language the' said that Hindi $as the language !f Hindus and Krdu that
!f Muslims"
7un,ab Hindu Sabha $as f!unded in 1<0<" 9ts leaders attached the 9@/ f!r
tr'ing t! unite 9ndians int! a single nati!n"
#he (rst sessi!n !f the All 9ndia Hindu Mahasabha $as held in A*ril 1<1&
under the *residentshi* !f the Mahara,a !f 5asim Bazar"
9t h!$e)er remained a $ea. !rganizati!n because the c!l!nial g!)ernment
ga)e it fe$ c!ncessi!ns and little su**!rt"
/HA7#H+ 128 6!rld 6ar 9 and 9ndian @ati!nalism
9ncreasing number !f 9ndians fr!m 7un,ab $ere emigrating t! @!rth
America"
#he British g!)ernment th!ught that these emigrants $!uld be a?ected
b' the idea !f libert'" Hence0 the' tried t! restrict emigrati!n"
#arak +ath !as0 an 9ndian student in /anada0 started a *a*er called ;ree
Hindustan"
#he Hindi Ass!ciati!n $as setu* in 7!rtland in Ma' 1<12"
Knder the leadershi* !f Lala Har 3a'al0 a $ee.l' *a*er0 #he -hadar $as
started and a headuarters called Nugantar Ashram $as set u* in San
;ransisc!"
=n @!)ember 10 1<120 the (rst issue !f -hadar $as *ublished in Krdu and
!n 3ecember <0 the -urumu.hi editi!n"
9n 1<1C0 three e)ents inGuenced the c!urse !f the -hadar m!)ement8
o #he arrest and esca*e !f Har 3a'al
o #he 5!magata Maru incident
o =utbrea. !f the (rst $!rld $ar
-haradites came t! 9ndia and made se)eral attem*ts t! instill the 9ndian
*!*ulati!n t! re)!lt" H!$e)er0 this $as !f n! a)ail"
#he -hadar m!)ement $as )er' secular in nature"
-hadar militants $ere distinguished b' their secular0 egalitarian0 dem!cratic
and n!n-chau)inistic internati!nalist !utl!!."
#he ma,!r $ea.ness !f the -hadar leaders $as that the' c!m*letel' under-
estimated the e:tent and am!unt !f *re*arati!n at e)er' le)el M
!rganizati!nal0 ide!l!gical0 strategic0 tactical0 (nancial M that $as necessar'
bef!re an attem*t at an armed re)!lt c!uld be !rganized"
9t als! failed t! generate an e?ecti)e and sustained leadershi* that $as
ca*able !f integrating the )ari!us as*ects !f the m!)ement"
An!ther $ea.ness $as its alm!st n!n-e:istent !rganizati!nal structure"
S!me im*!rtant leaders8 Baba -urmu.h Singh0 5artar Singh Saraba0 S!han
Singh Bha.na0 +ahmat Ali Shah0 Bhai 7armanand and M!hammad
Bar.atullah"
9ns*ired b' the -hadar 7art'0 700 s!ldiers at Singa*!re re)!lted under the
leadershi* !f 1amadar /histi 5han and Subedar 3unde' 5han" #he rebelli!n
$as crushed"
=ther re)!luti!naries8 1atin Mu.har,ee0 +ash Bihari B!se0 +a,a Mahendra
7ratab0 Lala Harda'al0 Abdul +ahim0 Maulana =baidullah Sindhi0
/ham*a.araman 7illai0 Sardar Singh +ana and Madame /ama
/HA7#H+ 128 #he H!me +ule M!)ement
After being released in 1<1C0 #ila. s!ught re-entr' int! /!ngress" Annie
Besant and -!.hale su**!rted" But (nall' 7her!zshah Mehta $!n and
#ila. $as n!t admitted"
#ila. and Besant decided t! start the h!me rule m!)ement !n their !$n"
9n earl' 1<1&0 Annie Besant (and S Subramani'a 9'er) launched a
cam*aign thr!ugh her t$! ne$s*a*ers0 @e$ 9ndia and /!mm!n$eal0 and
!rganized *ublic meetings and c!nferences t! demand that 9ndia be
granted self-g!)ernment !n the lines !f the 6hite c!l!nies after the 6ar"
;r!m A*ril 1<1&0 her t!ne became m!re *erem*t!r' and her stance m!re
aggressi)e"
At the annual sessi!n !f the /!ngress in 3ecember 1<1& it $as decided
that the e:tremists be all!$ed t! re,!in the /!ngress" #he !**!siti!n fr!m
the B!mba' gr!u* has been greatl' $ea.ened b' the death !f 7her!zshah
Mehta"
#ila. and Annie Besant set u* t$! di?erent h!me rule leagues"
#ila.s league $as t! $!r. in Maharashtra (e:cluding B!mba' cit')0
5arnata.a0 the central *r!)inces and Berar and Annie Besants league $as
gi)en the charged !f the rest !f 9ndia"
#ila. $as t!tall' secular in nature" #here $as n! trace !f religi!us a**eal"
#he demand f!r H!me +ule $as made !n a $h!ll' secular basis"
o FH!me rule is m' birthright0 and 9 $ill ha)e itI
#he British $ere aliens n!t because the' bel!nged t! an!ther religi!n but
because the' did n!t act in the 9ndian interest
#ila.s league $as !rganized int! si: branches0 !ne each in /entral
Maharashtrra0 B!mba' cit'0 5arnata.a0 and /entral 7r!)inces0 and t$! in
Berar"
=n 22
rd
1ul' 1<1%0 !n #ila.s si:tieth birthda' the g!)ernment sent a
n!tice as.ing him t! sh!$ cause $h' he sh!uld n!t be b!und !)er f!r
g!!d beha)i!r f!r a *eri!d !f !ne 'ear and demanding securities !f +s
%0000
#ila. $as defended b' a team !f la$'ers led b' M!hammad Ali 1innah" He
$!n" #ila. used the !**!rtunit' t! further the H!me +ule m!)ement"
9n Besants league0 the main thrust !f acti)it' $as directed t!$ards
building u* an agitati!n ar!und the demand f!r H!me +ule" #his $as t! be
achie)ed b' *r!m!ting *!litical educati!n and discussi!n"
Luc.n!$ 7act8 1<1% in the /!ngress Sessi!n at Luc.n!$" Als! .n!$n as
/!ngress League 7act" H:tremists $ere acce*ted bac. in c!ngress" An
agreement $as reached bet$een Muslim League and /!ngress"
#he turning *!int in the m!)ement came $ith the arrest !f Annie Besant
in 1une 1<17
#here $as $ide agitati!n and man' leaders ,!ined the league"
#he g!)ernment agreed t! grant self rule but the timing f!r such a change
$as t! be decided b' the g!)ernment al!ne"
After the great ad)ance in 1<170 the m!)ement graduall' diss!l)ed"
o #he m!derates $ere *aci(ed b' the g!)ernments assurance !f
ref!rms after Besants release"
o #he *ublicati!n !f scheme !f g!)ernment ref!rms in 1ul' 1<1B
further created di)isi!ns" Man' re,ected it $hile !thers $ere f!r
gi)ing it a trial"
o Later0 #ila. $ent t! Hngland t! (ght a case" 6ith Besant unable t!
gi)e a (rm lead0 and #ila. a$a' in Hngland0 the m!)ement $as left
leaderless"
Achie)ements !f the m!)ement
o #he achie)ement !f the H!me +ule m!)ement $as that it created a
generati!n !f ardent nati!nalists $h! f!rmed the bac.b!ne !f the
nati!nal m!)ement in the c!ming 'ears"
o #he H!me rule leagues als! created !rganizati!nal lin.s bet$een t!$n
and c!untr' $hich $ere t! *r!)e in)aluable in later 'ears"
o B' *!*ularizing the idea !f self-g!)ernment0 it generated a $ides*read
*r!-nati!nalist atm!s*here in the c!untr'"
o #he m!)ement set the right m!!d f!r the entr' !f Mahatma -andhi
and ta.e the leadershi*"
Luc.n!$ 7act (1<1%)
@ati!nalists sa$ that their disunit' $as a?ecting their cause
#$! im*!rtant de)el!*ments at the Luc.n!$ Sessi!n !f /!ngress
o #he t$! $ings !f the /!ngress $ere again united
o #he /!ngress and the Muslim League san. their !ld di?erences and *ut
u* c!mm!n *!litical demands bef!re the g!)ernment"
9@/ and ML *assed the same res!luti!ns at their sessi!ns0 *ut f!r$ard a ,!int
scheme !f *!litical ref!rms based !n se*arate elect!rates0 and demanded
that the British -!)ernment sh!uld ma.e a declarati!n that it $!uld c!nfer
self-g!)ernment !n 9ndia at an earl' date"
#he *act acce*ted the *rinci*le !f se*arate elect!rates
Main clauses !f the *act
o There shall be self-government in India.
o Muslims should be given one-third representation in the central government.
o There should be separate electorates for all the communities until a community
demanded joint electorates.
o A system of weightage should be adopted.
o The number of the members of Central Legislative Council should be increased to
!".
o At the provincial level# four-fifth of the members of the Legislative Councils
should be elected and one-fifth should be nominated.
o The si$e of provincial legislatures should not be less than %! in the major
provinces and from !" to &! in the minor provinces.
o All members# e'cept those nominated# should be elected directly on the basis of
adult franchise.
o (o bill concerning a community should be passed if the bill is opposed by three-
fourth of the members of that community in the Legislative Council.
o The term of the Legislative Council should be five years.
o Members of Legislative Council should themselves elect their president.
o )alf of the members of Imperial Legislative Council should be Indians.
o The Indian Council must be abolished.
o The salaries of the *ecretary of *tate for Indian Affairs should be paid by the
+ritish government and not from Indian funds.
o ,f the two -nder *ecretaries# one should be Indian.
o The .'ecutive should be separated from the /udiciary.
H)aluati!n
o As an immediate e?ect0 the unit' bet$een the t$! facti!ns !f the
c!ngress and bet$een 9@/ and ML ar!used great *!litical enthusiasm
in the c!untr'
o H!$e)er0 it did n!t in)!l)e Hindu and Muslim masses and $as based
!n the n!ti!n !f bringing t!gether the educated Hindus and Muslims as
se*arate *!litical entities $ith!ut secularizati!n !f their *!litical
!utl!!.
o #he *act theref!re left the $a' !*en t! the future resurgence !f
c!mmunalism in 9ndian *!litics"
M!ntagu-/helmsf!rd +ef!rms
o 7r!)incial L/ enlarged" M!re elected members
o 3'arch'
S!me sub,ects $ere reser)ed and remained under the direct
c!ntr!l !f the -!)ern!rO !thers such as educati!n0 *ublic health
and l!cal self-g!)ernment $ere called transferred sub,ects and
$ere t! be c!ntr!lled b' the ministers res*!nsible t! the
legislature"
o At the centre0 there $ere t$! h!uses !f legislature"
o +es*!nse !f nati!nalists
9@/ c!ndemned the ref!rms as disa**!inting and unsatisfact!r'
S!me !thers 0 led b' Surendranath Baner,ea0 $ere in fa)!ur !f
acce*ting the g!)ernment *r!*!sals" #he' left the /!ngress at
this time and f!unded the 9ndian Liberal ;ederati!n
o H)aluati!n
#he g!)ern!r c!uld !)errule the ministers !n an' gr!unds that
he c!nsidered s*ecial
#he legislature had )irtuall' n! c!ntr!l !)er the -!)ern!r-
-eneral and his H:ecuti)e /!uncil"
#he central g!)ernment had unrestricted c!ntr!l !)er the
*r!)incial g!)ernments
+!$latt Act
March 1<1<
9t auth!rized the -!)ernment t! im*ris!n an' *ers!n $ith!ut trial and
c!n)icti!n in a c!urt !f la$"
/HA7#H+ 1C8 -andhis earl' career and acti)ism
-andhi $as the (rst 9ndian barrister t! ha)e c!me t! S!uth Africa"
He $as faced $ith )ari!us racial discriminati!ns $ithin da's !f his arri)al
in SA"
He led the 9ndian struggle in SA"
#he (rst *hase !f -andhis *!litical acti)ities fr!m 1B<C-1<0% ma' be
classi(ed as the Am!derate *hase"
He set u* the @atal 9ndian /!ngress and started a *a*er called 9ndian
=*ini!n"
B' 1<0%0 -andhi,i0 ha)ing full' tried the AM!derate meth!ds !f struggle0
$as bec!ming c!n)inced that these $!uld n!t lead an'$here"
#he sec!nd *hase0 begun in 1<0%0 $as characterized b' the use !f
*assi)e resistance0 Sat'agraha" #here $as n! fear !f ,ails"
S!uth Africa *re*ared -andhi,i f!r leadershi* !f the 9ndian nati!nal
struggle8
o He had the in)aluable e:*erience !f leading *!!r 9ndian lab!urers"
o SA built u* his faith in the ca*acit' !f the 9ndian masses t!
*artici*ate in and sacri(ce f!r a cause that m!)ed them"
o -andhi,i als! had the !**!rtunit' !f leading 9ndians bel!nging t!
di?erent religi!ns"
S!uth Africa *r!)ided -andhi,i $ith an !**!rtunit' f!r e)!l)ing his !$n
st'le !f *!litics and leadershi*"
-andhi returned t! 9ndia !n 1anuar' <0 1<1&
He f!unded the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad in 1<1%
9nitiall' he $as *!liticall' idle" He s*ent his time stud'ing the situati!n !f
the c!untr'"
He $as dee*l' c!n)inced that the !nl' )iable meth!d !f *!litical struggle
$as sat'agraha"
3uring the c!urse !f 1<17 and earl' 1<1B0 he $as in)!l)ed in three
signi(cant struggles M in /ham*aran in Bihar0 in Ahmedabad and in 5heda
in -u,arat" #he c!mm!n feature !f these struggles $as that the' related
t! s*eci(c l!cal issues and that the' $ere f!ught f!r the ec!n!mic
demands !f the masses"
/ham*aran Sat'agraha (1<17)
o 7easantr' !n the indig! *lantati!ns in /ham*aran0 Bihar $as
e:cessi)el' !**ressed b' the Hur*!ean *lanters"
o =n the in)itati!n !f the *easants he $ent t! /ham*aran and began
t! c!nduct a detailed inuir' int! the c!nditi!n !f the *easantr'
o #he g!)ernment $as f!rced t! set u* a c!mmittee $ith -andhi as
!ne !f the members" #he su?erings !f the *easants $as reduced"
o =thers in this m!)ement8 +a,endra 7rasad0 Mazhar-ul-Ha0 1 B
5ri*lani0 @arhari 7are.h and Mahade) 3esai"
Ahmedabad Mill Stri.e (1<1B)
o 3is*ute bet$een $!r.ers and mill !$ners
o -andhi ad)ised $!r.ers t! g! !n a n!n-)i!lent stri.e" He himself
t!!. t! fast
o =$ners 'ielded and ga)e a 2& *ercent increase in $ages t! the
$!r.ers
5heda Sat'agraha (1<1B)
o 3es*ite cr!* failure in 5heda the g!)ernment insisted !n full land
re)enue
o -andhi ad)ised the *easants t! $ithh!ld *a'ment"
o -!)t issued instructi!ns that re)enue sh!uld be c!llected fr!m !nl'
th!se farmers $h! c!uld a?!rd t! *a'
o Sardar Jallabhbhai 7atel *la'ed a ma,!r r!le in this sat'agraha"
9m*act !f these earl' e:*eriences
o Br!ught -andhi,i in cl!se c!ntact $ith the masses
o He identi(ed his life and manner !f li)ing $ith the life !f the
c!mm!n *e!*le
He had three main aims
o Hindu-Muslim Knit'
o ;ight against unt!uchabilit'
o +aising the s!cial status !f the $!men
-andhi,is (rst ma,!r nati!n-$ide *r!test $as against the +!$latt Bills in
1<1<" He f!rmed the Sat'agraha Sabha $h!se members t!!. a *ledge t!
dis!be' the Act and thus t! c!urt arrest and im*ris!nment"
Sat'agraha $as launched" #he f!rm !f *r!test (nall' decided $as the
!bser)ance !f a nati!n-$ide hartal acc!m*anied b' fasting and *ra'er"
H!$e)er0 *r!tests $ere generall' acc!m*anied b' )i!lence and dis!rder"
9n 7un,ab0 the situati!n $as *articularl' )i!lent" -enral 3'er $as called t!
c!ntr!l the situati!n" =n 12 A*ril0 Baisa.hi 3a'0 -eneral 3'er !rdered t!
!*en (re !n unarmed cr!$d in 1allian$ala Bagh" #he g!)ernment estimate
$as 27< dead0 !ther estimates $ere c!nsiderabl' higher"
-andhi,i0 !)er$helmed b' the t!tal atm!s*here !f )i!lence0 $ithdre$ the
m!)ement !n 1B A*ril"
3i?erence bet$een earlier meth!ds !f struggle and sat'agraha
o Harlier0 the m!)ement had c!n(ned its struggle t! agitati!n" #he'
used t! h!ld meetings0 dem!nstrate0 b!'c!tt etc
o #hr!ugh Sat'agraha the' c!uld act n!$"
o #he ne$ m!)ement relied increasingl' !n the *!litical su**!rt !f
the *easants0 artisans and urban *!!r"
o -andhi,i increasingl' turned the face !f nati!nalism t!$ards the
c!mm!n man
1allian$ala Bagh Massacre
o =n A*ril 120 1<1< a large cr!$d had gathered in Amritsar t! *r!test
against the arrest !f their leaders0 3r" Saifudding 5itchle$ and 3r"
Sat'a*al
o -eneral 3'er !*ened (re
o 6ides*read criticism" #ag!re returned his .nighth!!d"
/HA7#H+ 1&8 @!n /!-!*erati!n M!)ement
M!ntagu-/helmsf!rd +ef!rms 1<1<8 3'arch'
9n a s'stem called Sd'arch'0S the nati!n-building de*artments !f g!)ernment
T agriculture0 educati!n0 *ublic $!r.s0 and the li.e T $ere *laced under
ministers $h! $ere indi)iduall' res*!nsible t! the legislature" #he
de*artments that made u* the Ssteel frameS !f British rule T (nance0
re)enue0 and h!me a?airs T $ere retained b' e:ecuti)e c!uncill!rs $h!
$ere n!minated b' the -!)ern!r"
#he Hunter /!mmittee re*!rt *raised the acti!ns !f general 3'er"
5hilafat M!)ement
o ;!r su**!rt !f #ur.e'
o 5hilafat /!mmittee f!rmed under the leadershi* !f Ali Br!thers0
Maulana Azad0 Ha.im A,mal 5han and Hasrat M!hani
o #he *r!mises made t! the 5hilafat /!mmittee $ere n!t .e*t after the
6!rld 6ar"
o #he All-9ndia 5hilafat /!nference held at 3elhi in @!)ember 1<1<
decided t! $ithdra$ all c!!*erati!n fr!m the g!)ernment if their
demands $ere n!t met"
o =n 1une < 1<200 the 5hilafat /!mmittee at Allahabad unanim!usl'
acce*ted the suggesti!n !f n!n-c!!*erati!n and as.ed -andhi,i t! lead
the m!)ement"
5hilafat m!)ement cemented Hindu-Muslim unit'
o -andhi,i l!!.ed u*!n the 5hilafat agitati!n as Fan !**!rtunit' !f
uniting Hindus and M!hammedans as $!uld n!t arise in a hundred
'earsI
#he n!n-c!!*erati!n m!)ement $as launched !n August 10 1<20" L!.man'a
#ila. *assed a$a' !n the same da'"
7e!*le c!untr'$ide !bser)ed hartal and t!!. !ut *r!cessi!ns"
#he c!ngress met in Se*tember at /alcutta and acce*ted n!n-c!-!*erati!n
as its !$n"
#he *r!gramme !f n!n-c!!*erati!n included8
o Surrender !f titles and h!n!rs
o B!'c!tt !f g!)ernment aEliated sch!!ls and c!lleges0 la$ c!urts0
f!reign cl!th and c!uld be e:tended t! resignati!n fr!m g!)ernment
ser)ices"
o Mass ci)il dis!bedience including the n!n-*a'ment !f ta:es"
o @ati!nal sch!!ls and c!lleges $ere t! be set u*
o 7ancha'ats $ere t! be established t! settle dis*utes
o Hand-s*inning and $ea)ing $as enc!uraged
o 7e!*le $ere as.ed t! maintain Hindu-Muslim unit'0 gi)e u*
unt!uchabilit' and !bser)e strict n!n-)i!lence"
/hanges in /!ngress t! attain the ne$ !b,ecti)e8
o At the @ag*ur sessi!n in 1<20 changes in the /!nstituti!n !f /!ngress
$ere made"
o #he g!al !f c!ngress $as changed fr!m the attainment !f self-
g!)ernment b' c!nstituti!nal and legal means t! the attainment !f
S$ara, b' *eaceful and legitimate means"
o #he /!ngress n!$ had a 6!r.ing /!mmittee !f (fteen members t!
l!!. after its da' t! da' a?airs"
o 7r!)incial c!ngress c!mmittees $ere n!$ !rganized !n a linguistic
basis"
o Mahalla and $ard c!mmittees $ere f!rmed"
o #he membershi* fee $as reduced t! C annas a 'ears t! enable *!!r t!
bec!me members"
o #his $as n!t $ith!ut !**!siti!n h!$e)er" S!me members still belie)ed
in the traditi!nal meth!ds" Leaders li.e 1innah0 -S 5ha*arde0 Bi*in
/handra 7al and Annie Besant left c!ngress during this time"
-andhi,i0 al!ng $ith the Ali br!ther0 undert!!. a nati!n$ide t!ur t! address
*e!*le"
#h!usands !f students left g!)ernment sch!!ls and ,!ined nati!nal sch!!ls"
#he m!st successful item !f the *r!gramme $as the b!'c!tt !f f!reign cl!th"
7ic.eting !f t!dd' sh!*s $as als! )er' *!*ular"
Students let g!)ernment sch!!ls and c!lleges" 9# $as during this time that
1amia Milia 9slamia !f Aligarh0 the Bihar Jid'a*ith0 the 5ashi Jid'a*ith and the
-u,arat Jid'a*ith came int! e:istence"
La$'ers such as 3eshbandhu /+ 3as0 M!tilal @ehru0 +a,endra 7rasad0
Saifudiin 5itchle$0 / +a,ag!*alachari0 Sardar 7atel0 # 7ra.asam and Asaf Ali
ga)e u* their legal *ractice"
#ila. S$ara,'a ;und $as started t! (nance the @/M"
9n 1<210 5hilafat /!mmittee issued a res!luti!n that n! muslim sh!uld ser)e
in the British 9ndian arm'"
#he )isit !f the 7rince !f 6ales !n 17
th
@!)ember 1<21 $as !bser)ed as a
da' !f hartal all !)er the c!untr'"
#he /!ngress J!lunteer /!r*s emerged as a *!$erful *arallel *!lice"
B' 3ecember 1<210 the g!)ernment felt that things $ere g!ing t!! far and
ann!unced a change !f *!lic' b' declaring the )!lunteer c!r*s illegal and
arresting all th!se $h! claimed t! be its members"
#h!usands !f *easants and tenants *artici*ated in the m!)ement"
9n 7un,ab0 the A.ali m!)ement t! rem!)e c!rru*t mahants fr!m the
-urud$aras $as started"
Assam8 #ea *lantati!n $!r.ers $ent !n stri.e" Midna*!re8 *easants
refused t! *a' Kni!n B!ard ta:es" -untur (/hirala)8 Agitati!n led b'
3uggirala -!*ala.risha''a Malabar8 M!hlahs (muslim *easants)
created a *!$erful anti-zamindari m!)ement"
As the g!)ernment refused t! 'ield0 -andhi,i ann!unced that mass ci)il
dis!bedience $!uld begin in Bard!li talua !f Surat"
H!$e)er0 in /hauri /haura0 -!ra.h*ur !n & ;ebruar' 1<22 cr!$d set (re !n a
*!lice stati!n and .illed s!me *!licemen" =n hearing this0 -andhi,i decided t!
$ithdra$ the m!)ement"
#he c!ngress $!r.ing c!mmittee rati(ed his decisi!n" #hus0 !n ;ebruar' 120
1<220 the n!n-c!!*erati!n m!)ement came t! an end"
Assessing the 6ithdra$al8
o S!me sch!lars sa' that -andhi,i $ithdre$ the m!)ement because he
$anted t! *r!tect the interests !f the *r!*ertied class"
o S!me argue that there $as n! l!gic $h' a small incident sh!uld lead t!
$ithdra$al !f the m!)ement itself"
o H!$e)er0 g!)ernment c!uld use /hauri /haura t! ,ustif' its re*ressi!n
!f the m!)ement"
o 9f m!)ement $as started at that time0 it $!uld ha)e been defeated due
t! the re*ressi!n !f the g!)ernment"
o -andhi,i $as *r!tecting the m!)ement fr!m li.el' re*ressi!n0 and the
*e!*le fr!m dem!ralizati!n"
o Mass m!)ements tend t! ebb in s!me time" Hence0 $ithdra$al is a
*art !f the strateg' !f mass m!)ements"
-andhi,i $as tried in 1<22 and sentenced t! si: 'ears im*ris!nment"
o He in)ited the c!urt t! a$ard him Fthe highest *enalt' that can be
inGicted u*!n me f!r $hat in la$ is a deliberate crime0 and $hat
a**ears t! be the highest dut' !f a citizenI"
7!siti)es !ut !f the n!n-c!!*erati!n m!)ement8
o /!ngress started c!mmanding the su**!rt and s'm*ath' !f )ast
secti!ns !f the 9ndian *e!*le"
o Milli!ns !f 9ndians became *!liticall' in)!l)ed" 6!men $ere dra$n int!
the m!)ement"
o Muslims *artici*ated hea)il' and c!mmunal unit' $as maintained"
o Strengthened the nati!nal m!)ement" @ati!nalist sentiments and the
nati!nal m!)ement had reached the rem!test c!rners !f the land"
o 7e!*le gained tremend!us self-c!n(dence and self-esteem"
/HA7#H+ 1%8 7easant M!)ements
#hree im*!rtant *easant m!)ements !f the earl' t$entieth centur'8
o 5isan Sabha and H.a m!)ements in A)adh in K7
o Ma**ila rebelli!n in Malabar
o Bard!li Sat'agrah in -u,arat
#he K7 5isan Sabha $as set u* in ;ebruar' 1<1B thr!ugh the e?!rts !f -auri
Shan.ar Mishra and 9ndra @arain 3$i)edi $ith the su**!rt !f Madan M!han
Mal)i'a"
B' 1une 1<1<0 it had established ab!ut C&0 branches in 172 tehsils !f the
*r!)ince"
9n August 1<210 Ma**ila (Muslim) tenants rebelled" #heir grie)ances related
t! lac. !f an' securit' !f tenure0 rene$al fees0 high rents and !ther
!**ressi)e labndl!rd e:acti!ns"
#he n!-ta: m!)ement $as launched in Bard!li talu !f Surat district in
-u,arat in 1<2B"
/HA7#H+ 178 #he 6!r.ing /lass M!)ements
#here $ere s!me $!r.ing class m!)ements in sec!nd half !f 1<
th
centur'"
H!$e)er0 the' $ere im*ulsi)e and n!t )er' $ell !rganized"
#he earl' nati!nalists had a lu.e$arm attitude t!$ards the uesti!n !f
$!r.ers" #his $ar because initiall' /!ngress $anted t! f!cus !n issues0 $hich
$ere !f c!mm!n c!ncern t! all the *e!*le !f 9ndia"
#here $as a di?erence in attitude !f the nati!nalists t!$ards $!r.ers in
indigen!us and Hur!*ean enter*rises"
#he m!st im*!rtant feature !f the lab!ur m!)ement during the S$adeshi
da's $as the shift fr!m agitati!n and struggles !n *urel' ec!n!mic uesti!ns
t! the in)!l)ement !f the $!r.er $ith the $ider *!litical issues !f the da'"
#he All 9ndia #rade Kni!n /!ngress (A9#K/) $as f!unded in 1<20"
9@ 1<1B -andhi f!unded the Ahmedabad #e:tile Lab!ur Ass!ciati!n"
#he A9#K/ in @!)ember 1<27 t!!. a decisi!n t! b!'c!tt the Sim!n
/!mmissi!n and man' $!r.ers *artici*ated in the massi)e Sim!n b!'c!tt
dem!nstrati!ns"
Alarmed b' $!r.ers m!)ement0 the g!)ernment enacted re*ressi)e la$s li.e
the 7ublic Safet' Act and #rade 3is*utes Acts and arrested the entire radical
leadershi* !f the lab!ur m!)ement and launched the Meerut /!ns*irac' /ase
against them"
#he lab!ur m!)ement su?ered a ma,!r setbac. *artiall' due t! this
g!)ernment !?ensi)e and *artiall' due t! a shift in stance !f the c!mmunist
led $ing !f the m!)ement"
;r!m the end !f 1<2B0 the c!mmunists st!**ed aligning them $ith the
nati!nal m!)ement"
/!mmunists g!t is!lated $ithin the A9#K/ and $ere thr!$n !ut in the s*lit !f
1<21"
BN 1<2C0 the c!mmunists re-entered the mainstream nati!nalist *!litics"
#he $!r.ing class !f B!mba' held an anti-$ar stri.e !n 2 =ct!ber0 1<2<"
6ith the @azi attac. !n the S!)iet Kni!n in 1<C10 the c!mmunists changed
their *!lic' and as.ed the *e!*le t! su**!rt the allied f!rces instead !f
h!lding anti-$ar stri.es"
#he c!mmunists diss!ciated themsel)es fr!m the Duit 9ndia m!)ement
launched in 1<C2"
#he last 'ears !f c!l!nial rule als! sa$ a remar.abl' shar* increase in stri.es
!n ec!n!mic issues all !)er the c!untr' M the all 9ndia stri.e !f the *!st and
telegra*h de*artment em*l!'ees being the m!st $ell .n!$n am!ng them"
/HA7#H+ 1B8 Struggles f!r -urud$ara +ef!rm and #em*le Hntr'
#he A.ali m!)ement
#he m!)ement ar!se $ith the !b,ecti)e !f freeing the -urud$aras fr!m the
c!ntr!l !f ign!rant and c!rru*t *riests (mahants)"
A*art fr!m the mahants0 after the British anne:ati!n !f 7un,ab in 1BC<0 s!me
c!ntr!l !)er the -urud$aras $as e:ercised b' -!)ernment-n!minated
managers and cust!dians0 $h! !ften c!llab!rated $ith mahants"
#he g!)ernment ga)e full su**!rt t! the mahants" 9t used them t! *reach
l!'alism t! the Si.hs and t! .ee* them a$a' fr!m the rising nati!nalist
m!)ement"
#he agitati!n f!r the ref!rm !f -urud$aras de)el!*ed during 1<20 $hen the
ref!rmers !rganized gr!u*s !f )!lunteers .n!$n as ,athas t! c!m*el the
mahants and the g!)ernment a**!inted managers t! hand !)er c!ntr!l !f
the -urud$aras t! the l!cal de)!tees"
#ens !f -urud$aras $ere liberated $ithin an 'ear"
#! manage the c!ntr!l !f -!lden #em*le and !the r-urud$aras the Shir!mani
-urud$ara 7rabandha. /!mmittee $as f!rmed in @!)ember 1<20"
;eeling the need t! gi)e the ref!rm m!)ement a structure0 the Shir!mani
A.ali 3al $as established in 3ecember 1<20"
#he S-7/ and A.ali 3al acce*ted c!m*lete n!n-)i!lence as their creed"
#here $as a clash bet$een the mahant and the A.alis !)er surrendering the
gurud$ara at @ana.ana" #his led t! .illing !f ab!ut 100 a.alis"
#he @an.ana traged' led t! the in)!l)ement !f Si.hs !n a large scale in the
nati!nal m!)ement"
5e's A?air8 9n =ct!ber 1<210 the g!)ernment refused t! surrender the
*!ssessi!n f! the .e's !f the #!sha.hana !f the g!lden tem*le !f the A.alis"
#his led t! *r!tests" Leaders li.e Baba 5hara. Singh and Master #ara Singh
$ere arrested" Later0 the g!)ernment surrendered the .e's t! .ee* the Si.hs
fr!m re)!lting"
-uru .a Bagh gurud$ara in -h!.e$ala $as under dis*ute as the mahant
there claimed that the land attached t! it $as his *ers!nal *!ssessi!n" 6hen
fe$ a.alis cut d!$n a tree !n that land the' $ere arrested !n the c!m*lain !f
the mahant" Seeing this th!usands !f a.alis came and started cutting d!$n
the trees" Ab!ut C000 a.alis $ere arrested" Later0 the g!)ernment didnt
arrest but started beating them u* se)erl'" But the ala.is .e*t turning u*"
Kltimatel' the g!)ernment had t! surrender"
#he a.ali m!)ement made a huge c!ntributi!n t! the nati!nal a$a.ening !f
7un,ab"
H!$e)er0 the m!)ement enc!uraged a certain religi!sit' $hich $!uld be
later utilized b' c!mmunalism"
9n 1<220 the /!ngress decided t! ta.e acti)e ste*s t!$ards the eradicati!n !f
unt!uchabilit'"
#he basic strateg' it ad!*ted $as t! educate and m!bilize !*ini!n am!ng
caste hindus"
9mmediatel' after the 5a.inada sessi!n0 the 5erala 7r!)incial /!ngress
/!mmittee (57//) t!!. u* the eradicati!n !f unt!uchabilit' as an urgent
issue"
57// adeiced t! !rganize an *r!cessi!n !n the tem*le r!ads in Jai.!m0 a
)illage in #ra)anc!re0 !n 20 March 1<2C"
3uring the *r!cessi!ns0 the sat'agrahis $ere arrested and sentenced t!
im*ris!nment"
=n the death !f Mahara,a in August 1<2C0 the Maharani released the
Sat'agrahis"
-andhi,i )isited 5erala t! discuss the !*ening !f tem*le $ith Maharani" A
c!m*r!mise $as reached $hereb' all r!ads e:ce*t f!r the !nes in the
San.ethan !f the tem*le $ere !*ened t! the hari,ans"
9n his 5erala t!ur0 -andhi didnt )isit a single tem*le because a)arnas $ere
.e*t !ut !f them"
#he $ea.ness !f the anti-caste m!)ement $as that thr!ugh it ar!used *e!*le
against unt!uchabilit' it lac.ed a strateg' !f ending the caste s'stem itself"
/HA7#H+ 1<8 #he 'ears !f Stagnati!n
-andhi,i $as arrested in 1<22 and sentenced t! % 'ears !f im*ris!nment" #he
result $as the s*read !f disintegrati!n0 dis!rganizati!n and dem!ralizati!n in
the nati!nalist ran.s"
After a defeat !f their res!luti!n !f Aeither mending !r ending in the
/!ngress0 /+ 3as and M!tilal @ehru resigned and f!rmed the /!ngress-
5hilafat S$ara, 7art' in 3ecember 1<22"
o 9t $as t! functi!n as a gr!u* $ithin the c!ngress
H!$ t! carr' !n *!litical $!r. in the m!)ements n!n-acti)e *hases" #he
s$ara,ists said that $!r. in the c!uncil $as necessar' t! (ll the tem*!rar'
*!litical )!id" #he n!-changers belie)ed !ther$ise"
Ma,!r n!-changers8 Sardar 7atel0 3r Ansari0 +a,endra 7rasad
#he n!-changers !**!sed c!uncil-entr' mainl' !n the gr!und that
*arliamentar' $!r. $!uld lead t! the neglect !f c!nstructi)e and !ther $!r.
am!ng the masses 0 the l!ss !f re)!luti!nar' zeal and *!litical c!rru*ti!n"
3es*ite the di?erences0 he t$! gr!u*s had a l!t in c!mm!n"
o #he need f!r unit' $as )er' str!ngl' felt b' all the /!ngressmen after
the 1<07 debacle"
o B!th realized that the real sancti!ns $hich $!uld c!m*el the
g!)ernment t! acce*t the nati!nal demands $!uld be f!rged !nl' b' a
mass m!)ement"
o B!th gr!u*s full' acce*ted the leadershi* !f Mahatma -andhi"
9n the sessi!n held in 1<220 the c!ngressmen $ere *ermitted t! stand as
candidates and e:ercise their franchise in the f!rthc!ming electi!ns"
-andhi,i $as released !n ;ebruar' &0 1<2C" He did n!t agree $ith the
S$ara,ists" H!$e)er0 sl!$l' he m!)ed t!$ards an acc!mm!dati!n $ith the
s$ara,ists"
=n % @!)ember 1<2C0 -andhi,i br!ught the strife bet$een the S$ara,ists and
n!-changers t! an end0 b' signing a ,!int statement $ith 3as and M!tilal that
the S$ara,ists 7art' $!uld carr' !n $!r. in the legislatures !n behalf !f the
/!ngress and as an integral *art !f the /!ngress" #his decisi!n $as end!rsed
in Belgaum"
#he S$ara,ists did $ell in the electi!ns and $!n C2 !ut !f 101 seats in the
/entral Legislati)e Assembl'"
9n March 1<2&0 Jithalbhai 1 7atel $as elected as he 7resident (s*ea.er) !f the
/entral Legislati)e Assembl'"
#he achie)ement !f the S$ara,ists la' in (lling the *!litical )!id at a time
$hen the nati!nal m!)ement $as rec!u*ing its strength"
o #he' als! e:*!sed the h!ll!$ness !f the ref!rms !f 1<1<
After the *etering !ut !f the @/M c!mmunalism t!!. str!ngh!ld
o H)en $ithin the /!ngress0 a gr!u* .n!$n as Ares*!nsi)ists0 including
Madan M!han Mal)i'a0 Lala La,*at +ai and @/ 5el.ar0 !?ered
c!!*erati!n t! the g!)ernment s! that the s!-called Hindu interests
might be safeguarded"
/HA7#H+ 208 Bhagat Singh
#he sudden sus*ensi!n !f the n!n-c!!*erati!n m!)ement led man' '!ung
*e!*le t! uesti!n the )er' basis strateg' !f n!n-)i!lence and began t! l!!.
f!r alternati)es"
All the ma,!r ne$ re)!luti!nar' leaders had been enthusiastic *artici*ants in
the n!n-)i!lent n!n-c!!*erati!n m!)ement"
#$! se*arate strands !f re)!luti!nar' terr!rism de)el!*ed M !ne in 7un,ab0 K7
and Bihar and the !ther in Bengal"
+am*rasad Bismil0 1!gesh /hatter,ea and Sachindranath San'al met in
5an*ur in =ct!ber 1<2C and f!unded the Hindustan +e*ublican Ass!ciati!n t!
!rganize armed re)!luti!n"
9n !rder t! carr' !ut their acti)ities the H+A reuired funding" #he m!st
im*!rtant acti!n !f the H+A $as the 5a.!ri +!bber'"
=n August <0 1<2&0 ten men held u* the B-3!$n train fr!m Shah,ahan*ur t!
Luc.n!$ at 5a.!ri and l!!ted its !Ecial rail$a' cash"
#he g!)ernment arrested a large number !f '!ung men and tried them in the
5a.!ri /!ns*irac' /ase"
Ashfaulla 5han0 +am*rasadn Bismil0 +!shan Singh and +a,endra Lahiri $ere
hanged0 f!ur !thers $ere sent t! Andaman $hile se)enteen !thers $ere
sentenced t! l!ng term im*ris!nment"
@e$ re)!luti!naries ,!ined the H+A" #he' met at ;er!zshah 5!tla -r!und at
3elhi !n < and 10 Se*tember 1<2B0 created a ne$ c!llecti)e leadershi*0
ad!*ted s!cialism as their !Ecial g!al and changed the name !f the *art' t!
the Hindustan S!cialist +e*ublican Ass!ciati!n"
Lala La,*at +ai dies in a lathi-charge $hen he $as laeding an anti-Sim!n
/!mmissi!n dem!nstrati!n at Lah!re !n 20 =ct!ber 1<2B"
=n 17 3ecember 1<2B0 Bhagat Singh0 Azad and +a,guru assassinated0 at
Lah!re0 Saunders0 a *!lice !Ecial in)!l)ed in the lathi-charge !n Lala La,*at
+ai"
9n !rder t! let the *e!*le .n!$ ab!ut HS+As changed !b,ecti)es Bhagat
Singh and B5 3utt $ere as.ed t! thr!$ a b!mb in the /entral Legislati)e
Assembl' !n B A*ril 1<2< against the *assage !f the 7ublic Safet' Bill and
the #rade 3is*utes Bill"
He aim $as n!t t! .ill but t! let *e!*le .n!$ !f their !b,ecti)es thr!ugh the
leaGet the' thre$"
#he' $ere later arrested and tried"
#he c!untr' $as als! stirred b' the hunger stri.e the re)!luti!naries t!!. as
a *r!test against the h!rrible c!nditi!ns in ,ails"
=n 12
th
Se*tember0 the %C
th
da' !f the e*ic fast0 1atin 3as died"
Bhagat Singh0 Su.hde) and +a,guru $ere sentenced t! be hanged" He
sentence $as carried !ut !n 22 March0 1<21"
Bhagat Singh $as full' secular"
o #he 7un,ab @au,a$an Bharat Sabha !rganized b' him acted !n secular
lines"
9n Bengal0 after the death !f / + 3as0 the /!ngress leadershi* in Bengal g!t
di)ided int! t$! $ings8 !ne led b' S / B!se and the !ther b' 1 M Sengu*ta"
#he Nugantar gr!u* ,!ined f!rces $ith the (rst $hile the Anushilan $ith the
sec!nd"
Sur'a Sen had acti)el' *artici*ated in the n!n-c!!*erati!n m!)ement" He
gathered ar!und him a large band !f re)!luti!nar' '!uth including Anant
Singh0 -anesh -h!sh and L!.enath Baul"
/hittag!ng Arm!ur' +aid
o
@/H+# /ha*ter 12
Hmergence !f s!cialism in the 1<20s in the nati!nalist ran.s
o 1L @ehru and S/ B!se
o +aised the uesti!n !f internal class !**ressi!n b' ca*italists and
landl!rds
o M@ +!' became the (rst 9ndian t! be elected t! the leadershi* !f the
/!mmunist 9nternati!nal
o Muza?er Ahmed and SA 3ange $ere tried in the 5an*ur /!ns*irac'
/ase
o 1<2&8 /!mmunist 7art' !f 9ndia $as f!rmed
o All 9ndia #rade Kni!n /!ngress
o Jari!us Stri.es8 B!mba' te:tile mills0 1amshed*ur0 5harag*ur
Bard!li Sat'agraha (1<2B)
o 7easants under the leadershi* !f Sardar 7atel !rganized n! ta:
cam*aign
9ndian N!uth $ere bec!ming acti)e
o ;irst All Bengal /!nference !f Students held in 1<2B *resided b' 1L
@ehru
Hindustan +e*ublican Ass!ciati!n8 1<2C
o 5a.!ri /!ns*irac' /ase (1<2&)
o ;!ur0 including +am 7rasad Bismil and Ashfaulla 5han $ere hanged"
Hindustan S!cialist +e*ublican Ass!ciati!n (1<2B)
o =n 17
th
3ecember 1<2B0 Bhagat Singh0 Azad and +a,guru assassinated
Saunders
o Bhagat Singh and B5 3utt thre$ b!mb in the /entral Legislati)e
Assembl' !n B A*ril 1<2< t! let the *e!*le .n!$ !f their changed
*!litical !b,ecti)es
/hittag!ng Arm!ur' +aid8 10200 Sur'a Sen
o 7artici*ati!n !f '!ung $!men
Sim!n /!mmissi!n (1<27)
9ndian Statut!r' /!mmissi!n chaired b' Sim!n t! g! int! the uesti!n !f
further c!nstituti!nal ref!rm
All its se)en members $ere Hnglishmen" /lement Attlee $as !ne !f the
members"
L!rd Bir.inhead $as the secretar' !f state at that time
At its Madras sessi!n in 1<27 9@/ decided t! b!'c!tt the c!mmissi!n Fat
e)er' stage and in e)er' f!rmI
o ML and Hindu Mahasabha su**!rted /!ngress
@ehru +e*!rt0 1<2B
o 3!mini!n status
o /!ntained Bill !f +ights
o @! state religi!n
o ;ederal f!rm
o Linguisticall' determined *r!)inces
o @! se*arate elect!rates
o All 7art' /!n)enti!n0 held at /alcutta in 1<2B0 failed t! *ass the re*!rt
o Muslim league re,ected the *r!*!sals !f the re*!rt
o 1innah drafted his f!urteen *!ints
o Hindu Mahasabha and Si.h League als! !b,ected
7!!rna S$ara,
o +es!luti!n *assed at the Lah!re sessi!n in 1<2<
o =n 21 3ecember 1<2<0 the tri-c!l!r $as h!isted
o =n 2% 1anuar' 1<200 9nde*endence 3a' $as celebrated
/i)il 3is!bedience M!)ement
Started b' -andhi !n 12
th
March 1<20 $ith the 3andi March" +eached 3andi
!n A*ril %"
3e(ance !f f!rest la$s in Maharashtra0 /entral 7r!)ince and 5arnata.a"
+efusal t! *a' chau.idari ta: in Hastern 9ndia"
6ide *artici*ati!n !f $!men
5han Abdul -a?ar 5han !rganized 5hudai 5hidmatgars (a.a +ed Shirts)
@agaland8 +ani -aidilieu
;irst +#/0 1<20
o /!ngress b!'c!tted
-andhi-9r$in 7act0 1<21
o -!)ernment agreed t! release the *!litical *ris!ners $h! had
remained n!n-)i!lent
o +ight t! ma.e salt f!r c!nsum*ti!n
o +ight t! *eaceful *ic.eting !f liu!r and f!reign cl!th sh!*s
o /!ngress sus*ended the /i)il 3is!bedience M!)ement
o Agreed t! ta.e *art in the sec!nd +#/
August =?er (1<C0)
After the 6699 began0 British s!ught c!!*erati!n fr!m 9ndia" August =?er !?ered
three *r!*!sals" ;irstl'0 it called f!r an immediate e:*ansi!n !f Jicer!'s H:ecuti)e
/!uncil $ith the inclusi!n !f 9ndia re*resentati)esO sec!ndl'0 an ad)is!r' b!d' $ith
the members fr!m British 9ndia and 9ndian *rincel' states $hich $ere su**!sed t!
meet at c!nseuent inter)als $as established and thirdl'0 t$! *ractical ste*s $ere
decided t! be ta.en in $hich it $as t! c!me at an agreement $ith the 9ndians !n
the f!rm !f the *!st re*resentati)es b!d' sh!uld ta.e and the meth!ds b' $hich it
sh!uld c!me t! a c!nclusi!n" 9t further *lanned t! dra$ !ut the *rinci*les and
!utlines !f the /!nstituti!n itself" /!ngress did n!t acce*t the !?er"
/+ ;!rmula
C9 Rajago-alachari:s formula (!r C. R. formula !r Rajaji formula) $as a *r!*!sal
f!rmulated b' /ha.ra)arthi +a,ag!*alachari t! s!l)e the *!litical deadl!c. bet$een
the All 9ndia Muslim League and 9ndian @ati!nal /!ngress !n inde*endence !f
9ndia fr!m the British" /" +a,ag!*alachari0 a /!ngress leader fr!m Madras0 de)ised a
*r!*!sal f!r the /!ngress t! !?er the League the Muslim 7a.istan based
!n*lebiscite !f all the *e!*les in the regi!ns $here Muslims made a ma,!rit'"
Alth!ugh the f!rmula $as !**!sed e)en $ithin the /!ngress *art'0-andhi used it as
his *r!*!sal in his tal.s $ith 1innah in 1<CC" H!$e)er0 1innah re,ected the *r!*!sal
and the tal.s failed"
#he /+ f!rmula entailed
i" #he League $as t! end!rse the 9ndian demand f!r inde*endence and t! c!-
!*erate $ith the /!ngress in f!rmati!n !f 7r!)isi!nal 9nterim -!)ernment f!r a
transiti!nal *eri!d"
ii" At the end !f the 6ar0 a c!mmissi!n $!uld be a**!inted t! demarcate the
districts ha)ing a Muslim *!*ulati!n in abs!lute ma,!rit' and in th!se areas
*lebiscite t! be c!nducted !n all inhabitants (including the n!n-Muslims) !n basis !f
adult su?rage"
iii" All *arties $!uld be all!$ed t! e:*ress their stance !n the *artiti!n and their
)ie$s bef!re the *lebiscite"
i)" 9n the e)ent !f se*arati!n0 a mutual agreement $!uld be entered int! f!r
safeguarding essential matters such as defence0 c!mmunicati!n and c!mmerce and
f!r !ther essential ser)ices"
)" #he transfer !f *!*ulati!n0 if an' $!uld be abs!lutel' !n a )!luntar' basis"
)i" #he terms !f the binding $ill be a**licable !nl' in case !f full transfer !f *!$er
b' Britain t! -!)ernment !f 9ndia"
6a)ell 7lan R Shimla /!nference
9n Ma' 1<C&0 L!rd 6a)ell0 the Jicer!' !f 9ndia0 $ent t! L!nd!n and discussed his
ideas ab!ut the future !f 9ndia $ith the British administrati!n" #he tal.s resulted in
the f!rmulati!n !f a *lan !f acti!n that $as made *ublic in 1une 1<C&" #he *lan is
.n!$n as 6a)ell 7lan"
#he 7lan suggested rec!nstituti!n !f the Jicer!'Us H:ecuti)e /!uncil in $hich the
Jicer!' $as t! select *ers!ns n!minated b' the *!litical *arties" 3i?erent
c!mmunities $ere als! t! get their due share in the /!uncil and *arit' $as reser)ed
f!r /ast-Hindus and Muslims" 6hile declaring the *lan0 the Secretar' !f State f!r
9ndian A?airs made it clear that the British -!)ernment $anted t! listen t! the
ideas !f all ma,!r 9ndian c!mmunities" Net he said that it $as !nl' *!ssible if the
leadershi* !f the leading 9ndian *!litical *arties agreed $ith the suggesti!ns !f the
British -!)ernment"
#! discuss these *r!*!sals $ith the leadershi* !f ma,!r 9ndian *arties0 6a)ell called
f!r a c!nference at Simla !n 1une 2&0 1<C&" Leaders !f b!th the /!ngress and the
Muslim League attended the c!nference0 $hich is .n!$n as the Simla /!nference"
H!$e)er0 di?erences ar!se bet$een the leadershi* !f the t$! *arties !n the issue
!f re*resentati!n !f the Muslim c!mmunit'" #he Muslim League claimed that it $as
the !nl' re*resentati)e *art' !f the Muslims in 9ndia and thus all the Muslim
re*resentati)es in the Jicer!'Us H:ecuti)e /!uncil sh!uld be the n!minees !f the
*art'" /!ngress0 $hich had sent Maulana Azad as the leader !f their delegati!n0
tried t! *r!)e that their *art' re*resented all the c!mmunities li)ing in 9ndia and
thus sh!uld be all!$ed t! n!minate Muslim re*resentati)e as $ell" /!ngress als!
!**!sed the idea !f *arit' bet$een the /ast-Hindus and the Muslims" All this
resulted in a deadl!c." ;inall'0 6a)ell ann!unced the failure !f his e?!rts !n 1ul' 1C"
#hus the Simla /!nference c!uldnUt *r!)ide an' h!*e !f *r!ceeding further"