Giulio Tononi

Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 537!, U"#

$ecipes for machine consciousness
If one %ants to ma&e a machine conscious, %hat in'redients should one put in( #s&in' this )uestion is not only of some
practical si'nificance* it is also an e+cellent %ay of testin' one,s understandin' of ho% the only machine that can surely
'enerate consciousness - namely our .rain - is capa.le of doin' it/ 0.viously, an ans%er can .e 'iven only in the li'ht of
some theoretical notion of %hat consciousness is/
The theoretical approach %e have developed maintains that consciousness is inte'rated information/ 1i'h information
content is an essential feature of conscious e+perience, in the precise sense that each conscious state is selected out of a
repertoire of .illions of possi.le ones/ Moreover, this information is inte'rated - conscious e+perience is a unified %hole
that cannot .e su.divided into independent components/ We have also noted that the availa.ility of a lar'e amount of
inte'rated information over a short period of time has o.vious adaptive advanta'es/
If the notion of consciousness as inte'rated information is to .e scientifically productive, as %ell as testa.le, one needs
clearly defined concepts and correspondin' measures/ 2or this purpose, %e have developed measures aimed at
characteri3in' the de'ree to %hich a set of elements can inte'rate information/ The main one is a 'eneral, information-
theoretical definition of inte'rated informa-tion, called comple+ity/ This measure, %hich is .ased on the amount of
information that can .e e+chan'ed .et%een .ipartitions of su.sets of elements, can .e used to determine %hether a su.set
of elements consti-tutes an inte'rated comple+, as %ell as ho% many different states are availa.le to it/ Usin' simplified
models, it can .e sho%n that comple+ity constitutes an o.4ective measure of the e+tent to %hich functionally speciali3ed
parts %or& to'ether in an inte'rated fashion/
# &ey advanta'e of havin' a measure of inte'rated information is that it ma&es it possi.le to test the relationship .et%een
consciousness and inte'rated information in e+emplary cases/ #t present, it seems most useful to .e'in %here the
distinctions are most o.vious/ We consider t%o .asic contrasts/ The first one is a contrast .et%een t%o portions of the .rain
- the thalamocortical system and the cere.ellum - %hich differ dramatically in their a.ility to 'ive rise to conscious
e+perience/ The cere.ellum has an estimated 55 .illion neurons, a'ainst an estimated 35 .illion for the thalamocortical
system/ It has pro.a.ly as many connections, similar neurotransmitters and neuromodulators and, 4ust as the thalamo-
cortical system, it receives multiple sensory inputs/ 1o%ever, %hile many areas of the thalamocortical system are each
essential for a different aspect of conscious e+perience, the entire cere.ellum can .e removed %ithout si'nificant chan'es
in conscious e+perience/ This simple contrast indicates that the 'eneration of conscious e+perience is not merely a property
of num.ers of neurons and connections, of neurochemical diversity, or of .iolo'ical intricacy/
# second illuminatin' contrast has to do %ith the neural activity %ithin the thalamocortical system %hen %e are a%a&e
and conscious vs/ %hen %e are asleep and unconscious, specifically durin' dreamless sleep/ The anatomical or'a-ni3ation
of the thalamocortical system o.viously does not chan'e .et%een sleep and %a&in', and %e no% &no% that the amount of
neural activity is not su.stantially different, e+cept that durin' deep sleep it is hi'hly synchro-ni3ed/
We su''est that the reason the thalamocortical system can 'enerate conscious e+perience and the cere.el-lum 6or other
parts of the .rain7 cannot is that the former is or'ani3ed in such a %ay as to inte'rate a lar'e amount of information, %hile
the latter is not/ "imilarly, %e predict that durin' deep sleep, %hile the anatomy and the amount of neuronal firin' do not
chan'e apprecia.ly, the amount of inte'rated information should mar&edly decrease/
In principle, these predictions can .e tested empirically, e/'/ throu'h neuroima'in' e+periments/ While such e+periments
are essential for validatin' the proposed concepts, they have several limitations in terms of the availa.le spatial and
temporal resolution as %ell as in terms of %hat manipulations are feasi.le/ #n e)ually important avenue to validate these
concepts is to develop lar'e-scale simulations of .rain circuits in %hich all the rele-vant parameters are precisely &no%n
and every possi.le manipulation can .e performed/ Moreover, such a synthetic approach can provide 'uidelines a.out the
re)uirements for developin' an architecture endo%ed %ith conscious e+pe-rience in a machine/
"elected $eferences8
/ Tononi, G/, 9omple+ity and coherency8 inte'ratin' information in the .rain/ Trends in 9o'nitive "ciences, !!:/ ;6;78
p/ <7<-<:</
;/ Tononi, G/ and G/M/ =delman, 9onsciousness and comple+ity/ "cience, !!:/ ;:;653!578 p/ :<>-5/
3/ =delman, G/M/ and G/ Tononi, # Universe of 9onsciousness8 1o% matter .ecomes ima'ination/ ;555, ?e% @or&8 Aasic
Aoo&s/
</ Tononi, G/, Information measures for conscious e+perience/ #rchives Italiennes de Aiolo'ie, ;55 in press/
B//C//Cinde+/shtmlD B//C//Cinde+/shtmlD
$eference
Ean Fui4telaar, =/F/G/M/ B//C//CPeopleCFui4telaarvan=FGMCinde+/htmlD, Weltin', G/, H Iuian Iuiro'a, $/ 6;5557/ The
reticular thalamic nucleus is involved in interhemispheric synchroni3ation of the ==G/ "leep-Wa&e $esearch in the
?etherlands, , :>-!5/
#.stract
The ==G of the left and ri'ht hemisphere sho%s phase relationships/ # classical and a non-linear ==G synchroni3ation
method %as compared .efore and after an unilateral lesion of the reticular thalamic nucleus/ The usefulness of the ne%
synchroni3ation measure is illustrated .y the fact that it sho%ed synchroni3ations hardly seen .y visual inspection/ ?e+t,
the non-linear association measure %as much more sensitive than the classical cross-correlation, stressin' not only the
presence of non-linear interdependence .et%een the t%o hemispheres .ut also the sensitivity of this ne% varia.le/ Dama'e
to the rostral pole of the $T? reduces the linear cross-correlation .ut even more the non-linear interdependency of the
synchronicity .et%een the left and ri'ht hemisphere/
T1#F#M090$TI9#F 20U?D#TI0?"
02 90?"9I0U" =JP=$I=?9=
Games ?e%man
9olorado ?eurolo'ical Institute
Denver, 90, U"#
2ull paper availa.le at http8CC%%%/phil/vt/eduCasscCne%manC
0utline
Introduction
9ric&,s K"earchli'ht 1ypothosisK
9ric& and Loch,s Theory of K<5-13K Aindin'
Flinas, et al,s Theory of <5-13 "cannin'/
Taylor,s Model of $eticular ?ucleus Glo.al Guidance
Aaars, 6!::7 =+tended $eticular-Thalamic #ctivation "ystem
$ecent e+tensions of the =$T#" model
9onclusion
/ Introduction/
/
Parallel to the 'eneral renaissance of the study of consciousness over the past decade has .een a rene%ed interest in the
contri.utions of su.cortical structures of the 9?" to functions such as selective attention, memory, neural .indin', etc/
"ituated at the center of the .rain, the thalamus has .ecome increasin'ly implicated in functions related to the 'lo.al
inte'ration of co'nitive processes/ This paper provides a .rief historical revie% of the anatomy and functions of the
thalamus, and its inte'ral relations %ith cortical systems mediatin' co'nition/ I then introduce recent models of the
thalamocortical system .earin' on the topic of the seminar/
2IGU$= / The thalamus of one hemisphere of the .rain/ The thin layer of neurons partially surroundin' the thalamus is
the reticular nucleus/ 6from FaAer'e, !!5, p/ >7
/;
It has .een &no%n since the !th century that the sensory tracts for vision, hearin' and touch synapse upon specific nuclei
in the thalamus/ These nuclei, in turn, send topo'raphic pro4ections to the primary sensory areas of the neocorte+/
William Games 6:!57 e+pressed the consensus of the science of his time %hen he asserted that Kthe corte+ is the sole or'an
of consciousness in manK 6p/ >>7/ In this scenario, the Klo%er centersK are repositories of instinctual and .iolo'ical
functions, althou'h the thalamus has the privile'ed position of .ein' the Krelay stationK for information streamin' into the
corte+ from the outside %orld/
/3/
Games 6:!57 %rote elo)uently a.out the Kstream of consciousnessK, and the centrality of attention in conscious mentation/
Given his prescience in so many areas, one mi'ht have e+pected him to speculate on the possi.le si'nificance of the
thalamus in filterin' this KstreamK via the Ksynaptic cleftK it provides/ Aut %ith his characteristic fran&ness, he admitted to
the science of his time havin' a Kshado%y vie% /// If it has no other advanta'e, it at any rate ma&es us reali3e ho%
enormous are the 'aps in our &no%led'e, ////6p/ :57
/<
These 'aps did not deter Games from discussin' consciousness as a natural phenomenon,ho%ever/ Aoth as a psycholo'ist
and philosopher, he shared the convictions of his contemporaries that Knothin' %as more essential to the mind than
consciousnessK and that, KThe mind in all its activities and processes %as /// transparent to itself* nothin' %as hidden from
its inner vie%/ 6Dennett, !:7, p/ >;7/ It %as Games 6!:57, of course, %ho coined the term Kstream of consciousnessK,
descri.in' it as Ka teamin' multiplicity of o.4ects and relationsK - never simple sensation .y itself - Kand %hat %e call
simple sensations are the results of discriminative attention, pushed often to a very hi'h de'ree/K 6p/ ;;<7/
9haracteristically, he further ar'ued that consciousness %as hi'hly purposeful, a Kfi'hter for endsK, not simply a Kdetached
o.serverK/ Millions of items of the out%ard order are present to my senses %hich never properly enter into my e+perience/
Why( Aecause they have no interest for me/ My e+perience is %hat I a'ree to attend to/ 0nly those items %hich I notice
shape my mind--%ithout selective interest, e+perience is utter chaos/ 6p/ <5;7
/5/
2or all his ener'y and elo)uence, Games, philosophy of science %as sin'ularly unsuccessful in s%ayin' his Kmore modernK
collea'ues/ Ay the time he died in !5, t%o opposin' names had come to dominate the intellectual landscape8 2reud, %ho
ventured %here the previous 'eneration e+pected nothin' mental to e+ist, and found Kthe unconsciousK* and G/ A/ Watson
%ho declared the entire K"cience of Mental FifeK championed .y Games illusory/
/>
The triumph of Aehaviorism in this country had an interestin' effect upon neuroscience .et%een the t%o World Wars/ The
focus shifted from humans to animals, from Khi'her corticalK to su.cortical KcentersK 6refer to 2i'ure ;7/ $esearchers
discovered the centrality of the hypothalamus 6K1@K, 2i'/ ;7 in re'ulatin' instinctual drives 6privately referred to as the K<
2sK8 fi'htin', feedin', fleein' and f---in'7/ Pape3 6!377 theori3ed that a la.yrinth circle of tracts connectin' the
hypothalamus %ith the amy'dala 6K#MK7, hippocampus and underside of the cere.ral corte+, constituted an Kemotional
.rainK/ Aecause the upper half of this 9ircle of Pape3 forms the KrimK 6or lim.us7 of the inner surface of the hemispheres,
this comple+ came to .e &no%n as the lim.ic system/
2IGU$= ;/ The thalamus sittin' atop the .rainstem at the center of the .rain, surrounded .y the .asal 'an'lia and lim.ic
structures/ Most of the neocorte+ and %hite matter of the left hemisphere have .een removed to reveal these su.cortical
structures/ The thalamus lies closest to the midline of the hemisphere/ The .asal 'an'lia are situated more laterally
6to%ards the outside7/ The amy'dala 6#m7 and hippocampus lie on the medial 6inner7 surface of the temporal lo.e/ 6from
?e%man, !!5a, p/ 7<7
/7/
The thalamus fills the center of this KdonutK of lim.ic structures/ "urprisin'ly, ho%ever, only a small minority of thalamic
nuclei are truly Klim.ic/K The 'reat .ul& of thalamic connections are %ith the neocorte+ 6?ote8 &eep in mind that only the
'ross anatomy of nuclei and cortical areas are portrayed in these fi'ures, ?0T the actual masses of connectin' tractsC%hite
matter, fillin' the space .et%een the corte+ and su.cortical structures7/
/:
The thalamus is not simply the Krelay stationK for sensory information flo%in' to%ard the corte+* it is the corte+,s chief
source of e+trinsic activation/ ?ot only the primary areas for vision 6KEK7 audition 6K#K7, and somatosensory 6K"K7
sensation 6refer to 2i'ure 37, .ut association corte+ as %ell, share orderly pro4ections %ith particular thalamic nuclei/ The
thalamus also has KmotorK 6KMK, KM#K7 pro4ections to the frontal lo.es/ I place KmotorK in )uotes .ecause these nuclei
are actually relays for inputs from deep in the .asal 'an'lia 6refer to 2i'ure ;7/ The functions of these structures are so
inte'ral to the thalamocortical system, that Imust .riefly summari3e them/
2IGU$= 3/ The ma4or divisions of the thalamus and the ma4or pro4ections it shares %ith the cere.ral corte+/ Thalamic
nuclei 6left- side78 #-anterior nucleus* MD-medialdorsal nucleus* MI-massa intermedia* n$t-nucleus reticularis thalami/
Thalamocortical pro4ection areas8 #-primary auditory corte+* 9G-cin'ulate 'yrus* IPF-inferior parietal lo.ule* M-
primary motor corte+* M#-motor association corte+* MA- mamillary .ody* Pf9-prefrontal corte+* "-primary
somatosensory corte+* "PF-superior parietal lo.ule* E-primary visual corte+* E#-visual assocation corte+/ 6from
?e%man, !!5a/ p/ 7:7
/!
The .asal 'an'lia 6AG7 and hippocampus are recipients of inputs from %ide areas of corte+/ #s 2i'ure ; su''ests, AG
inputs ori'inate most richly from frontal corte+* %hile pro4ections to the hippocampus come lar'ely from posterior corte+/
=delman 6!:!7 characteri3es these t%o su.cortical structures as Kcortical appenda'es and or'ans of successionK/ 2or the
hippocampal system, the succession is of sense perceptions and the episodic memories these leave .ehind* for the AG
system these entail the orderly succession of plans and choices, and the procedural memories associated %ith learned
s&ills/ The actions of this system really have no Kpoint of ori'inationK, .ecause the Kcortico-.asal 'an'lia- thalamo-cortical
loopK 6Parent and 1a3rati, !!57 %hich mediates them 6li&e the 9ircle of Pape37 is a massive rever.eratory circuit,
modulatin' all motor outputs/ ?e%man 6in preparation7 revie%s evidence that portions of this circuit may provide the
essential su.strate for conscious volition/
/5/
9onsistent %ith this hypothesis are the intricate Ktop-do%nK controls %hich pre-frontal corte+ 6Pf97 is capa.le of
e+ercisin' over AG, lim.ic and thalamic nuclei/ Flinas and Pare 6!!7 have noted that the num.er of cortical pro4ections
.ac& to thalamic nuclei are an order of ma'nitude 'reater those the corte+ receives/ In addition to the s%ath of pro4ections
Pf9 e+chan'es %ith the medial dorsal nucleus 6KMDK, 2i'/ 37, other pre-frontal pro4ections directly influence lim.ic and
.rain stem circuits/ 2inally, Pf9 and AG send strate'ic sets of pro4ections to a thin sheet of cells coverin' the outer surfaces
of the t%o thalami, called the nucleus reticularis 6Kn$tK, 2i'/ 3, also see Kreticular nucleusK, 2i'/ 7/ This reticular comple+
is central to most of the models presented here/
Bhttp8CC%%%/phil/vt/eduCasscCne%manCD :/
9onclusion/These accumulated findin's, and the models they have en'endered, constitute an impressive frame%or& for
constructin' a 'eneral theory of consciousness 6#n e+tended ar'ument for this is made in ?e%man 6in prep/7, %hich %as
recently su.mitted to P"@91=/7
2luid Intelli'ence8 There are t%o main type of intelli'ence, crystalli3ed intelli'ence and fluid intelli'ence/ 2luid
intelli'ence is your a.ility to reason in an a.stract %ay/ 2or e+ample, if I as&ed you to come up %ith as many different
possi.le uses for a tire, you %ould have to use very a.stract reasonin' - thin& a.out %hat a tire is, the different types, the
si3es, etc/, then 'o throu'h co'nitive lists of situations, uses, and much more/ 0ne unfortunate pro.lem %ith this type of
reasonin' is that it tends to decrease durin' later adulthood/
9onsciousness and the Place.o =ffect
#drianne Ford
In controlled studies, e+perimenters use place.os as medium to compare the efficacy of a dru'/ Dou.le-.lind controlled
studies provide information on %hether a dru' is effective or if it is not .etter than place.o/ The results of dou.le-.lind
studies usually depict the latter/ $arely are dru's found to .e si'nificantly more effective than place.o .ecause of the
place.o effect/ The phenomenal effectiveness of the place.o in controlled e+periments is mind .o''lin'/ =+perimenters
can not fully understand the etiolo'y of the place.o effect in relation to the nervous system .ut they have proposed
plausi.le su''estions to the underlyin' mechanisms involved/ #n intri'uin' )uestion raised is the place.o,s a.ility to cure
numerous symptoms/ I hypothesi3e that the level of consciousness or alertness of the I-function, %ithin the individual, may
.e the decidin' factor in %hether the place.o effect occurs/
The o.4ective of a place.o is to compare and assure that a ne% dru' or operational procedure is effective/ In e+periments,
the place.o is an inactive su.stance or procedure used as a control in an e+periment 67/ The place.o loo&s, tastes or feels
4ust li&e the actual treatment 6;7/ # false procedure for e+ample, may consist of advisin' a person that heCshe %ill .e
operated on and then ma&in' an incision into a person %ithout operatin'/ "u.4ects are advised of their pro.a.ility of
receivin' actual treatment in order to maintain the e+pectation level of the participants/ The efficacy of ma&in' an incision
maintains the e+pectation level of the su.4ect .ecause the presence of a scar raises their .elief that they %ere placed in the
actual treatment 'roup/ Whether the place.o is a ,su'ar pill, or an incision, the purpose of providin' a false ,treatment, is to
control for the amount of variance su.4ects already have %ithin a 'iven e+periment/
Ay controllin' for su.4ect e+pectation, e+perimenters are tryin' to eliminate the place.o effect/ The place.o effect occurs
%hen the place.o, %hich can not on its o%n merit have any affect, does in fact have the same or similar affect as the
e+perimental su.stance or procedure 67/ 1o%ever, some dou.le-.lind control studies use active place.os/ #ctive place.os
contain compounds %hich %arrant side effects so that the su.4ect feels as thou'h they are receivin' therapeutic treatment/
The efficacy of the place.o in e+periments, commonly account from 35-<5M and sometimes up to 75M or :5M 6;7/
In the early :th century, the %ord place.o %as associated %ith )uac&ery 637/ #lthou'h the reason for the hi'h success rate
of the place.o is yet to .e e+plained, e+perimenters have hypothesi3ed plausi.le e+planations for its effect/ #dvanced
models attemptin' to e+plain place.o effects emphasi3e the role of e+pectations, an+iety and learnin' 637/
The place.o effect illustrates the effectiveness of the physician,s role in ,healin', a patient/ Past research sho% that a
patient,s hi'h opinion of the physician prescri.in' the treatment 6<7 as %ell as the doctor,s personality can invo&e the
place.o effect/ 2urthermore, research has sho%n that an amia.le doctor %ith a positive outloo& of a dru' treatment %ould
induce the place.o effect/
The po%er of the place.o is more readily e+plained as a function of the individual .ecause the place.o effect can rely on
the amount of faith an individual has for a 'iven treatment/ 0ne su''estion is that place.o effects may .e due to an+iety
reduction/ "tress and an+iety adversely affect the .ody and increase an individual,s focus on symptoms 6<7/ # decrease in
the .ody,s stress and an+iety level .y a %ell-&no%n doctor alleviates the patient,s %orry and pain leadin' to a ,curin', of
the symptoms/ It has .een sho%n that place.os may .e more effective amon' hi'hly an+ious people .ecause the adverse
effects interact %ith the physiolo'ical processin' 637/ There is evidence that there mi'ht .e an alteration in the .ody,s
endo'enous opioid release/ Pain relief in patients provided via place.o, may .e caused .y a release of endorphins in the
.rain/ =ndorphins are the .ody,s o%n morphine-li&e pain&illers 6;7/ Within the nervous system, there are specific path%ays
that modulate pain %hen stimulated .y these endorphins/ #s a patient anticipates symptom relief, the e+pectation of
receivin' an active su.stance, alone, may .e activatin' the pain path%ay there.y reducin' symptoms/ The presence of a
su.stance pro.a.ly activates the pain-inhi.ition .ecause una%are of the treatment 'roup, the patient is led to .elieve that
they have received an active su.stance/
#nother path%ay pro.a.ly activated in con4unction %ith the endorphins is the .rain,s re%ard path%ay %hich e+tends from
the fore.rain to the mid.rain and into the hind.rain/ The re%ard path%ay is comprised of an array of comple+ structures
.ut stimulation of specific nerve fi.ers, %hich pass throu'h the hypothalamus, can increase .ehavioral output 657/ 2or
e+ample, e+periments have demonstrated that an electrode stimulatin' the medial fore.rain .undle of a rat provided the
hi'hest rate of pressin' responses .y the rat 657/ The increase in .ehavioral output su''ested that self-stimulation of this
re'ion %as re%ardin'/ 2urthermore, stimulation of the medial fore.rain .undle in a rhesus mon&ey elicited self-starvation*
the mon&ey stopped eatin' in order to o.tain re%ardin' .rain stimulation 657/
The corte+ of a rhesus mon&ey is more sophisticated than a rat and has a closer resem.lance to the human corte+/
0.servin' the compulsive .ehavior influenced .y stimulation to the re%ard system in rhesus mon&eys demonstrates that
may.e humans can activate the catecholamines li&e, dopamine, to tri''er a particular .ehavior/ It is su''ested that place.o
su.4ects can tri''er this path%ay .ecause patients una%are that they %ere 'iven a place.o are e+periencin' a type of
'ratification or re%ard/ The personal 'ratification can activate the release of dopamine into the system leadin' to an
altered mood state/ Dru's that manipulate the catecholamine system have a po%erful effect on mood///NandO a'ents %hich
elevate catecholamines or mimic the action of catecholamine facilitate self-stimulation 657/ In li'ht of the re%ardin' effects
depicted in rats and rhesus mon&eys it seems plausi.le that in humans, a place.o, %hich has no inert effects, is someho%
influencin' the levels of neurotransmitters in the .ody/
The mechanisms involved in e+periencin' symptom relief can .e understood .y the activation of the re%ard and
endorphin path%ays/ 1o%ever, this accounts for .iolo'ical aspect of the place.o effect .ut %hat tri''ers these symptoms(
9ommentaries on the efficacy of the place.o ma&e reference to the attitudes or .eliefs of the individuals and ho% these
items of consciousness play a role/ 1o%ever, %hat is meant .y a conscious e+perience( Is consciousness a state of
a%areness for tactile modalities( The first relatin' form of consciousness is the concept of self-a%areness 6>7/
9onsciousness is similar to the I-function in ho% the .ody and mind interconnect to facilitate a sense of e+perience/ Usin'
an analo'y of a .o+, the nervous system is constantly receivin' numerous inputs and releasin' output/ 1o%ever, there is
another portion of this nervous system %hich characteri3es the I-function* the part that contri.utes in the .ody,s central
pattern 'enerators to aid in our interaction %ith the periphery, e+perience and receivin' re%ard/
The inhi.ition of activity, %hich can .e applied to the I-function, su''ests that it is located in the neocorte+/ Ailateral
dama'e to the Intra-Faminar ?uclei 6IF?7, the divider of the t%o thalami, appears to a.olish the state of %a&in'
consciousness 677/ It is not .ein' assumed that the IF? is the source of consciousness .ut it refers to the idea that the I-
function, %hich %or&s %ith the nervous system, can .e ,disconnected, from the .ody %ith dama'e to the neocorte+/ The
,disem.odiment, of the conscious from the nervous system demonstrates a loss of e+perience or self-a%areness/ The
concept of self-a%areness is an important factor .ecause it facilitates the po%er of the place.o/
Dou.le-.lind controlled e+periments are una.le to control for the sense of e+perience and self-a%areness of the su.4ect that
ma&es the study vulnera.le to the place.o effect/ "u.4ects used in dru' studies are at the sta'e in life %here they are ,a%are,
that ne% dru's are .ein' developed to com.at symptoms/ 2or e+ample, in one study su.4ects %ere 'iven measured doses of
alcohol .ut the control 'roup %as 'iven a non-alcoholic .evera'e %hich they .elieved to .e alcohol 67/ ?eedless to say,
some of the place.o-drin&in' 'roup .ehaved as thou'h they %ere 'iven alcohol/ 2or these su.4ects the su''estion of
drin&in' alcohol produced the ine.riated .ehavior 67/ It is this conscious &no%in' and e+pectation stemmin' from the I-
function that activates the endo'enous systems of the nervous system %hich produces the phenomenal place.o effect/ #lso,
this study illustrated the stren'th of su''estion and the effects of e+pectation on .ehavior/ What if the confounds of
a%areness andCor e+pectations could .e removed from e+periments .ut have an intact I-function( Would the place.o still
turn out .etter than the treatment(
To test this, su.4ects %ould need to .e youn' .ut capa.le of o.eyin' simple commands li&e, ,0pen your eyes,/ The a'e of <
is 'ood .ecause it is necessary to have su.4ects at a sta'e in life %here they are conscious and capa.le of comprehendin'
simple instructions .ut have yet to e+perience enou'h life to have developed e+pectations and ,a%areness, a.out treatments
and the e+traneous varia.les 6for e+ample, physician influence7 involved in the place.o effect/ The patients, mind
someho% influences other physiolo'ic systems in the .ody %hich .rin' a.out positive results 6;7/ #s a youn' child, the I-
function is a more active participant in the involvement of the .ody %ith the %orld than %ith su''estions or e+pectations/
The I-function,s primary concern of the .ody and %orld ma&es the child considera.ly o.solete from the influential po%er
of the mind/
In the end, the place.o effect is a stru''le in maintainin' a co-ha.itative environment for the mind,s prior e+periences and
the .ody,s desire to reach .eyond its present state/ It also illustrates the considera.le healin' po%er of the mind 6<7/ The I-
function and consciousness are, indisputa.ly, une+plaina.le phenomena %hich ma&es it difficult to reveal their location/
#s for no%, research su''ests that consciousness creates a ,home, %ithin the nervous system and has the capa.ility of
ta&in' on a prominent role in .ehavioral outputs, %hen e+pectations are involved/
WWW "ources
71ypnotica8 Place.o as a su''estion B http8CC%%%/.c+/netChypnosisCplace.o/htmD
;7 #lternative and 9omplementary Therapies8 The Place.o =ffect
Bhttp8CC%%%/cancer/or'CaltPtherapiesCarticlesCplace.o/html D
37 #lpha 0me'a Pain Medicine #ssociates8 Place.o Po%er Bhttp8CC %%%/painmasters/comCne%pa'e7/htmD, date8
<C:C!!
<7 1ealthline Ma'a3ine8 Place.o =ffects on Pain Bhttp8CC%%%/health-line/comCarticlesChl!55<5</htm D, date8 <C:C!!
57 The $e%ard "ystem, .y #ryeh $outten.er' 6located on ? H A $eserve7
>7 Thalamocortical #spects of 9onsciousness 2rom the Perspective of a ?euro.iolo'ist B
http8CC%%%/phil/vt/eduCasscCne%manC'race/htmlD, date8 5C5C!!
77 Why It Must Ae 9onsciousness- 2or $eal Q B http8CC%%%/phil/vt/eduCasscCne%manC.aars/htmlD
0ther Fin&s
MindCArainCAehavior The Pleasin' Place.o Bhttp8CC%%%/med/harvard/eduCpu.licationsC2ocusCGan;5P!!5CMind/htmlD
What,s the Place.o =ffect( B http8CC%%%/oa&land/eduCRd4carlstCa.+Pplac/htmD
T1= "$E #22I$M#TI0?
The "$E #ffirmation is normally read aloud %ith a soft voice, even in solo sessions/ The affirmation produces a su.tle
shift in the sensitivities of the mind that helps to connect the a%areness of the conscious mind to the perceptive capa.ilities
of the su.space mind/ The "$E #ffirmation is desi'ned to closely appro+imate the %ay se)uential, connected thou'hts are
felt telepathically, piece .y piece, one Kthou'ht-.allK at a time/ Eie%ers should read the affirmation slo%ly, pausin' .riefly
after each comma or period/ 1ere is the "$E affirmation8
"$E #ffirmation
I am a spiritual .ein'/ Aecause I am a spiritual .ein', I am a.le to perceive .eyond all .oundaries of time and space/ My
consciousness is ever present %ith all that is, %ith all that ever %as, and %ith all that ever %ill .e/ It is in my nature, as a
human, to .e a.le to perceive, and thus to &no%, all that there is to &no%/ =very%here, at all times, I see& to learn, and thus
to evolve/ To further my o%n personal 'ro%th, and to assist others in their 'ro%th, I direct my attention to a chosen point
of e+istence/ I o.serve %hat is there/ I study it carefully/ I record %hat I find/
P1#"=
T1= P$=FIMI?#$I="
#/ 9onsciousness-"ettlin' Procedure
The sin'le most important step needed to o.tain a profound remote-vie%in' e+perience is a deeply settled mind/ 2or this
reason I recommend that remote vie%ers meditate re'ularly/ While I personally practice Transcendental Meditation 6TM7,
other forms of meditation may .e useful as %ell/ #dditionally, since a settled mind is so essential to deep tar'et
penetration, the practice of "$E .e'ins %ith a procedure that helps to settle the mind in an appropriate fashion/ This
practice is called the "$E K9onsciousness-"ettlin' ProcedureK 6or 9"P7, and it is composed of a fe% simple techni)ues
commonly practiced in a num.er of meditation traditions/
9"P must .e done immediately prior to each "$E session .y .oth the vie%er and the monitor/ 9"P ta&es appro+imately 5
minutes total/ In Type < and Type 5 settin's, monitors and vie%ers need to communicate 5 minutes .efore each session to
coordinate the precise timin' of the .e'innin' of the "$E session/ 1ere are the steps for 9"P8
/ "it comforta.ly in silence %ith the eyes closed for 35 seconds/
;/ Perform a .rief .ody massa'e/ 6"ome meditation traditions recommend that the massa'e .e e+ecuted sli'htly differently
for men and %omen, and I descri.e these recommendations here/ I am not clear as to %hy these 'ender-related differences
e+ist, or if the need for the differences is real/7 The massa'e .e'ins .y 'ently pressin' the hands a'ainst the face, then
up%ard on the top of the head, .ac& do%n the nec&, and to%ard the heart/ 6#ll massa'e elements move to%ard and finish
at the heart/7 Then men continue .y 'ently usin' the left hand to press and massa'e first the ri'ht hand, and then up the
arm, and .ac& do%n to%ard the heart/ #'ain, this is all done %ith the left hand/ Women do the same, .ut they .e'in .y
massa'in' the left hand and arm 6.ac& to%ard the heart7 %ith the ri'ht hand/ Then .oth men and %omen s%itch arms and
massa'e the other hand and arm, a'ain, .ac& to%ard the heart/ Then men continue .y massa'in' the ri'ht foot and le',
up%ard to%ard the heart/ This is done %ith .oth hands pressin' 'ently/ Then massa'e the left foot and le', a'ain, up%ard
to%ard the heart/ Women do the same, .ut they .e'in %ith the left foot and le', up%ard to%ard the heart, .efore repeatin'
the process for the ri'ht foot and le'/ This is .est done %ith the eyes closed/ Total time for the massa'e is a.out a minute/
3/ While sittin' comforta.ly %ith the .ac& strai'ht, perform a .reathin' techni)ue that is called Kpranayama/K Ae'in %ith
5 seconds of fast pranayama/ This is done usin' very short, 'entle .reaths, closin' one nostril at a time after each
out%ard and in%ard .reath/ 9lose the nostrils 6one at a time7 %ith the thum. and the middle fin'ers 6alternately7 of one
hand/ Men use their ri'ht hand to do this %hile %omen use their left/ The mechanics of the procedure are similar to slo%
pranayama 6see .elo%7, e+cept that the .reaths are very short and rapid 6althou'h still 'entle7/ This is .est done %ith the
eyes closed/ The procedure should .e effortless and easy, and if someone is e+periencin' any pro.lems li&e di33iness or
hyperventilation, it is .ein' performed incorrectly and its practice should .e discontinued until 'ettin' personal instruction
in this techni)ue/
</ While sittin' comforta.ly %ith the .ac& strai'ht, perform ! to 5 minutes of slo% pranayama/ This is done similarly as
%ith the fast pranayama, .ut usin' normal .reaths 6not short or lon' ones7, closin' one nostril at a time after each out%ard
and in%ard .reath/ Ae sure to complete .oth the out%ard and in%ard .reath .efore s%itchin' nostrils/ 0n the e+halin'
.reath, let the .reath flo% out naturally, not forcin' it/ The inhalin' .reath should ta&e a.out half the time as the e+halin'
.reath/ 1old the .reath after inhalin' for a .rief moment 6a second or t%o7 %hile alternatively closin' the other nostril
%ith the other fin'er, and prepare to e+hale/ The entire procedure should .e effortless and 'entle/ If you feel you need more
air, simply ta&e deeper .reaths, .ut do not hyperventilate/ @ou should .e .reathin' normally, 4ust alternatin' nostrils after
e+halin' and inhalin'/ This is .est done %ith the eyes closed/
5/ "it )uietly and comforta.ly for 5 minutes %ith the eyes closed/
>/ 0pen your eyes, and immediately .e'in the "$E session/
A/ Physical 9onsiderations to Ae'innin' the "$E "ession
# remote-vie%in' session .e'ins %ith a vie%er sittin' at a clean des&/ Ideally, the only items that should .e on the des& are
a pen and a thin stac& of %hite paper/ We use a .allpoint pen %ith li)uid .lac& in&/ The pen,s point should ideally ran'e
from .et%een /; mm to /< mm/ # 'ood )uality pen that does not produce much friction %hen %ritin' is .est/ Traditional
.all point pens that use 'ummy in& re)uire too much do%n%ard pressure %hen %ritin' to .e optimal/
The ideal trainin' room is neutral in color/ Fi'ht 'ray, po%der .lue, or li'ht .ro%n are suita.le colors/ It is pro.a.ly not a
'ood idea to use, say, a child,s playroom that has lots of primary colors on the %alls/ The idea is to minimi3e the stron'
stimuli that come in throu'h the senses, such as .ri'ht visual colors/
Aefore remote vie%in', a person should .e %ell rested/ This cannot .e emphasi3ed enou'h/ Tiredness dulls the conscious
mind, and a tired conscious mind has difficulty perceivin' information ori'inatin' from the su.space mind/ # 'ood ni'ht,s
sleep is ideal for a mornin' remote vie%in' session, and a midday 5 to 35-minute rest often refreshes one sufficiently for
an afternoon session/
0ne should .e comforta.ly fed .efore remote vie%in'/ This means that one should not .e hun'ry, and one should also not
.e overfed/ 1un'er and feelin' stuffed produce physical stimuli that are difficult for the conscious mind to i'nore/
$emem.er that the su.space mind yields a relatively %ea& informational si'nal to the conscious mind/ Try to minimi3e
any physiolo'ical stimuli that could s%amp the su.space si'nal/
$emote vie% in a )uiet environment/ If possi.le, close the %indo%s and doors of the remote-vie%in' room/ #lso turn off
the rin'er of the phone for the time that it ta&es to complete the session/ Turn off any radios or televisions that may .e
audi.le near.y/
#void %earin' any perfume, colo'ne, aftershave, or other stron' scents/ This is particularly important %hen trainin' in a
'roup environment/ If a vie%er is a smo&er, it %ould .e .est if this vie%er %ore freshly %ashed clothes durin' the session
that do not smell of smo&e/
People %ho use recreational dru's, or any other dru's %ith psychoactive )ualities, should not remote vie% at all/ These
dru's tend to release any controls that the conscious mind has over the ima'ination, %hich is e+actly opposite that %hich
is re)uired for successful remote vie%in'/ With respect to dru's of any type, one should try to .e as dru' free as possi.le/
Individuals %ho use doctor-prescri.ed antidepressants should pro.a.ly not spend much effort tryin' to remote vie%/ "uch
antidepressants suppress the nervous system to such a de'ree that accuracy in remote vie%in' is hi'hly compromised/ @et
individuals usin' any dru's prescri.ed .y their doctors should not discontinue their use unless directed to do so .y their
doctor/ Fearnin' ho% to remote vie% is not as important as maintainin' one,s health and mental .alance/
Aefore .e'innin' the session, you should sit comforta.ly on a chair at your des& %ith .oth feet on the floor/ The le's
should not .e crossed/ @ou should sit up strai'ht, not off to one side, or sittin' on one foot in a lotus position/ The hands
should .e rela+ed, %ith the pen held over a sin'le clean sheet of paper/ The paper is positioned in portrait mode
6vertically7/ The stac& of paper should .e on the vie%er,s ri'ht side of the des&/
T1= "$E #22I$M#TI0?
Arain ima'in' study sheds li'ht on inner %or&in's of human intelli'ence

N"t/ Fouis, M0/, ;-:-53O

1uman intelli'ence is li&e a mental 4u''lin' act in %hich the smartest performers use specific .rain re'ions to resist
distraction and &eep attention focused on critical pieces of information, accordin' to a ne% .rain ima'in' study from
Washin'ton University in "t/ Fouis/
People %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence use specific .rain re'ions to help focus their attention and resist distraction durin' a
difficult mental tas&/K"ome people seem to perform .etter than others in novel, mentally-demandin' situations, .ut %hy(K
as&s Geremy $/ Gray, Ph/D/, co-author of the study to .e posted 2e./ : in an advance online issue of the 4ournal ?ature
?euroscience/ KPresuma.ly, people are usin' their .rains differently, .ut ho%( K
9urious a.out the specific co'nitive and neural mechanisms that underlie individual differences in intelli'ence, Gray and
collea'ues devised a study to e+plore the inner %or&in's of one important aspect of human intelli'ence/ The study sou'ht
to .etter understand the process throu'h %hich the mind reasons and solves novel pro.lems, an a.ility &no%n amon'
psycholo'ists as Kfluid intelli'ence/K
KThe results may help researchers to understand the neural .asis of individual differences in co'nitive a.ility,K accordin'
to an em.ar'oed ne%s release issued this %ee& .y ?ature ?euroscience/
Descri.in' the study as KimpressiveK in part .ecause of its relatively lar'e num.er of participants, the 4ournal su''ests the
findin's K%ill help to constrain theories of the neural mechanisms underlyin' differences in 'eneral intelli'ence/K
The scientific team included Gray, a research scientist in psycholo'y, and Todd "/ Araver, Ph/D/, an assistant professor in
psycholo'y, .oth in #rts H "ciences at Washin'ton University* and 9hristopher 2/ 9ha.ris, Ph/D/, a research associate at
1arvard University/
Usin' functional ma'netic resonance ima'in' 6fM$I7, the researchers measured su.tle chan'es in .rain activity as study
participants performed a challen'in' mental tas& -- one perhaps analo'ous to tryin' to drive to a ne% destination and
attemptin' to &eep the directions in mind %hile maintainin' a conversation %ith passen'ers in the car
Participants in the study %ere as&ed to do %hat mi'ht seem li&e a mental 4u''lin' act/ They had to &eep a list of three
%ords or faces actively in mind/ =very fe% seconds, they had to add another %ord or face to this list, and drop the oldest
item from the list/ Aut .efore they for'ot the old item completely, they had to indicate %hether the ne% item they %ere
addin' e+actly matched the oldest item they %ere droppin'/ Their .rain activity %as monitored as they did so/
9ritically, the e+perimenters %ould occasionally thro% participants a curve .all8 sho%in' them a ne% item that did not
match the oldest item, .ut did match one near.y in the on-'oin' se)uence/ Participants found these ,lure, items to .e
especially distractin'/
# &ey findin' of the study %as that participants %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere .etter a.le to respond correctly despite
the interference from the ,lure, items and they appeared to do so .y en'a'in' several &ey .rain re'ions more stron'ly,
includin' the prefrontal and parietal corte+/
K0ur study depended on the fact that people vary in their intelli'ence level,K Araver said/ KWe used that variation to
identify %hich .rain re'ions are more critical for fluid intelli'ence/K
"everal previous studies have e+amined ho% the .rain responds to )uestions that appear on intelli'ence tests/ 1o%ever, the
previous studies did not e+amine ho% people differ, nor %hat aspects of the test )uestions %ere most sensitive to such
differences/
The findin's in this ?ature ?euroscience report dra% on a co'nitive theory of fluid intelli'ence proposed .y $andall
=n'le, Ph/D/, Professor of Psycholo'y at Geor'ia Institute of Technolo'y, and his collea'ues/ In this theory, the a.ility to
resist or overcome interference li&e that on the ,lure, trials is important/
KIma'ine tryin' to &eep a ne% phone num.er in mind 4ust lon' enou'h to dial it,K su''ests Gray/ K?o% ima'in' tryin' to
do this %hile people around you are havin' a very interestin' conversation/ Payin' attention to the conversation %ould
interfere %ith remem.erin' the phone num.er/ People %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence should have an easier time resistin'
.ein' distracted .y the conversation and &eepin' attention focused on the phone num.er/K
The Washin'ton University study included <: participants, all healthy, ri'ht-handed, native =n'lish spea&ers .et%een the
a'es of : and 37, a.out half men and half %omen/ =ach participant %as administered a standard test of fluid intelli'ence,
&no%n as $aven,s #dvanced Pro'ressive Matrices/ =ach participant %as then as&ed to perform the %ord and face Kmental
4u''lin'K tas&s %hile lyin' inside an fM$I scanner/ =ach tas& tested a &ind of short-term memory &no%n as K%or&in'
memory/K
To 'et a sense of ho% the tas& %or&s, as& a friend to read the follo%in' %ords to you at a rate of a.out one %ord every ;/5
seconds8 do', cat, chair, ta.le, cat, door, chair, do'/
2or each %ord that you hear, ma&e a mental note of %hether it is the same %ord as you heard three %ords previously/ That
is, compare the fourth %ord you hear to the first, the fifth %ord to the second, and so on/ 62or the first three %ords, there is
nothin' to compare them to, so 4ust remem.er them for later/7
The participants in the study had to do a similar tas&, e+cept that it involved vie%in' a series of either unrelated %ords or
unfamiliar faces on a computer screen, one %ord or face every fe% seconds/ Participants had to press a .utton to indicate
%hether or not the %ord or face on the screen matched one sho%n e+actly three previously/
The tas& is challen'in', .ut the researchers included some especially tric&y KlureK items that %ere even more difficult/
These %ere %ords or faces that had .een sho%n t%o, four, or five previously in the se)uence, .ut not three previously/
2or e+ample, the second time the %ord KchairK appears in the list a.ove is a lure/ The lure items are easily confusa.le for
an item seen three previously/ The mere fact that the %ord or face %as seen recently is salient and hard to i'nore/ This
creates interference of the type that, accordin' to =n'le and collea'ues, should en'a'e fluid intelli'ence/
0n the tas&, people %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere 'enerally more accurate than those %ith lo%er fluid intelli'ence/
2luid intelli'ence appeared to .e most critical for performance on lure trials/ The critical nature of lure trials also %as
reflected in .rain activation differences .et%een individuals of hi'h and lo% fluid intelli'ence/ In several .rain areas
includin' prefrontal and parietal corte+, people %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence had stron'er neural activity than people %ith
lo%er fluid intelli'ence/ That is, doin' the tas& led to %idespread activity across the .rain, .ut the stren'th of this activity
%as related to fluid intelli'ence only on the lure trials/
"o, %hat is it e+actly that the participants %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere doin' differently on the lure trials( Their
performance su''ests they %ere &eepin' the distractin' information at .ay, and they appeared to do so .y activatin'
re'ions in prefrontal and parietal corte+, as %ell as a num.er of au+iliary re'ions/
While the study offers ne% insi'ht into fluid intelli'ence, the researchers emphasi3e that ho% %ell people perform in a
'iven situation depends on the comple+ interaction of many a.ilities/ 2or e+ample, this study does not address every aspect
of fluid intelli'ence, nor does it account for other forms of intelli'ence, such as crystalli3ed intelli'ence, %hich involves
specific s&ills and e+pertise/ Motivation and emotion are also important/ 0ther %or& su''ests that fluid intelli'ence may
not .e fi+ed, .ut can .e increased/
KI find this study e+citin' in part .ecause it opens a door to doin' many further studies that capitali3e on differences in
psycholo'ical functions amon' individuals,K added Araver/ KIndividuals differ in co'nitive a.ilities and in many other
%ays as %ell, such as personality/ We can use this same type of approach to understand ho% these psycholo'ical differences
are reflected in .rain function/K
=ditor,s ?ote8 Geremy Gray can .e reached .y phone at 63<7 !35-:>3 or via email at 4'raySartsci/%ustl/edu/ Todd
Araver can .e reached .y phone at 63<7 !35-5<3 or via email at t.raverSartsci/%ustl/edu
Bmailto8t.raverSartsci/%ustl/eduD/
#dvance 0nline Pu.lication8 This paper, titled K?eural mechanisms of 'eneral fluid intelli'enceK is scheduled for #dvance
0nline Pu.lication 6#0P7 on ?ature ?euroscience,s %e.site on 2e./ :/ The #0P version of the article can .e considered
definitive* the only difference from the su.se)uent print version is that #0P articles are pu.lished .efore they have .een
assi'ned an issueCvolumeCpa'e num.er/ Papers pu.lished online .efore they have .een allocated to a print issue %ill .e
cita.le via a di'ital o.4ect identifier 6D0I7 num.er/ The D0I for this paper %ill .e 5/53:C?n5</
If you need further clarification a.out anythin' related to pu.licity, please contact one of the ?ature offices, as indicated
.elo%/
2rom ?orth #merica8
Latie McGoldric&
?ature Washin'ton
Tel8T ;5; 737 ;355
2a+8T ;5; >;: >5!
=-mail8&/mc'oldric&Snaturedc/com Bmailto8&/mc'oldric&Snaturedc/comD
Arain Ima'in' "tudy "heds Fi'ht 0n Inner Wor&in's 0f 1uman Intelli'ence
"t/ Fouis, Mo/, 2e./ 3, ;553 -- 1uman intelli'ence is li&e a mental 4u''lin' act in %hich the smartest performers use
specific .rain re'ions to resist distraction and &eep attention focused on critical pieces of information, accordin' to a ne%
.rain ima'in' study from Washin'ton University in "t/ Fouis/
K"ome people seem to perform .etter than others in novel, mentally-demandin' situations, .ut %hy(K as&s Geremy $/ Gray,
Ph/D/, co-author of the study to .e posted 2e./ : in an advance online issue of the 4ournal ?ature ?euroscience/
KPresuma.ly, people are usin' their .rains differently, .ut ho%( U
9urious a.out the specific co'nitive and neural mechanisms that underlie individual differences in intelli'ence, Gray and
collea'ues devised a study to e+plore the inner %or&in's of one important aspect of human intelli'ence/ The study sou'ht
to .etter understand the process throu'h %hich the mind reasons and solves novel pro.lems, an a.ility &no%n amon'
psycholo'ists as Ufluid intelli'ence/V
UThe results may help researchers to understand the neural .asis of individual differences in co'nitive a.ility,V accordin'
to an em.ar'oed ne%s release issued this %ee& .y ?ature ?euroscience/
Descri.in' the study as UimpressiveV in part .ecause of its relatively lar'e num.er of participants, the 4ournal su''ests the
findin's U%ill help to constrain theories of the neural mechanisms underlyin' differences in 'eneral intelli'ence/V
The scientific team included Gray, a research scientist in psycholo'y, and Todd "/ Araver, Ph/D/, an assistant professor in
psycholo'y, .oth in #rts H "ciences at Washin'ton University* and 9hristopher 2/ 9ha.ris, Ph/D/, a research associate at
1arvard University/
Usin' functional ma'netic resonance ima'in' 6fM$I7, the researchers measured su.tle chan'es in .rain activity as study
participants performed a challen'in' mental tas& -- one perhaps analo'ous to tryin' to drive to a ne% destination and
attemptin' to &eep the directions in mind %hile maintainin' a conversation %ith passen'ers in the car/
Participants in the study %ere as&ed to do %hat mi'ht seem li&e a mental 4u''lin' act/ They had to &eep a list of three
%ords or faces actively in mind/ =very fe% seconds, they had to add another %ord or face to this list, and drop the oldest
item from the list/ Aut .efore they for'ot the old item completely, they had to indicate %hether the ne% item they %ere
addin' e+actly matched the oldest item they %ere droppin'/ Their .rain activity %as monitored as they did so/
9ritically, the e+perimenters %ould occasionally thro% participants a curve .all8 sho%in' them a ne% item that did not
match the oldest item, .ut did match one near.y in the on-'oin' se)uence/ Participants found these ,lure, items to .e
especially distractin'/
# &ey findin' of the study %as that participants %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere .etter a.le to respond correctly despite
the interference from the ,lure, items and they appeared to do so .y en'a'in' several &ey .rain re'ions more stron'ly,
includin' the prefrontal and parietal corte+/
K0ur study depended on the fact that people vary in their intelli'ence level,K Araver said/ KWe used that variation to
identify %hich .rain re'ions are more critical for fluid intelli'ence/K
"everal previous studies have e+amined ho% the .rain responds to )uestions that appear on intelli'ence tests/ 1o%ever, the
previous studies did not e+amine ho% people differ, nor %hat aspects of the test )uestions %ere most sensitive to such
differences/
The findin's in this ?ature ?euroscience report dra% on a co'nitive theory of fluid intelli'ence proposed .y $andall
=n'le, Ph/D/, Professor of Psycholo'y at Geor'ia Institute of Technolo'y, and his collea'ues/ In this theory, the a.ility to
resist or overcome interference li&e that on the ,lure, trials is important/
UIma'ine tryin' to &eep a ne% phone num.er in mind 4ust lon' enou'h to dial it,V su''ests Gray/ U?o% ima'in' tryin' to
do this %hile people around you are havin' a very interestin' conversation/ Payin' attention to the conversation %ould
interfere %ith remem.erin' the phone num.er/ People %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence should have an easier time resistin'
.ein' distracted .y the conversation and &eepin' attention focused on the phone num.er/V
The Washin'ton University study included <: participants, all healthy, ri'ht-handed, native =n'lish spea&ers .et%een the
a'es of : and 37, a.out half men and half %omen/ =ach participant %as administered a standard test of fluid intelli'ence,
&no%n as $aven,s #dvanced Pro'ressive Matrices/ =ach participant %as then as&ed to perform the %ord and face Kmental
4u''lin'K tas&s %hile lyin' inside an fM$I scanner/ =ach tas& tested a &ind of short-term memory &no%n as K%or&in'
memory/K
To 'et a sense of ho% the tas& %or&s, as& a friend to read the follo%in' %ords to you at a rate of a.out one %ord every ;/5
seconds8 do', cat, chair, ta.le, cat, door, chair, do'/
2or each %ord that you hear, ma&e a mental note of %hether it is the same %ord as you heard three %ords previously/ That
is, compare the fourth %ord you hear to the first, the fifth %ord to the second, and so on/ 62or the first three %ords, there is
nothin' to compare them to, so 4ust remem.er them for later/7
The participants in the study had to do a similar tas&, e+cept that it involved vie%in' a series of either unrelated %ords or
unfamiliar faces on a computer screen, one %ord or face every fe% seconds/ Participants had to press a .utton to indicate
%hether or not the %ord or face on the screen matched one sho%n e+actly three previously/
The tas& is challen'in', .ut the researchers included some especially tric&y KlureK items that %ere even more difficult/
These %ere %ords or faces that had .een sho%n t%o, four, or five previously in the se)uence, .ut not three previously/
2or e+ample, the second time the %ord KchairK appears in the list a.ove is a lure/ The lure items are easily confusa.le for
an item seen three previously/ The mere fact that the %ord or face %as seen recently is salient and hard to i'nore/ This
creates interference of the type that, accordin' to =n'le and collea'ues, should en'a'e fluid intelli'ence/
0n the tas&, people %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere 'enerally more accurate than those %ith lo%er fluid intelli'ence/
2luid intelli'ence appeared to .e most critical for performance on lure trials/ The critical nature of lure trials also %as
reflected in .rain activation differences .et%een individuals of hi'h and lo% fluid intelli'ence/ In several .rain areas
includin' prefrontal and parietal corte+, people %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence had stron'er neural activity than people %ith
lo%er fluid intelli'ence/ That is, doin' the tas& led to %idespread activity across the .rain, .ut the stren'th of this activity
%as related to fluid intelli'ence only on the lure trials/
"o, %hat is it e+actly that the participants %ith hi'her fluid intelli'ence %ere doin' differently on the lure trials( Their
performance su''ests they %ere &eepin' the distractin' information at .ay, and they appeared to do so .y activatin'
re'ions in prefrontal and parietal corte+, as %ell as a num.er of au+iliary re'ions/
While the study offers ne% insi'ht into fluid intelli'ence, the researchers emphasi3e that ho% %ell people perform in a
'iven situation depends on the comple+ interaction of many a.ilities/ 2or e+ample, this study does not address every aspect
of fluid intelli'ence, nor does it account for other forms of intelli'ence, such as crystalli3ed intelli'ence, %hich involves
specific s&ills and e+pertise/ Motivation and emotion are also important/ 0ther %or& su''ests that fluid intelli'ence may
not .e fi+ed, .ut can .e increased/
KI find this study e+citin' in part .ecause it opens a door to doin' many further studies that capitali3e on differences in
psycholo'ical functions amon' individuals,K added Araver/ KIndividuals differ in co'nitive a.ilities and in many other
%ays as %ell, such as personality/ We can use this same type of approach to understand ho% these psycholo'ical differences
are reflected in .rain function/K