Lecture Week 9 MECH3361

1
Bar Elements in 2-D and 3-D Space
Step 1: Element analysis (given in general)

Step 2: Transformation of nodal Displacements and Forces
( ) | |
)
`

= + = + =
i
i
i i i i i
v
u
m l v u v u u u u u u sin cos 90 cos cos
'

| |
)
`

= + =
i
i
i i i
v
u
l m v u v u u cos sin
'

where direction cosines: ( )
L
Y Y
m
L
X X
l
i j i j

= = =

= = u u u sin 90 cos , cos

In a matrix form:
i i
i
i
i
i
or
v
u
l m
m l
v
u
u T u
~
'
'
'
=
)
`

=
)
`

(transform global to local)

where transformation matrix:
(

=
l m
m l
T
~
is orthogonal, which means
T
T T
~ ~
1
=

For the two nodes of the bar element, we have

(
(
(
(

j
j
i
i
j
j
i
i
v
u
v
u
l m
m l
l m
m l
v
u
v
u
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
'
'
'
'

Or Tu u = ' with
(

=
T
T
T
~
0
0
~

The nodal forces are transformed in the same way,

(
(
(
(

yj
xj
yi
xi
yj
xj
yi
xi
f
f
f
f
l m
m l
l m
m l
f
f
f
f
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
'
'
'
'

Or Tf f = ' (transform global f to local f )
Step 3 Elemental stiffness matrices:
Since lateral displacement v
i
does not contribute to the stretch of the bar, within the linear
theory, in the local coordinate system (x-y), we have

=
)
`

'
'
'
'
2
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
xj
xi
j
i
f
f
u
u
L
EA
u
u
k k
k k

Augmenting this equation, we re-write:

(
(
(
(

0
0
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
'
'
'
'
'
'
xj
xi
j
j
i
i
f
f
v
u
v
u
L
EA

v
i

Lecture Week 9 MECH3361

2
Or ' ' ' f u k =
Using transformation derived, we obtain
( ) ( ) Tf Tu k = '
Multiplying both sides by T
T
and noticing that T
T
T = I (orthogonal), we obtain
( ) f Tu k T = '
T
( ) f u T k T = '
T
f ku=
Thus, the element stiffness matrix k in the global coordinate system is
T k T k '
T
=
In the explicit form,

(
(
(
(

=
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
m lm m lm
lm l lm l
m lm m lm
lm l lm l
L
EA
k
The structural (global) stiffness matrix is assembled by using the elemental stiffness matrices
in the similar way to that in the 1-D bar cases.
Step 4 Calculate elemental strain and stress:

|
|
.
|

\
|

= =
'
'
j
i
u
u
E E B c o | |
(

= =
L L
N N
dx
d
j i
1 1
) ( ) ( B
Thus | |

=
j
j
i
i
j
j
i
i
j
i
v
u
v
u
m l m l
L
E
v
u
v
u
m l
m l
L L
E
u
u
E
0 0
0 0
1 1
'
'
B o
Example 8.4
A simple plane truss is made of two identical bars (with E, A,
and L), and loaded as shown in the figure. Find
1) displacements of node 2; 2) stress in each bar.
Solution:
Step 1: Local elemental stiffness matrix:
This simple structure is used here to demonstrate the assembly
and solution process using the bar element in 2-D space.
In local coordinate systems, we have

' '
k k
2 1
1 1
1 1
=
(

=
L
EA

Step 2: Global stiffness matrix:
These two matrices cannot be assembled together directly,
because they are in different coordinate systems. We need to convert them to global
coordinate system XOY.
Element 1: 2 2 45 cos , 2 2 45 cos , 45 = = = = = m l u . The global stiffness matrix is:
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(

= =
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
1 1
T
1 1
L
EA
m lm m lm
lm l lm l
m lm m lm
lm l lm l
L
EA
T k T k
' ,
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

= 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
2

1
L
EA
k

Lecture Week 9 MECH3361
3
Element 2:
2
2
45 cos ,
2
2
135 cos , 135 = = = = = m l u . The global stiffness matrix is:
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(

= =
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
T
2 2
L
EA
m lm m lm
lm l lm l
m lm m lm
lm l lm l
L
EA
T k T k
' ,
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
2

2
L
EA
k

Step 3: Assemble the global stiffness matrix and FE equation

Step 4: Apply boundary condition (BC) and loads
2 2 1 2 3 3 1 1
, , 0 P F P F v u v u
Y x
= = = = = =
Step 5: Condense (deleting all zero-displacement rows/columns) FE equation
)
`

=
)
`

2
1
2
2
2 0
0 2
2 P
P
v
u
L
EA

Step 6: solve for the equation and we obtain the displacement of node 2:
)
`

=
)
`

2
1
2
2
P
P
EA
L
v
u

Step 7: Elemental stress in the two bars:
| | | | ( )
2 1
2
1
1
2
2
0
0
1 1 1 1
2
2
P P
A
P
P EA
L
L
E
v
u
v
u
m l m l
L
E
E
j
j
i
i
+ =

= = Bu o

| | ( )
2 1
2
1
2
2
2
0
0
1 1 1 1
2
2
P P
A
P
P
EA
L
L
E
=

= o


8.3 Beam Element
Simple Plane Beam Element
L length
I 2
nd
moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area
}
=
A
dA y I
2

E elastic modulus
v = v(x) deflection (lateral displacement) of the neutral axis
dx dv/ = u slope or rotation about the z-axis
F = F(x) shear force
M = M(x) moment about z-axis
As per Beam Theory (Mechanics of Solids I): ) (
2
2
x M
dx
v d
EI = and
I
My
= o
Lecture Week 9 MECH3361
4
Formal Approach
Step 1: Introduce the shape functions:

3
2
2
4
3
3
2
2
3
3
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
1
1 1
) ( ,
2 3
) (
1 2
) ( ,
2 3
1 ) (
x
L
x
L
x N x
L
x
L
x N
x
L
x
L
x x N x
L
x
L
x N
+ = =
+ = + =

Step 2: Calculate the deflection: | |

= =
j
j
i
i
v
v
x N x N x N x N x v
u
u
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
4 3 2 1
Nu
which is a cubic function w.r.t. the coordinate of x and u is nodal displacement vector.
Curvature of the beam is, ( ) Bu u N Nu =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
2
2
2
2
2
2
dx
d
dx
d
dx
v d

where the strain-displacement matrix B is given by,
| |
(

+ + + = = =
2 3 2 2 3 2
' '
4
' '
3
' '
2
' '
1
2
2
6 2 12 6 6 4 12 6
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
L
x
L
L
x
L L
x
L
L
x
L
x N x N x N x N
dx
d
N B
Step 3: Strain energy stored in the beam element is
( ) ( ) u B B u Bu Bu
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
} } }
} } }
dx EI dx EI dx
dx
v d
EI
dx
v d
Mdx
EI
M dAdx
I
My
E I
My
dV U
L
T T
L
T
L
T
L
T
V
T
V
T
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
c o

We conclude that the stiffness matrix for the simple beam element is
( ) dx EI
L
T
B B k
}
=
2
1

After integrating, equilibrium equation is:

Combining the bar element, we obtain the stiffness matrix of a general 2-D beam element,

8.4 Distributed Load Equivalent nodal load

Uniformly distributed axial load q (N/mm, N/m, lb/in) can be converted to two equivalent
nodal forces of magnitude qL/2. We verify this by considering the work done by the load q,
| |
| | | |
)
`

=
)
`

=
)
`

|
.
|

\
|
=
)
`

= = = =
}
} } } }
2 /
2 /
2
1
2 2 2
1
1
2
) ( ) (
2
) (
2
) ( ) (
2
1
2
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0 0
qL
qL
u u
u
u
qL qL
u
u
d
qL
d
u
u
N N
qL
d u
qL
Ld q u uqdx W
j i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j i
L
q



Lecture Week 9 MECH3361
5
That is
q
T
q
W f u
2
1
= where
)
`

=
2 /
2 /
qL
qL
q
f
Thus, from U=W principle for element, we should have

load
d distribute
q
T
force
nodal
other
T
q
T
W U f u f u ku u
2
1
2
1
2
1
+ =
which yields
q
f f ku + = . Thus the new nodal force vector is

)
`

+
+
=
)
`

+
)
`

= +
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
qL f
qL f
qL
qL
f
f
j
i
j
i
q
f f
in an assemble bar system

Multiple bar element system
For a multiple bar element system, e.g. two elements (as figure next page), one can expand
the force vector in each element and then add the expanded force vectors, as
( ) ( )

+
+
+
=

+
+ +

+
+
= + + +
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
0
0
2 /
2 /
3
2
1
) 1 (
2
) 2 (
1
) 1 (
2
) 1 (
1
1 1
qL
qL
qL
qL f
qL f
qL f
qL f
qL f qL f
qL f
element
q
element
q
f f f f


Equivalent nodal load for transverse force

This can be verified by considering the work done by the distributed load q. For the 2 beam
elements, the equivalent loading can be calculated as follows:

Example 8.5
Given: A cantilever beam with distributed lateral load p as shown above.
Find: The deflection and rotation at the right end, the reaction force and moment at the left
end.

Lecture Week 9 MECH3361
6
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate the quivalent nodal load: The work-equivalent nodal loads are shown on
right, in which the equivalent nodal loads are: 12 / , 2 /
2
pL m pL f = = .
Step 2: Applying the FE equilibrium equation, we have

(
(
(
(

2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2 2
2 2
3
4 6 2 6
6 12 6 12
2 6 4 6
6 12 6 12
M
F
M
F
v
v
L L L L
L L
L L L L
L L
L
EI
Y
Y
u
u

Step 3: Load and constrains (BCs) are: 0 , ,
1 1 2 2
= = = = u v m M f F
Y

Reduce the FE equation into

Thus:
)
`

=
)
`

m
f v
L L
L
L
EI
2
2
2
3
4 6
6 12
u

Step 4: Solve for the reduced FE equation

)
`

=
)
`

+
+
=
)
`

) 6 /(
) 8 /(
6 3
3 2
6
3
4 2
2
2
EI pL
EI pL
m Lf
Lm f L
EI
L
v
u

These nodal values are the same as the engineering beam theorey solution. Note that the
deflection v(x) (for 0 < x< 0) in the beam by the FEM is, however, different from that by the
exact solution. The exact solution by the engineering beam theory is a 4th order polynomial of
x, while the FE solution of v is only a 3rd order polynomial of x. If more elements are used,
such an approximate error can be reduced.

Step 5: Reaction force and moments
From the eliminated FE equation, we can calculate the reaction force and moment as,
)
`

=
)
`

=
)
`

12 / 5
2 /
2 6
6 12
2
2
2
2
3
1
1
pL
pL v
L L
L
EI
L
M
F
Y
u


Example 8.6 (very similar to 2011 Final Exam)

Given: P = 50 kN, k = 200 kN/m, L = 3 m, E = 210 GPa, I = 210
-4
m
4
.
Find: Deflections, rotations and reaction forces.

Solution: This is a combined problem of beam and spring elements
Step 1: The system has 4 nodes as well as 2 beam elements and 1 spring element.
Step 2: The spring element has stiffness matrix as,

(
(
(
(

m
f
M
F
v
L L L L
L L
L L L L
L L
L
EI
Y
1
1
2
2
2 2
2 2
3
0
0
4 6 2 6
6 12 6 12
2 6 4 6
6 12 6 12
u
Lecture Week 9 MECH3361
7

which is related to nodes #3 and #4 with displacement v
3
and v
4

Beam element 1:

(
(
(
(

2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2 2
2 2
3
4 6 2 6
6 12 6 12
2 6 4 6
6 12 6 12
m
f
m
f
v
v
L L L L
L L
L L L L
L L
L
EI
Y
Y
u
u

Beam element 2:

(
(
(
(

3
3
2
2
3
3
2
2
2 2
2 2
3
4 6 2 6
6 12 6 12
2 6 4 6
6 12 6 12
m
f
m
f
v
v
L L L L
L L
L L L L
L L
L
EI
Y
Y
u
u

Step 3: The global FE equations can be assembled as (where ) /( '
3
EI k L k = )

Step 4: Apply the boundary conditions
P F M M v v v
Y
= = = = = = =
3 3 2 4 2 1 1
, 0 , 0 u

The reduced FE equation becomes:

(
(
(

+

0
0
4 6 2
6 ' 12 6
2 6 8
3
3
2
2 2
2 2
3
P v
L L L
L k L
L L L
L
EI
u
u

Step 5 Solve for the reduced FE equation:

+
=

rad
m
rad
L
k EI
PL
v
007475 . 0
01744 . 0
002492 . 0
9
7
3
) ' 7 12 (
2
3
3
2
u
u

Step 6: Reaction force and moment can be found from the eliminated equations:
Beam element 1
Beam element 2
spring element
Lecture Week 9 MECH3361
8

kN
kN
m kN
kN
F
F
M
F
Y
Y
Y
488 . 3
2 . 116
78 . 69
78 . 69
4
2
1
1

Thus the free-body diagram can be drawn as below:


8.5 Two-Dimensional Problems

General Formula for the Stiffness Matrix
Recall the displacement in terms of shape function in bar element
Nu =
)
`

=
j
i
j i
u
u
N N u ] [
We can extend it to 2D, where the displacements (u, v) in a plane element are interpolated
from nodal displacements (u
i
, v
i
) using shape functions N
i
as follows,

+ + = =
+ + = =

2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
v y x N v y x N y x v v
u y x N u y x N y x u u

In the matrix form: Nd u =

=
)
`

2
2
1
1
2 1
2 1
0 0
0 0
v
u
v
u
N N
N N
v
u

where N is the shape function matrix, u the displacement vector inside each element and d
the elemental nodal displacement vector. Here we assume that u depends on the nodal values
of u only, and v on nodal values of v only.
From strain-displacement relation, the strain vector can be derived as:
( )d DN Du = = c
Or Bd = c
where ( ) DN B= is the strain-displacement matrix and D is derivative matrix (see below).

Consider the strain energy stored in an element,
} } }
} }
= = ) ( =
+ + = =
V
T
V
T
V
T
V
xy xy yy yy xx xx
V
T
dV dV dV
dV dV U
) )
2
1
2
1
2
1
) (
2
1
] [
2
1
d d E( ( Ec c c Ec
c o c o c o c o

Since nodal displacement vector d is independent on the elemental coordinate dV.
kd d d d
T
V
T T
dV U =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
}
E
2
1

Lecture Week 9 MECH3361
9
From this, we obtain the general formula for the element stiffness matrix,

Remarks:
- Note that unlike 1-D cases, E here is a matrix that is given by the stress-strain relation
(generalised Hookes rule)
- The stiffness matrix k is symmetric since E is symmetric.
- Also note that given the material property, the behaviour of k depends on the B matrix
only, which in turn on the shape functions. Thus, the quality of finite elements in
representing the behaviour of a structure is entirely determined by the choice of shape
functions.

Constant Strain Triangle (CST or T3)
This is the simplest 2-D element, which is also called linear triangular element.
For this element, we have three nodes at the vertices of
the triangle, which are numbered around the element in
the counterclockwise direction. Each node has two
degrees of freedom (can move in the x and y directions).
The displacements u and v are assumed to be linear
functions within the element, that is,

y b x b b v
y b x b b u
6 5 4
3 2 1
+ + =
+ + =

where b
i
(i = 1, 2, ..., 6) are constants. From these, the
strains are found to be,

( )
2 3 2 1
b y b x b b
x x
u
xx
= + +
c
c
=
c
c
= c


( )
6 6 5 4
b y b x b b
y y
v
yy
= + +
c
c
=
c
c
= c

( ) ( )
5 3 3 2 1 6 5 4
2 b b y b x b b
y
y b x b b
x x
v
y
u
xy
+ = + +
c
c
+ + +
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
= c
which are constant throughout the element. Thus, we have the name constant strain
triangle (CST) element.
Displacement functions should satisfy the following six equations,

3 6 3 5 4 3
3 3 3 2 1 3
2 6 2 5 4 2
2 3 2 2 1 2
1 6 1 5 4 1
1 3 1 2 1 1
y b x b b v
y b x b b u
y b x b b v
y b x b b u
y b x b b v
y b x b b u
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =


Solving these six equations, we can find the coefficients b
1
, b
2
, ..., b
6
in terms of nodal
displacements and coordinates. Substituting these coefficients into displacement equations
and rearranging the terms, we obtain:
Lecture Week 9 MECH3361
10

=
)
`

3
3
2
2
1
1
3 2 1
3 2 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
v
u
v
u
v
u
N N N
N N N
v
u
(linear distribution)
where the shape functions (note that they are linear functions of x and y) are
| |
| |
| | y x x x y y y x y x
A
N
y x x x y y y x y x
A
N
y x x x y y y x y x
A
N
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 3
3 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 2
2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 1
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =

where
(
(
(

=
3 3
2 2
1 1
1
1
1
det
2
1
y x
y x
y x
A is the area of the triangle
Using the strain-displacement relation, we have,

(
(
(

= =

3
3
2
2
1
1
12 21 31 13 23 32
21 13 32
12 31 23
0 0 0
0 0 0
2
1
v
u
v
u
v
u
y x y x y x
x x x
y y y
A
xy
yy
xx
Bd
c
c
c

where x
ij
= x
i
- x
j
and y
ij
= y
i
- y
j
(i, j = 1, 2, 3). Again, we see constant strains within the
element (because variables x and y disappeared). From stress-strain relation (Hookes law),
we see that stresses obtained in the CST element should also be constant.

Applying general formula for stiffness matrix, we obtain it for the CST element,

in which t is the thickness of the element. Notice that k for CST is a 6 by 6 symmetric matrix.
The matrix multiplication can be carried out by a computer program.

Applications of the CST Element:
- Use in the areas where the strain gradient is small.
- Use in the mesh transition areas (fine mesh to coarse mesh) to accommodate different
mesh topologies.
- Avoid using CST in stress concentration or other crucial areas in the structure, such as
edges of holes and corners.
- Recommended for quick and preliminary FE analysis of 2-D problems.