Magnetic investigation of the Hett Dyke

CHARLIE KENZIE
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Durham 2012


1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose of study
The Hett dyke is a vertical intrusion of
thoelitic dolerite, associated with the Whin
Sill complex, emplaced during the late
Carboniferous (Johnson & Dunham 2001).
Whinstone rock is particularly useful for
roadstone, and it is proposed that the Hett
Dyke is a potentially good source for
quarrying. Using a computer model, we focus
on the possible depths and widths of the dyke
in order to review its viability as a roadstone
resource.

1.2 Geological Setting
The Hett dyke is one of 4 major ENE-WSW
trending dykes associated with the Whin sill
complex (fig.1), a large basaltic intrusion in
northern England, which stretches on land
around 120km in a north-south direction and
80km in an east-west direction. It has been
proposed that the Hett dyke, along with its 3
large counterparts, represent feeders into the
sill complex (Anderson 1951 & Goulty et al
2000), with the Hett-Dyke feeding the
Hadrians Wall-Penine Sill (Liss et al 2004).

2. MAGNETIC SURVEY
2.1 Acquiring the data
The survey was conducted along a profile
perpendicular to the strike of the dyke, in
approximately a north-south direction (fig,2).
Due to the sensitivity of the instrument (0.5
nT)
[1]
,

the line of profile was chosen away
from the wire fences that surrounded the
survey area. Measurements were made at 10m
intervals, and then every 5m when differences
in 10m readings increased to the order of
20nT. This was done to measure the anomaly
gradient more accurately, and to avoid
missing shorter wavelengths. Repeat readings
were made at the base station to correct for
any possible drift.

To maintain a high level of accuracy, whilst
carrying out a survey that was quick and
logistically easy, a proton precession
magnetometer was used
[1]
. A higher
sensitivity instrument was not required as the
gradient of the anomaly was not justifiably
large enough. Additionally, an instrument that
measured continuously was not needed for
this land survey.

2.2 Results and magnetic reductions
Total field readings ranged between
49296 0.5 nT and 50214 0.5 nT, equating
to a maximum anomaly of 918 0.5 nT.
Since the error caused by the magnetometer
(0.5 nT) is only a minute fraction of the
anomaly, it has been justifiably disregarded.
The raw data is summarized in the appendix,
table 3.0. A sketch of the observed anomaly
profile is shown in fig.3, note the regional
field has been taken away to emphasize the
anomaly.

Although there was a difference of 2 nT
between the repeated readings at the base
station, a correction for drift is unnecessary
considering the small change relative to the
magnitude of the overall anomaly (> 800 nT).
A correction for latitude is also unnecessary
since the latitude variation is only in the order
of 0.01 nT / m (Telford et al 1990).
Corrections for terrain were also neglected as
the gradient of the profile was only of the
order of 10, which is not likely to be
significant (Telford et al 1990).

3. MAGNETIC MODELLING
3.1 Ambiguities and the inverse problem
The intensity of magnetization in a dyke is a
vector component, and the orientation of that
component strongly affects the shape of the
magnetic anomaly. Consequently, two model
dykes of identical shapes can give rise to two
[1] Magnetometer used was the Geometrics G-856 with an accuracy of 0.5nT. For further information the reader is referred to
the Operation Manual (Geometrics Inc. 2007)


different anomalies. Similarly, and more
importantly, dykes of different geometries can
cause identical anomalies. For example a
dipping dyke may produce the same anomaly
to that of a vertical dyke, if its angle of
induced magnetization is so that the total field
component is identical (fig.4). This ambiguity
is known as the inverse problem, which
generally states that although the anomaly of
a given body may be calculated uniquely,
there are an infinite number of bodies that
could give rise to any specific anomaly
(Kearey 1984). To try to avoid the inverse
problem in our model, we constrain our
model geometry to that of a flat-topped
vertical dyke and consider a number of
models, with different parameters, to give a
range of possible geometries.

3.2 Computer model and parameters
The sedimentary rocks that surround the Hett
Dyke contain relatively negligible quantities
of ferromagnetic minerals (Goulty et al 2000)
and for the purpose of modelling our
magnetic anomaly, the surrounding
sedimentary strata can be assumed to have no
magnetization. Thus, the only parameters to
be changed are the geometry and
magnetization of the dyke.

Modelling in two dimensions is satisfactory
for bodies such as dykes that are elongated in
the strike direction (Goulty et al 2000). 2D
modelling of a profile perpendicular to the
strike allows us to disregard the component of
magnetization along the strike direction, as
this has no effect on the calculated anomaly,
and we can therefore only model the intensity
and direction of magnetization in the vertical
plane perpendicular to the strike.
Consequently, in our model we have fixed the
remanent declination to 357. Other fixed
parameters are shown in table 1.0 below. Note
we have fixed the susceptibility to 0 even
though in reality the susceptibility of dolerite
is usually between 110
3
and 3510
3
(Telford
qt al 1990). This is because we can only
model the total magnetization of the dyke,
which is the vector sum of the remanant and
induced magnetizations, so to model the
anomaly we applied the values of total
magnetization to the remanent magnetization
parameters and then set the induced
magnetization and the susceptibility to 0.
Additionally, it was found that changing the
limiting depth of the dyke had little effect on
the expected anomaly; therefore the limiting
depth of the dyke has been fixed to 1km.




In the 2D model we proceed with the above
fixed parameters and change the remanent
magnetization M
r
, the inclination of the
remanant magnetization I
r
and the geometry
of the model dyke, to find the best fit to the
observed anomaly. To limit the number of
possible dyke geometries, values are chosen
between 1.0 and 6.0 for the remanent
magnetization M
r
and between 68 and 150
for the inclination of the remanant
magnetization I
r
. In our model I
r
was found to
give an optimum fit between 80 and 100
and its value was changed to fine tune the
anomaly, not to significantly change the half
width or amplitude of the calculated anomaly.

3.3 Depth to the top of the dyke
Maximum Depth
If the model dyke increases in depth from the
surface, the amplitude of the anomaly
decreases. Therefore, as we continue to model
Parameter

Fixed Value
Profile orientation

342
Earths magnetic field

39 Am
-1

Declination of earths field

357
Inclination of earths field

68
Susceptibility

0
Declination of remnant
magnetization
357

Limiting depth

1km
Table 1.0 Fixed parameters for computer
modelling of the Hett Dyke
the dyke at greater depths, the amplitude of
the anomaly can be maintained by increasing
the remanant magnetization to its maximum
value of 6.0 and by continuing to increase the
width of the dyke. However, since increasing
width of the dyke also increases the half
width of the anomaly, continuing to thicken
the dyke in this way eventually causes an
undesirable fit to the observed anomaly.
Fig.5a shows the maximum depth that can be
achieved by a model dyke, before any more
increase in depth would require a further
increase in width and result in an even larger
half-width. The model parameters were
M
r
= 6.0, I
r
= 88, width w = 10m, and
depth d = 3.8m.

Minimum Depth
Decreasing the depth to the top of the model
dyke is easier because you dont get stuck
with only one parameter (width) to vary as
you change the depth. It is therefore possible
to decrease the depth to the top of dyke to 0m
and still achieve an almost perfect fit. This is
shown in fig.5b, where M
r
= 4.4, I
r
= 90,
w = 6.0m and d = 0m.

3.4 Width of the dyke
Maximum Width
To find the maximum possible width, we
move the model dyke close to surface, as
greater depths will cause a larger half-width
and therefore an undesired fit. Since we are
modelling a thick dyke near to the surface, M
r
is decreased to lower the amplitude of the
calculated anomaly. The maximum possible
width of a model dyke is shown in fig.5c,
where M
r
= 2.3, I
r
= 85, w = 13.6m and d =
0.1m. Any more thickening of the model dyke
would cause an increase in half-width,
resulting in an inadequate fit to the observed
anomaly.

Minimum Width
Decreasing the thickness of the model dyke
lowers the amplitude of the calculated
anomaly so that the remanant magnetization

is
required to be increased to its maximum value
of 6.0 and, additionally, the dyke model is
moved closer to the surface. Fig.5d shows the
minimum width of a model dyke, before any
more thinning of the model would cause the
calculated anomaly to decrease in both
amplitude and half-width, causing and
unsatisfactory fit. The parameters for this model
were M
r
= 6.0, I
r
= 85, w = 3.0m, and d = 0.2m.
Additionally, a summary of the maximum and
minimum widths and depths are displayed in table
2.0 below.



Maximum
Depth
Minimum
Depth
Maximum
Width
Minimum
Width

3.8m

0m

13.6m

3.0m

3.5 Preferred dyke model
We concentrated on applying values for width
and depth that were roughly in the middle of
the maximum and minimum geometries
investigated above. However, it was found
impossible to achieve a satisfactory fit if we
modelled a dyke with median values of the
ranges above. Problems arose due to the large
half-width created using these specific
geometries, and changing the remanant
magnetization parameters were not enough to
significantly reduce the calculated anomaly to
a satisfactory fit. In order to acquire a suitable
fit parameters were then changed freely from
the median values until an almost perfect fit
was achieved (fig.6). The parameters of the
model were M
r
= 5.1, I
r
= 90, w = 5.0 and d
= 1.0m.
4. DISCUSSION
4.1 The model dyke
Although a very good fit was achieved with
the parameters chosen for our preferred model,
in truth, a satisfactory fit could also be
achieved by a number of other geometries
within the ranges shown in table 2.0. It is
therefore difficult to conclude that a specific
Table 2.0 Maximum and minimum possible
geometries of a computer-modelled dyke.
set of geometry values is the most ideal.
However, we can conclude that the dyke is
between 3 and 14m thick, with a depth to its
top between 0 and 4m. Any proposed
geometry of the dyke would show a relatively
small error in the depth to the top and a
relatively large error in its width.

4.2 Viability of locality for quarrying
roadstone
Computer modelling shows that the depth to
the top of the dyke is of no more than 3m. As
an overburden of this size could be easily
removed, for the purpose of quarrying, the
depth to the dyke is of less importance.
Additionally, in this case, the depth does not
limit the amount of material available for
quarrying and since the width of the dyke is
the only control on the amount of potential
resource it is of much greater importance.
However, we cannot be certain of the exact
width of the dyke, and there is a much larger
error associated in this dimension.

If we consider commencing quarrying along
the strike direction of the dyke for 500m and
to a depth of 100m, we can calculate the
theoretical mass of dolerite that could be
gained from a mine of this size. In these
simple calculations we used a known density
of dolerite from Lindisfarne (fig.1), which is
2800 100 kgm
-3
(Tasmania Department of
Resources and Energy 1992) and we assume
the dyke is at a 0m depth from the surface.
Firstly, a dyke of 3m in width would produce
a total mass of dolerite
4.2 0.210
8
kg, or 420,000 20,000 tons.
Secondly, a dyke of 14m in width would
produce a total mass of dolerite
2.0 0.00810
9
kg or 2,000,000 78,400 tons
If we use the median width value (8.5m), and
assign the maximum and minimum masses
calculated above as an overall uncertainty
1,200,000 800,000 tons.
Although these calculations are very crude,
they show the large uncertainty associated
with the width of the dyke.

The calculations above show vast
overestimates for the amount of material that
you would be able to mine. The Hett Dyke is
unsuitable for quarrying because:
1) The dyke is a thin structure, meaning you
would have to quarry to large depths in
order to extract a significant amount of
rock.
2) Additionally, you would have to quarry
along the strike of the dyke for a large
distance in order to extract a substantial
amount of rock.
3) Although quarries can stretch to depths of
100m, the area (or width) of the target
resource is usually much larger than that
of a few meters. To quarry to a depth of
100m would require a huge removal of
surrounding sediments.

A case study of a running quarry that mines
whinstone is the Force Garth Quarry (North
Pennines AONB Partnership, 2004) in
Teesdale, 24km SE of Alston (fig.1). The
bedrock quarried here is from the sill rather
than from an associated dyke. Although the
sill is unlikely to extend to the same depth as
a dyke, the target area here is in the order of
100,000 square meters (fig.7) and therefore
much easier to quarry.

4.3 Assumptions and limitations of the
model - need for further study
The interpretation of magnetic fields is
inherently ambiguous due to the inverse
problem. To avoid modelling an infinite
number of possible dykes, we set the
computer model to assume certain parameters,
which if changed could result in a very
different geometry. For example, we have
assumed that the dyke is vertical and flat-
topped, that no tectonic activity has caused
any deformation of the dyke, and that its body
is uniform and unbroken. All of these
parameters require the need of external
constraints, such as geological and borehole
data, to further investigate the likely geometry.
In addition, we also assume that the induced
magnetic field is homogenous throughout the
dyke. In reality the magnetization of a rock is
largely dependant on the amount, size, shape
and distribution of its contained ferrimagnetic
minerals (Kearey 1984) and these may only
represent a small proportion of the constituent
rock. A concentration of ferromagnetic
minerals, say near to the surface, would cause
a different observed anomaly to that of a
uniformly magnetized dyke, such a scenario
was not considered in our computer model.

4.4 Conclusion
In order to proceed with any certainty about
the exact geometry of the Hett Dyke external
constraints must be known. However, it is
clear from computer modelling that a vertical
dyke would be unsuitable for quarrying. This
is primarily because of its small width, and in
order to gain a substantial amount of rock,
quarrying would have to proceed to large
depths and a significant distance along the
strike of the dyke.

5. REFERENCES
ANDERSON, E. M. (1951). The Dynamics of Dyke
Formation. In E. M. Anderson, The dynamics of
faulting and dyke formation with applications to
Britain (pp. 40-44). Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
GOULTY, N. R., Peirce, C., Flatman, T. D., Home, M.,
& Richardson, J. H. (2000). Magnetic survey of the
Holy Island Dyke on Holy Island, Northumberland.
Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society ,
53 (2), 111-118.
JOHNSON, G. A., & Dunham, K. C. (2001).
Emplacement of the Great Whin Dolerite Complex
and the Little Whin Sill in relation to the structure
of northern England . Proceedings of the Yorkshire
Geological Society , 53 (3), 177-186.
KEAREY, P., & Brooks, M. (1984). Gravity Surveying.
In P. KEAREY, & M. Brooks, An Introduction to
Geophysical Exploration (2nd Edition ed., pp. 125-
135). Cardiff: Blackwell Science.
LISS, D., Owens, W. H., & Hutton, D. H. (2004). New
palaeomagnetic results from the Whin Sill complex:
evidence for a multiple intrusion event and revised
virtual geomagnetic poles for the late Carboniferous
for the British Isles . Journal of the Geological
Society , 161, 927-938.
North Pennines AONB Partnership. (2004). North
Pennines. Retrieved December 8, 2012, from
northpennines.org.uk:
http://www.northpennines.org.uk/Lists/DocumentLi
brary/Attachments/97//Whin_sill_lft.pdf
SLOANE, D. J. (1991). Some physical properties of
dolerite. Tasmania Departmen of Resources and
Energy, Division of Mines and Mineral Resources.
Tasmania Department of Resources and Energy.




















































Distance (m) F (nT) F
R-
(nT)
0 49355 55
10 49357 57
20 49358 58
30 49360 60
40 49364 64
50 49364 64
60 49373 73
70 49379 79
80 49376 76
90 49383 83
100 49390 90
110 49402 102
120 49419 119
125 49443 143
130 49456 156
135 49498 198
140 49552 252
145 49655 355
150 49992 692
155 50214 914
160 49688 388
165 49354 54
170 49297 -3
175 49296 -4
180 49297 -3
190 49308 8
200 49314 14
210 49320 20
220 49328 28
230 49329 29
240 49333 33
0 49353 53
Fig.1 Overview map of the Whin Sill complex and
its associated dykes. The Hett Dyke can be seen in
the southeast corner of the map trending in an
ENE-WSW direction. Taken from Liss et al (2004).
Fig.2 Map of survey area around Black Hill Top Farm.
Profile is shown as black dotted line labelled P. Map data
is Crown Copyright Ordnance Survey, An EDINA
Digimap/JISC supplied service
Survey area
2km
150m
P
Base station
(0 meters)
Table 3.0 Shows the raw magnetic data. The last
column has the regional field of 49300 nT extracted.

























Fig.5 Maximum and minimum possible depths and thicknesses of theoretical dykes shown by computer modelling.
The observed anomaly is the solid line and the calculated anomaly is dashed. Fixed parameters are shown in table 1.0.
(a) Maximum depth to the top of a model dyke; d = 3.8m, w = 10m, M
r
= 6.0, I
r
= 88. (b) Minimum depth to the top
of a model dyke; d = 0m, w = 6.0m, M
r
= 4.4, I
r
= 90. (c) Maximum width of a model dyke; d = 0.1m, w = 13.6m, M
r

= 2.3, I
r
= 85.(d) Minimum width of a model dyke; d = 0.2m, w = 3.0m, M
r
= 6.0, I
r
= 85.
a b
c
d
Fig.3 Anomaly profile of the magnetic data measured along
profile P (fig.2) above. The raw data is shown in Table 3.0 above.
Fig.4 Sketch showing a how a dipping dyke can
produce an identical total field anomaly if its the
angle of induced magnetization is rotated with
the dip.
















Fig.6 Preferred dyke model with parameters: M
r
= 5.1, I
r
= 90, w = 5.0 and d = 1.0m. A number of
other satisfactory models can be produced within the maximum and minimum geometries shown in fig.5
above.

Fig.7 Map showing the Force Garth Quary. Whin Sill sequence is shown in dark shading. Map data is
Crown Copyright Ordnance Survey, Geological Data is British Geological Survey, Digital geology
data, An EDINA Digimap/JISC supplied service