Pali-32032

Philosophy and ethics of the Pali Tipitaka

Dr. Mrs. Piries
Three characteristics (Trilakkhana)
In the early teachings of Buddhism the empirical reality is given under three main
classifications: Khandha- five aggregates Ayatana -twelve fold sphere of senses
Dhatu- eighteen elements. According to Buddhas teaching it is pointed out that they
are impermanent, they lead to unsatisfactory condition, they do not have characteristic
of Atman- soul. he Anattala!!hana "utta gives an e#planation of these
characteristics.
Anicca- impermanence
It is a universal characteristic of all these things. hey cannot e#ist without
undergoing any change. hey cannot find anything static everything is in a flu#. In
early Buddhism the notion of change has $een accepted $ut not the momentary
change. he change e#plained in early Buddhism can $ee o$served with our senses.
he development of Buddhism is $ased on the idea of change. In the heravada
tradition of A$hidhamma they went further the speed that which mind change and the
speed of physical change is e#plained. According to the "amyuttani!aya the athagata
does not come to dispute with the world. %e &ust pointed out the three characteristics.
Buddha re&ects the "assatavada view 'no change(. Buddha with the theory of
dependent origination e#plains the changing procedure. here is no single su$stance
that is not su$&ect to change. Buddha tried to free people from perversion 'twisted
form(. his type of )"annavipallasa- perverted perception* ma!es a person una$le to
see in the proper way. hus he ta!es for granted that there is permanent when
permanence is accepted. %e thin!s that there is satisfactoriness. +urther more he
$elieves a$out a soul.
here should $e insight and detachment to understand Anicca. ,ith the development
of insight there will $e peace here and now. ,hen one has a real vision a$out
impermanence it will lead to -i$$ida namely depression and it will lead to .imutta-
li$eration. In Buddhism when one realises the phenomena of impermanence, he will
remove du!!ha.
Dukkha-suffering
he aim of Buddhism is to stop the craving, greed and clinging. Because of craving
there is du!!ha. he human e#perience is such that the concept of )I* )my* will lead
to the concept of du!!ha. he reali/ation of this situation leads to the elimination of
the $orn $etween the individual and the world.
he Buddha emphasises that none of the elements regarding Khandha, Dhatu and
Ayatana are devoid of du!!ha. he five aggregates produce suffering and they cannot
$e !now as $elonging to oneself. 0linging to them would $ring a lot of trou$le. here
1
is always a relationship $etween Anicca and Du!!ha. hat is the change and the
unsatisfactoriness. his is called the causal relationship. he Buddha maintains that in
$rief, the five aggregates of personality can $e emphasised as
2ancuppadana!!handha. %ere there is clinging which gives rise to du!!ha. he five
aggregates are su$&ect to change. 3ne who is not enlightened does not realise he
change. ,hen he sees he five aggregates undergoing transformation then comes
du!!ha. he Buddha gives a good e#ample on this that is ) people carried away the
grass and the wood of 4etavanna. 3ne would not $e worried or distur$ed $y having no
notion of ownership. It is said thus 5upam $hi!!have no tumha!am- material form do
not $elong to you, they are not yours, 6am na tumha!am tam pa&ahata- that which
does not $elong you, a$andon it, am vopahinam digharattam hitaya su!!haya
parivattati-when it has $een a$andoned there will $e profit, happiness to you for a
long time. In this manner Buddha has e#plained du!!!h is due to the wrong concept
of )I* )my* etc and clinging to Khandha, Ayatana and Dhatu.
Anatta-soullessness
According to Buddhist teaching )"a$$edhamma anatta*. It means everything is
lac!ing the nature of self. Buddhism has e#plained this Anatta concept contrary to the
view e#isted at the time in the society. Buddha said if there is su$stantial reality in the
view that Atma e#isted that entity must have the characteristic of $eing a permanence
$lissful state. he 7panishad sages descri$ed the Atma as something, which does not
su$&ect to change, not su$&ect to death and disease. But according to Buddhism Atma
does not e#ist. he Alagattupama "utta can $e cited.
Anatta is e#plained in various discourses. In the sutta pita!a such as Alagaddupama
"utta of 8.- gives a simile of a water sna!e. 5eferring to this the Buddha has pointed
out that there cannot $e any notion of Atman. ,hatever its nature is this self-notion,
dogma, produce suffering. his type of a attachment ma!ing a distinction $etween
oneself and the other.
here is an attempt to cling to something in the Atman concept. his illusory notion
'idea( of su$stances will lead to e#tending the circle of wor!. he 2otthapada "utta of
D.- discusses various theories a$out Atman. he Buddha 9uestioned a person named
)0itta* thus ) what would you say if someone as! you whether you e#isted in the path
or not. he person answered yes, I, indeed, would answer that I e#isted in the past*.
he Buddha had no o$&ection to this very spea!ing similarly with regard to the future
and present time. But he said these are only conventional tal!s. Do not cling to them.
Do not get deceive, thin!ing )I* ) me* ---------- as unchanging, undestructa$le and
everlasting.
he relation $etween the action and its result is given in the -idanasamyutta.
Accordingly, if one holds the view that someone perform an action and the some
person e#periences the result it involves a false $elief of eternalism. +or e#ample, "o
!aroti, so patisamvedeti- he does very same person e#periences the result. By this
self-notion one falls into "assatavada-eternalism. If one holds the view that someone
does and someone else completely different from him e#periences. %e falls into
annihilation-ucchedavada 'Anno !aroti Anno patisamvedeti(. In this way, these two
e#tremes were re&ected $y the Buddha. Dependent 3rigination re&ects $oth views and
:
e#plains how the action and the result ta!e place. he re&ection of personali/ed entity
gives the impression of the a$sence of unchanging entity called Atman.
In the Dhammapada there is a stan/a, which says thus )Attana va !atam papam, attana
sam!ilessati- the a!usala done $y oneself will ma!e oneself impure. In this contact the
notion of Atta leads to the ideas of self. ,hen ta!en in a defective way it will lead to
clinging. he Buddha has often said that there is nothing outside of oneself and
nothing inside of oneself '$ahidda asati, a&&hattam asati(. his gives the notion of non-
self.
he ordinary language or speech leads to the concept of Atman. In the heravada
tradition it has $een e#plained further to eradicated the language structure, which is
misleading )Kammassa !ava!o natthi, vipa!assa ca veda!o- there is no doer of
!amma neither receiver of the result. his standpoint &ustified $y the early teaching in
dependent origination avoids the Atman entity. It further states that )Atthi !iriya
!ara!o na vi&&ati- there is action $ut there is no doer. hus re&ecting the su$&ect of an
activity leads to the concept of soullessness.
Read
2ayasira&anna "utta of D.-
The Four Nole Truths
he proper understanding of the correct !nowledge of these fundamental truths
$ecomes a pre-re9uisite 'something re9uirement( in understanding the process of the
universe and the part of ones own motivational forces in them.
3nly then one can wander calm, unruffled, amidst the storm of life, full of delusion,
an#iety, pre&udice, and other form of mal-ad&ustment around events. he !nowledge
of truths ena$les one to ma!e the $est to use of this life, which is hard to win.
herefore, in order to cross the circle of $irth one should get a deep !nowledge a$out
the four no$le truths.
The reason for calling these truths as Ariya
hese truths are called Ariya $ecause they have $een propounded $y the -o$le 3ne as
Buddha and also $ecause they indicate the highest form of truth including three
characteristics:
1. atha- they are true. hey always occur as stated
:. Avi;atha-they are not false in that nothing contrary to these statements ever
occur. here is never a happening 'anannata( in anyway other than as stated as
the four natures 'du!!ha, samudaya, nirodha and magga( therefore call it as
Ariya
here is a reason for the order of the truths. 1. he truth of suffering comes first
$ecause of its universal truth. It is the easy to realise 'du!!hasacca(. :. he cause
comes second $ecause when there is sic!ness the disease should $e diagnosed
<
'sammudayasacca(. <. he freedom comes ne#t $ecause it is necessary to get rid of
the cause 'nirodhasacca(. =. And the truth of the path leading to the eradicating of
suffering is &ust li!e descri$ing the remedy that has to $e adopted to achieve the happy
state.
he four no$le truths are very important $ecause reaching enlightenment is e9ual to
understanding the truth. According to 8.- the Buddha said thus )I discovered the
profound truth so difficult to perceive, difficult to comprehended, tran9uillising and
su$lime, which is not $e grasped $y mere reasoning and is visi$le only to the wise*.
In the Dhammaca!!apavattana "utta ".- Buddha said thus )as soon as the a$solutely
true !nowledge and insight as regards these no$le truths had $ecome perfectly, clear
to me. hese arose in me the assurance that I had attained to that supreme unsurpassed
enlightenment. hus we o$served that the doctrine of the four no$le truths are very
important in Buddhism. his teaching $eing included in the first sermon can $e
considered as the central teaching of the Buddha.
Dukkha ariya sacca
he first truth is fivefold according to the D.-. they are:
1. Du!!ha du!!hata- mental and physical pain
:. .iparinama du!!ha- suffering of transience
<. "an!hara du!!ha- suffering of aggregates
=. Appatichanna du!!ha- visi$le pain from assaults and ulcers
>. 2aticchanna du!!ha- pain uno$served
Du!!ha is also divided into five groups according to aggregates. hey are:
1. 5upupadana!!hadha-
:. .edana!!handha-
<. "anna!!handha-
=. "an!hara!!handha-
>. .innana!!handha-
0onsidering these five groups we o$serve that nothing is persistent and sta$le. hey
are gripping hoo!s with which $eing fasting themselves to suffering. Du!!ha ariya
sacca is often interpreted as fundamental attitude of pessimism, despair in Buddhist
outloo!. According to this truth there is no &ustification for preferring one pole of
thought to another that is "u!!ha and Du!!ha. he view of life should $e o$&ective,
un$iased and realistic.
he first truth is drawn from a critical e#amination, not only of a human predicament
$ut also of all aspects of life. he Buddhist emphases on it as a preliminary, diagnosis.
7nderstanding this truth is stage where one realises that one is sic! and treatment is
necessary.
It is incorrect to consider that the first truth denies the e#istence of &oy and laughter. It
stresses the evil of life to counteract mans inclination to duel. 3n the pleasant and
ignore everything that is this agreea$le. his truth is psychological devised $y which
the will to live is maintained in spite of all the discouraging e#periences.
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his is also a reminder that while at any given movement, while we are en&oying what
we called happiness. here are large num$ers of people in misery. his reminder I
needed to understand the first truth. he Buddha said that he himself had !nown $oth
pleasure and pain in their most e#treme form. If life were from misery no one would
feel the earth to live. It were unmi#ed happiness, there would $e no need of a religion.
he implications of truth of suffering are more than they appear in the $are world of
the formula. It is a self-evidence fact that $irth followed $y decay etc is unavoida$le.
At every stage man is over-shadowed $y threat of sic!ness accident, $ereavements
etc. we must $e prepare to face them. he Buddhist truth of suffering presents a direct
disillusion view. here are forms of suffering which man en&oys pleasure and pain as
a form of stimulation. hey over-left one and another. 2leasure in its very essence is a
source of pain. ,hile it last, it is distur$ance and agitation when it ceases it leads us
dissatisfy and feel with longing for it too $e continue or repetition. hus we o$serve
pleasura$le e#periences also involve some degree of suffering.
hose who have a strong inclination towards sensual pleasure suffer when they are
denied. hus from whatever point of view, pleasure always involve suffering. In this
manner we should understand that Du!!ha ariya sacca is an indication of the reality of
life.
According to Dhammaca!!apavatana sutta, the first truth is defied into '?( stages:
1. 4atipi du!!ha- $irth is suffering
:. 4arapi du!!ha- decay or old age is suffering
<. .yadhipi du!!ha- sic!ness is suffering
=. 8aranampi du!!ham- death is suffering
>. Appiyehisampayogo du!!ho- associate with unloved one is suffering
@. 2iyehi vippayogo du!!ho- dissociate with $eloved one is suffering
A. 6ampiccham na la$hati tampi !u!!ham- do not get what one wants is
suffering
?. "am!hittena pancupadana!!hadha du!!ha- getting five aggregates is suffering
In the A$hidhamma pita!a, which was delivered to the devas and "atipatthana sutta,
which was delivered to the healthy people of Buru, the word .yadhi was not used.
Instead of .yadhi, "o!a-sorrow, 2aideva-lamentation, Du!!ha- physical pain,
sDomanassa-mental pain, 7payasa-despair.
Birth is suffering since from the time of conception in the wom$ till the child is $orn.
3ne has to undergoes lot of suffering. 3ld age is suffering $ecause when one grows
old the sense faculties $ecome very wea!. "ic!ness is suffering $ecause it is an
o$stacle for the progress of a person in $oth worlds. Death is suffering since one has
undergoes lot of psychical pain. It is a suffering to associate with unpleasant people
and to separate from pleasant. 2eople suffer endlessly when they do not o$tain wealth,
status strength, $eauty and power they wish.
he Buddha pointed that du!!ha ariya sacca ma!es one to loo! at thighs o$&ectively
'6atha$hutam(. I teach e#actly what you are and what the world along you is,
although the ordinary 2ali du!!ha means suffering. In the first truth it is a
philosophical meaning with deeper sense of imperfection and impermanence. Buddha
always admitted that in spite of suffering there is ample room for happiness. If du!!ha
>
is understood as .iparinama-changing it is wrong to imagine that the Buddhist
outloo! on life and the world is gloomy. %e who understands the true nature or life is
the happiness individual for he is not upset $y the true nature of thing. 3ne who
understands the first no$le truth sees things as they are and not as they seem to $e.
+rustration and disappointment will never ve# him. %e is ready to face with death
with $rave hart. By understanding the first truth the view of lie will $e neither
pessimistic nor optimistic $ut it will $e realistic.
he Buddha sees suffering as suffering and happiness and happiness and e#plains that
all cosmic. 2leasure li!e other condition thing is only a passing show. Buddha gives a
warning to man against attaching to much important to fleeting pleasure for sooner or
later they will fade away one must practise e9uanimity in understanding the first truth.
C9uanimity is evenness of mind. It is came concentrated mind. "uch a mental
situation leads man to deliverance from suffering. 2leasure are shortly and never
lasting. he mere gratifications of the sense faculties are called pleasure and
en&oyment. But in the a$solute sense of the world such gratification is not happy. 4oy
too is du!!ha, unsatisfactory for it is transient '-antipi du!!ha(. If we with our inner
eye try to see things in their proper perspective through light we will $e a$le to realise
that the world is an illusion '8aya(. All mundane pleasure are fleeting, only
introduction to pain. herefore we o$serve that du!!ha never ceases. It is always at
wor!. It ta!es various form du!!ha du!!hata, "an!hara du!!ha, .iparinama du!!ha
etc.
Buddha gave a description a$out the first no$le truth to his followers. ,hen he
e#plained to his followers a$out du!!ha he was never dismal in e#pression he face
was always happy, serene and smiling. %e said thus ) happy indeed we live, who have
no $urdens on &oy we ever feed, li!e radiant deities* 'Dhammapada verse :DD(. hus
he encouraged his disciple not to $e sad what to cultivate the important 9uality of &oy
'2iti(, which is a factor of enlightenment.
Dukkha samudaya ariya sacca
he definition of the second no$le truth, according to the original te#t, is as follows:
Thirst (craving-Tanha) produces re-existence. It is bound up with
passionate greed (Nandirega sahagata), which fnds fresh delight
now here and there (Tatra tatraabhinandini) namel as follows!
1. Kama tanha- thirst for sensual pleasure
:. Bhava tanha- thirst for e#istence and $ecoming 'It is the desire to continue
e#istence for ever. hat is called eternalism '"assadaditthi(.
<. .i$hava tanha-thirst for non-e#istence 'hat is nihilism. It is the view of
annihilation '7cchedavada(.
his thirst, desire, craving, gives rise to all form of suffering and the continuity of
$eing. But it should not $e ta!en as the first cause of suffering. anha should $e ta!en
as the first cause $ecause according to Buddhism the first cause is not possi$le sine
everything is relative and inter-dependent. Cven anha is considered as the cause of
origin of du!!ha. And it is sensation '.edana(. "ensation arises depending on contact
'phassa( etc everything will go in a circle. herefore, it is advisa$le to consider anha
is not the first cause $ut the most immediate cause and principle and all pervading.
@
anha, according to "uttas, can $e classified into two categories. hey are:
1. Tanha for !aterial thin"s, this thirst includes not only desire for an
attachment to sense pleasure, wealth, and power $ut also a desire for
attachment to the ideas, views, opinions, theories, conceptions, and $eliefs. It
is called Dhammatanha. In the Alagaddupama sutta of 8.-, there is a simile
of a raft '!ulupama(. ,hen a person is crossing a river a raft will $e useful $ut
after crossing he should not carry it on his shoulder. %e should throw it away.
In the same way the Dhamma is to $e used to cross "amsara one must not get
attach to dhamma.
:. Tanha in the society, all social, political, economic pro$lems are rooted in the
selfish thirst. Euarrel in the family was in country are due to anha. he world
is enslaved in thirst 'anhadasa(. D.- Agganna sutta and 0a!!avattisihanada
sutta are e#ample of social, political ecominic pro$lems $ased on anha.
here is a philosophical side of second truth. anha produces re$irth. here are four
types of Ahara-nutrition. hey are:
1. "abali#$r$h$ra- material food
:. %ass$h$ra-contact of sense organs and mind
<. &i''$h$ra-consciousness
=. manosa'cetan$h$ra-metal volition
he Buddha has e#plained thus: ) Kamma is 0etana-volition. It is the wheel of the
mind and it $ecomes the cause of du!!ha. It o$serves that the cause of arising du!!ha
is within du!!ha itself and not out side. he cessation of du!!ha is also within du!!ha
itself. here is a connection with the theory of !amma. he volition, the !amma
whether good or $ad has the force to continue in good or $ad direction. It is relative
each other within the circle of the continuity of "amsara. he Arahant though he acts
he does not accumulate !amma $ecause he has no anha.
he second truth has a connection with re$irth. he desire and thirst with mental
volition continue to $ecome more and more powerful and moves in the tremendous
force. It creates energy in the world and after death this energy continues to manifest
in another form of production, which is re$irth. If there is no self or soul according to
Buddhism what it is that can re-e#ist after death. Fife is a com$ination of five
aggregates. It is a com$ination of physical and mental energies constantly changing
and do not remain for two consecutive. hese forces continue after death ta!ing
another form. here is nothing as a soul passing to the ne#t world. It is a series that
continue un$ro!en $ut changes every moment li!e the flame that $urns throughout. It
is not the same flame and it is not also another flame. A child when grows up he is
neither the same child nor another. In the same way as long as anha is there the circle
continues.
Buddhism dies not attri$ute the arising of suffering to an e#ternal agency or to a super
natural power. It is a motive force $ehind not only the present e#istence $ut past and
future e#istences too. he present is the result of the past. he future will $e the result
of the present, process of continuality 'anhanadi(. According to Itivutta!a of
Khudda!a ni!aya, $ound $y this fetter if craving $eings do wander and hurry through
the round of e#istence.
A
Dukkha nirodha ariya sacca
It is the -i$$ana or -irvana. he etymological meaning can $e classified thus: -i ;
vana- freedom from craving. It is the freedom from suffering or the no$le truth of
cessation of du!!ha. o eliminate du!!ha completely one has to eliminate the main
root of du!!ha. herefore, -i$$ana is called anha!!haya. hat is elimination of
anha or e#tinction thirst.
-i$$ana cannot $e e#pressed in words according to the "uttapita!a. It is $eyond
words, logic, and reasoning. "ince it is the a$solute truth or ultimate reality, it cannot
$e e#plained $y a language. A language e#presses the idea of sense organs. +or
e#ample there is a story a$out a tortoise and a fish. he fish tries to e#plain the
tortoise who is on the ground a$out the water and the wave in the sea. But the tortoise
cannot understand it. In the same way sugar cannot $e made !nown to one who has no
previous e#perience of each $y advising him to read a $oo! on the chemistry of sugar.
But if he put a small lump on his tongue he will understand the taste. ,ords are only
sym$ols and language is misleading in the matter of understanding the truth.
Benerally spea!ing, -i$$ana is e#pressed in negative terms thus:
anha!!haya-e#tinction of lust
Asan!hata- uncompounded
.iraga-a$sence of desire
-irodha-cessation
-i$$ana-e#tinction
+urthermore, according to 2ali te#t, -i$$ana is classified as follows:
1. 5aga!!haya-e#tinction of desire
:. Dosa!!haya-e#tinction of hatred
<. 8oha!!haya-e#tinction of illusion
=. Bhavanirodha-cessation of $ecoming or continuity
In the 7dana 2ali '2ataligamiya vagga( Buddha has e#plained thus )there is un$orn,
ungrown, and unconditioned. ,ere there are not un$orn, ungrown, unconditioned.
here would $e no escape for the $orn, grown, and conditioned. "ince then there is
un$orn, ungrown, and unconditioned, so there is escaped for the $orn grown,
conditioned*.
But, yet, -i$$ana is not negative. here is no annihilation of self. It is the annihilation
of the elusion of the false idea of self. herefore, it is wrong to say that -i$$ana is
negative or positive. ,hen we say negative and positive they are relative and there is
duality. -i$$ana is an a$solute truth. %ence we cannot e#pect relativity and duality.
-i$$ana is not the natural result of the e#tinction of craving. It is not the result of
anything. If it is a result then it should $e produced $y a cause. -i$$ana is neither a
cause nor an effect. It is something $eyond cause and effect. 3ne must see -i$$ana to
realise it if there is a path leading to -i$$ana. But -i$$ana is not the result of the path
e.g there is a path leading to a mountain $ut the mountain is not the result of the path
nor effect of the path.
?
he word 2arini$$ana had $een misleading to the original 'common( man. And an
e#pression li!e 'Buddha entered 2arini$$ana after his death( has $een ta!en $y some
as a place, 2arini$$uto-simply passes away, fully $lown up, there is no re-e#istence
after death.
In answer to the 9uestion where is -i$$ana it is said thus within this fathom long
sentiment $ody itselfG I postulate the world, the arising of the world, its cessation and
the path leading to the cessation. %ere the word )world* is used instead of du!!ha.
his means there is no e#ternal power that produces the arising and cessation of
du!!ha.
-i$$ana can $e r egarded in this very life. It is not necessary to wait till you die to
attain -i$$ana. A person who realises -i$$ana is the happiest in the world. %e is free
from all trou$les. %e has good mental health. %e will not repent a$out the past and
thin! a$out the future. %e lives in the present.
,hen we spea! a$out the happiness of -i$$ana there is a philosophical aspect.
-i$$ana is happiness without sensation. It is called Avedayita-nofeeling. -i$$ana is
$eyond logic. herefore it is called )Ata!!avacara*. It cannot $e understood $y
reasoning. It is realised $y the wise within themselves '2accattam vetita$$o
vinnuhiti(. In the Aggivacchagotta "utta Buddha says the ultimate reality is neither
logically e#plaina$le nor conceptually, desira$le. -i$$ana is !nowledge 'vi&&a(. It is
anha!!haya- eliminating craving. It is Anuppadana-non-grasping. It is Khemam-
security. It is "uddhi-purity. It is 2anitam- su$lime. It is "anti-peace. It is .imutti-
release. All these words are included in the canonical te#t to defy -i$$ana. But yet the
real significance of all these terms is restricted to the e#periences of the sentient
world.
According to Itivutta!a of Khudda!a -i!aya -i$$ana is as follows:
1. "aupatisena ni$$ana- ni$$ana with the su$stance left, that is ni$$ana attain in
this life.
:. Anupadisasa ni$$ana- ni$$ana without su$strata, ni$$ana of the dead
Arahants.
According to 8.- the Buddha descri$es -i$$ana thus )it occurred to me mon!s, that
this dhamma I have realised it is deep, hard to see, hard to understand, peaceful,
su$lime, $eyond reasoning, su$tle and suita$le to the wise. %e thought the path to
-i$$ana couldnt $e understood $y those engage in sensual pleasure. herefore, at
first, the Buddha was reluctant to preach this path.
In the "uttanipata of Khudda!ani!aya -i$$ana is e#plained thus '.erse-A>?( ) -i$$a-
na is no lie, for it is !nown as truth $y the no$le ones, $ut since they realised that
truth, desireless they passed away*.
In the 5atana "utta it is stated that )Khinam puranam navam natthi sam$havam,
.irattacitta ayati!e $havasmim, e !hina$i&a avirulhicchanda, -i$$anti dhira
yathayam padipo- their past has $een destroyed, there is no $ecoming of the new, their
mind is unattached to a future e#istence, they have destroyed the root their desires are
a$sent, &ust as this lamp 'is $low out( the wise ones $ecome passionless*.
H
A person attains -i$$ana step $y ste through repeated failure to the final success, has
$een shown in the heragatha '.-H=A( )mindful of the 6ogi of the past, remem$ering
their ways of life, eventhough today $e, $ut the after one may yet attain the peaceful
path*.
Dukkha nirodha gamini patipada ariya sacca
It is the way leading to the cessation of du!!ha. It is called 8a&&himapatipada. It
avoids two e#tremes-attachment to sense desire, self-mortification.
The Noble Eightfold Path
1. "amma ditthi- right view
:. "amma san!appa- right thought '2anna(
<. "amma vaca- right speech
=. "amma !ammanta-right action
>. "amma a&iva- right livelihood '"ila(
@. "amma vayama- right effort
A. "amma sati- right mindfulness
?. "amma samadhi- right consciousness '"amadhi(
he aim of the eightfold path is to promote and perfect "ila, "amadhi and 2anna. "ila
means the ethical conduct. By developing "ammavaca, "amma!ammanta and
"ammaa&iva one can protect "ila. According to "ammavaca one should avoid the four
types of wrong speech and use truthful words useful to the society. he Buddha has
stressed if one is speac!ing one should spea! no$le words, if not should !eep silence
'dhammi va !atha ariyo va tumhi $havo(.
2rotecting "ila one should a$stain from destroying life, stealing and illegitimate,
se#ual intercourse, following right livelihood one should a$stain from profession
harmful to others. +or e#ample trading in arms, trading in li9ueur, poison, shelling
animals for !illing and shelling flesh. herefore one should protecting "ila act in an
honoura$le innocent way. -o spiritual attainments are possi$le without the moral
$asis. herefore, as a path leading to -i$$ana, the foundation should $e "ila.
he ne#t step is "ammadhi-mental discipline. It includes right effort or
"ammavayama. 3ne must ma!e an effort to prevent evil state of mind from arising
effort to get rid of evil sate of mind already arisen. At the same time one must try to
cause to arise good and wholesome state of mind and also to develop such a state
already arisen. herefore right mindfulness "ammasati should $e followed with
regard to the activity of the $ody, fleeing mind, and conception or dhamma 'four
"atipathana(.
he Anapanasati is one of the well-!nown e#ercises connected with the $ody for
mental development. Cven the Bodhisatta practises Anapanasati whole he was at the
ploughing festival this meditation was also helpful for him to attaint Buddhahood.
3ne should $e aware of all forms of sensation, ideas and thoughts and activities of the
mind. In this manner meditation on mindfulness gradually the mind rests on
"ammadhi.
1D
herefore, the final state is 2anna-right understands. It is essential to develop wisdom.
It is e#actly the understanding of the four no$le truths. he deep understanding is
called penetration '2ativedha(. It is seeing a thing in its true nature. It is not the
general understanding. It has nothing to do with praying and worshiping. In the first
no$le truth one understands the nature of life its suffering, sorrow, and &oy. It is called
2arinneyya. In second no$le truth one understand the arising of du!!ha as thirst
'anha( and eradicate it '2ahata$$a(. In the third truth the cessation is realised
'"acchi!ata$$a(. +inally in the fourth truth the path leading to the reali/ation is a
matter of following and !eeping to it 'Bhaveta$$a(.
herefore, follow "ammasan!appa there are three-fold:
1. -e!!hamma san!appa- renunciation
:. Avypada san!appa- non-hatred
<. Avihimsa san!appa- non-violence
,ith these three categories true wisdom is predominant. It gives a clear idea that evil,
hatred and violence are the result of lac! of wisdom in all sphere of life, individual,
social, political. hen 2anna $ecomes small, and develops with the ultimate thought
of renunciation.
Paticcasa!uppada- dependent ori"ination
Introduction
2aticcasamuppada means condition genesis or dependent origination. he principle of
dependent origination is one of the most important and uni9ue teachings. In numerous
passages of 2ali 0anon, it was descri$ed $y the Buddha as a natural Faw, a
fundamental truth that e#ists independently of the arising of enlightened $eings.
2aticcasamuppada means cause and effect. It is also called %etuphalavada- %etu-
cause, 2hala- fruit or result. ) %utum paticca sam$hutam, hetum $hanga niru&&ati*
meaning what is arising is due to causes and conditions. ,hen the causes and
conditions are destroyed then it ceases.
3n the other hand, it is the central concept of Buddhism. It is called the theory of
cause and effect. All phenomena 'all dhammas( are said to $e causal dependent on
each other. 8ost of the other teachings of the Buddha connected with the moral life,
the life style that he recommended followed from the teaching of dependent
origination.
he e#planation of all phenomena, events, and activities related to man and universe
and also the prescription that the Buddha made regarding the ethical life seem to $e
derived from the principle of dependent origination. he Buddha soon after
enlightenment said that he has seen something that had not $een discovered $efore the
reference was mainly to this dhamma '2aticcasamuppada- that he realised(. I realised
that dhamma, said %e. ,hat he discovered was idapaccayata paticcasamuppada.
2aticcasamuppada is so central that in Buddhism the initial insight into the dhamma
involved some sort of relationship. "ome people gain the vision after listening to the
Buddha, for e#ample dhamma ca!!hun udapati. It is the vision of dhamma arose. 6am
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!inci samudaya dhammam sa$$am tam nirodha dhammam-whatever has the nature of
arising all that has the nature of ceasing. It is the incompara$le vision of dhamma. he
person who enters the stream is support to have a 9uite this vision '2aticca-(, for
e#ample 6o dhammam passati, so paticcasamuppadam passati, yo
paticcasamuppadam passati, so dhammam passati.
In the history of Buddhist thought the 8adyami!a system of philosophy tried to
highlight the principle of depended origination as the very essence of the Buddhas
teaching. 8adyami!a system interpreted this teaching as the philosophy of the middle
way. If there is anything distinctive and uni9ue to the teaching of the Buddha
dependent origination principle can $e mentioned as that which is uni9ue to the
Buddha.
It '2aticca-( distinguishes Buddhism from all other system of Indian thoughts whether
pre-Buddhist or post-Buddhist. 3ne may even maintain that it distinguishes Buddhism
from all philosophical theories that have, yet, presented $oth in the ,est and Cast. In
other word, 2aticcasamuppada is something uni9ue in the history of human thought.
,hat the Buddha maintained during his life time is that people generally inclined to
fall into the e#treme ways of thin!ing either Idealism or 8aterialism all human
thoughts seem to have the tendency to fall into either some !ind of idealistic or
materialistic form. But the doctrine of 2aticcasamuppada avoids $oth e#tremes.
The nature and philosophy of Paticcasamuppada
he causal se9uence occurs dependently of us and all we do is to discover this. 3n
account of $irth arises, decay and death whether the athagata arises or not this order
e#ists namely the si# nature of phenomena, the regular pattern of phenomena or
conditionality. It is the athagata who discovers and comprehends. %aving
comprehended and discovered, the athagatas point it out and clarify it )upp$d$ v$
tath$gat$nam, anupp$d$ v$ tath$agat$nam, thit$ v$ s$ dh$tu
dhammaTThitat$, dhamma niamat$ idapaccaat$(.
he chain of causation is used to e#plain $oth re$irth and Kamma. he cause and
effect theory is e#plained thus )Imasmim sati idam hoti-this $eing that e#ists, Imassa
uppada idam uppaccati-through the arising of this that arises, Imasmim asati idam
nahoti-this not $eing that does not e#ist, Imassa nirodha idam niru&&hati-through the
cessation of this that ceases*. he two statements positive and negative strengthen the
relationship $etween the two events. It shows the relativity.
Paticcasamuppada in the Suttas
2aticcasamuppada theory is evident various "uttas. In the area of the social process
one can o$serve a similar relationship functioning. he theory of relativity can $e
o$served in the #akka$attisihanada sutta. It says that if poverty $ecomes wide
spread. hen the people tend to $ecome violence. hey $egin to steal property of
others. In order to do that they have ac9uire weapon for themselves. hey loss all
respects towards life.
"o they engage in murder to gain wealth. ,hen violence $ecomes common other evil
gradually arise. here is a conse9uence of decrease of morality. 8an!ind $ecomes
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$rutal li!e animals they fight with each other and they destroy themselves. his is
application of 2aticcasamuppada-principle to the social relationship:
$dhan$nam dhane anupp$dia mane daliddiam vepullam
agam$si, d$liddiam vepullam gate adinnad$nam veupllam
agam$si, adinn$d$nam vepullam gate sattam veuppam agam$si,
sattham vepullam gate p$natip$to vepullam agam$si.
In the %""anna &utta also the social conflict is vividly depicted. At the $eginning of
society it was a world of water with a smooth layer. here was no sun, no stars. his
mil!y surface of the earthy had a good colour, smell and the taste. A greedy person
tasted the earth with his fingers. he other people followed him $ro!e off lumps. As a
result the mil!y surface vanished then came mushrooms, thereafter came creeping
plants. hey who fed on these $ecame very proud and considered some as ugly and
some as $eautiful. "oon afterward, rice came up. +irst it was without the hus!. Fater
the hus! also came. Due to craving some people stole the rice of others. here
followed stealing, lying etc. thereafter, punishment was necessary. And as a result a
!ing was selected. All these happening one following the others show the theory of
cause and effect.
In the &akkhapanna &utta of M.N here we o$serve in a dialogue form, the theory of
dependent origination. he "a!!a 9uestioned the Buddha thus: what is the cause of
envy and selfishnessI ,hat give $irth to themI %ow do they come to $eI ,hat $eing
present are envy and selfishness presentI ,hat $eing a$sent are they a$sentI he
Buddha answered thus: )things as dear, and not dear to us ruler of gods*. his is the
cause of envy and selfishness*. his is the cause, which gives $irth to them. A$sence
of this there will $e no envy and selfishness. In this manner answering "a!!a the
Buddha e#plained the cause and effect.
In the Nalakalapa &utta of &.N it is stated that )seyyatha pi $hi!!have dve
nala!alapayo annamannam nissaya tittheyam eva meva !ho avuso nama rupa paccaya
vinnanam, vinnana paccaya namarupam-two $undles of reeds one is dependent on
each other. In the same way mind and matter give rise to consciousness.
0onsciousness gives rise to mind and matter. %ere relativity 'cause and effect( is
shown philosophically.
In Madhupindika &utta of M.N, the !nowledge through senses indicates the theory
of dependent origination. 0a!!hum ca paticca rupe ca uppa&&ati ca!!hu vinnanam,
tinnam samgati phassa, phasso paccaya vedana, yam deveti tam sam&anati, yam
sam&anati tam vita!!eti, yam vita!!eti tam papanceti, yam papanceti tato midanam
purisam-ca!!huvinnana arises due to the eye and the form, due to the coming together
of thee three there arise touch, due to the touch there is feeling, when one recognises
the feeling there is the manifestation of perception, with the manifestation of
perception there will $e manifestation of reasoning, where is manifestation of
reasoning there will $e manifestation of craving or o$session, in this way there person
is. In the same way "ota, Bhana etc follow. his shows the pattern of dependent
origination.
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'a!!a-action
he reality a$out du!!ha is e#plained in the 2aticcasamuppada. +rom it arises the
theory of Kamma. he man $ecause of Avidya accumulates Kusala and A!usala
'"an!hara( then arises .innana. he Kammaniyama points out the ethical side of
2aticcasamuppada.
his "amsara, where all people are su$&ect to suffering, is nurtured $y Kamma itself.
he world and $eings are twisted and turned $y Kamma. It is li!e the a#le to a wheel.
It ties $eings to the wheel of "amsara.
5athass$niva y$yato '"uttanipata( 'when there is no !amma there will $e no
"amsara.
Kammasa!a manava satta, !ammadayada, !ammayoni, !amma $handhu,
!ammapatisarano, yam !ammam !arissami !alyamam va papa!am va tassa
dayado $havissami '8.-( 'Kamma is ones own property, inherited, matri# 'as
the cause of re$irth(, relative, refuge, and if one does Kamma whether good or
$ad he shall $e the inheritance to it(
Kammam satte vi$ha&ati yadidam hinappanitiya- !amma divides the people
into low or high.
he 4ainists opinion is that everything is due to 2u$$e!atahetu. his is re&ected $y the
Buddha.
According to Buddhism, there are five !inds of -iyama dhamma namely:
1. 7tu niyama- the law of energy, literally the laws of heat
:. Bhi&a niyama- the laws of heredity
<. Kamma niyama- the laws of !amma
=. Dhamma niyama- the laws of phenomenology
>. 0itta niyama- the laws of thought or conscious processes
In this case Kamma is only one niyama!amma. herefore, everything is not due to
Kamma. here are many reasons for sic!ness. +or e#ample seasonal changes,
$reathing $ad air are all Kamma.
Kamma is 0etana-volition. '0etanaham $hi!!have !ammamvatami cetayitva
!ammam !aroti !ayena vaca manasa 'A.-(. in order to ma!e the cause and effect
theory in process there should $e volition.
Buddhism is different from pre-Buddhist !amma. here is a $elief of the soul.
According to those $eliefs they $elieve that a person does a !amma and he himself
reaps the fruit of !amma. But Buddhism denies it. here is no soul according to
Buddhism. It is said thus one who is $orn again after death is not the same person nor
another 'na ca so na ca anno(. hen how can another persons reap the fruit of what is
done $y some othersI here is no person in a$solute sense, only the aggregated. Due
to the theory of 2aticcasamuppada we o$serve that the influence of !amma gives rise
to mind and matter 'namarupa(. It is incorrect to thin! that the mind and matter $elong
to me or they $elong to some other persons 'nayam !ayo tumha!am na pi annesam-
the $ody is not yours, it is not some others else(.
Kamma is an active power. It gives a person happiness and suffering in "amsara.
Kamma is accumulated $ecause of ignorance. It is very vicious. Due to !amma people
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go round and round in this vicious circle. he "amsara is in a state of flu# for those
who are loving in ignorance. here is no $eginning. It turns again and again, with
ignorance and anha arising. It is not a cycle, which cannot $e shattered. ,e o$tain
s!ill to shatter it $y the understanding of cause and effect.
According to the result of .ipa!a!amma is divided into four types. hey are:
1. "a)ham #anh$ vip$#am- $lac! !amma with $lac! result
:. *u##am su##a vip$#am- white !amma with whiter result
<. "a)ha su##am #anha su##avip$#am- mi#ed !amma with mi#ed
results
=. $#a)#a su##am a#a)ha su##a vip$#am- !amma, which are not
whiter and $lac! with vipa!a, which are not whiter and $lac!. '%ere $lac!
denotes A!usala and white denotes Kusala.
According to A$hidhamma there are three types of Kamma
1. Kusala !amma
:. A!usala !amma
<. Avya!ata !amma
his shows that the result of !amma is important in the definition of the term !amma.
Kamma is always compared with result.
The Dhammapada states thus: Na tam kammam katam sadhu, yam katva
anutappati, yassa assumukho rodam, vipakam patisevati- that deed is not well done
when, after having done it, one repents, and when weeping, with tearful face, one
reaps the fruit thereof*. And it is also stated thus: )Tan ca kammam katam sadhu, yam
katva nanutappati, yassa patito sumano, vipakam patisevati- that deed is well done
when, after having done it, one repents not, and when, with &oy and pleasure, one
reaps the fruit thereof*
In order to identify A!usala!amma, which gives evil result and Kasala!amma, which
gives good result one should e#amine the volition. +or the A!usala!amma the volition
is rooted in A!usala. Buddha pointed out the Fo$ha, Dosa and 8oha are A!usala. In
the "ammaditthi "utta of 8.- "ariputtathera as!ed )friends what are the roots of
A!usala and roots of Kusala*. It is said that &ust as Fo$ha, Dosa and 8oha are
A!usalamula, Alo$ha, Adosa and Amoha are Kusalamula. he highest moral as
generosity, sympathy and !indness with 2anna should $e developed as an attempt to
suppress Fo$ha, Dosa and 8oha.
In the Am$alatthi!a 5ahulovada "utta of 8.-, the preaching of Kamma is e#plained
well. he social sense of teaching of !amma in Buddhism is the criteria of good and
$ad at the very moment 'of performing actions(.
1. Actions, which are good for oneself and not good for others
:. Actions, which are good for others and not good for oneself
<. Actions, which are not good for oneself and also to others
=. Actions, which are a $enefit for oneself as well as to others
-o. 1 to < are A!usala and they should $e avoided. -o. = is Kusala and that should $e
done. his should $e understood and should $e investigated $y wisdom. And this
implies to mundane and super-mundane.
1>
Kamma is connected with freedom and free-will:2anna 'Kalama "utta(. +or e#ample
if we ta!e a machine it goes on, in the same way without stopping and manufacturing
whatever it is. But man does something after due consideration and thin!ing. %e does
not doing the same thing and producing the same thing, in the same thing li!e the
machine. 8an today reaps the fruits of earlier life. If so the 9uestion arises whether
the Kamma is pre-planted. But the Buddha does not accept pu$$e!atahetuvada. here
are many reasons for accumulating Kamma. 8an has the freedom. %e can thin! what
is good and what is $ad. %e $y his own intentional actions form the cycle of "amsara.
"ometimes he en&oys happiness and sometimes he suffers. %e is the master of all
actions. hus we o$serve how independent is man. %e has freedom. If he so desires,
he can get free from accumulation of !amma. It is not necessary to go round in
"amsara until one puts an end to all Kamma. If craving is shattered the desire for
$ecoming is completely rooted out. hat is emancipation or -i$$ana. ,e call if
anha!!haya. It is not necessary to wait for Kamma!!haya to attain -i$$ana.
Free-(ill and !orality
8an is no e#ception to this universal principle 'dhamma(. And he is part and partial of
it. 8an comes into $eing when the necessary condition for his $ecoming come
together. Cndure as long as the condition for his endurance are present and cease to $e
with the disintegration of such condition. herefore, according to Buddhism we
o$serve that there are no $eings a$ove man who decides the faith or destiny of man to
who he should pray for his welfare. 8ans e#istence and welfare are concerned giving
responsi$ility to himself. hen there is free-will.
According to Dhammapada, one is truly the master of oneself. ,ith oneself fully
controls ones gain the mastery, which is hard to gain. In the 8ahaparini$$ana sutta,
the Buddha, &ust $efore his death, admonished his followers to $e their own guide and
refuge. he Dhammapada further says it is only the evil done $y oneself, $orn of
oneself and produced $y oneself, grinds a witless man li!e a diamond a hard gem. By
oneself committing evil does one $ecomes defile, not committing evil one $ecomes
pure. 2urity and impurity depend on oneself 'verse-1@1.1@>(.
he Buddha campaigned against all doctrines that denied supremacy, initiative and
free-will to man whether they $e theistic or not. "ince the idea of a divine creator who
presided over the destiny of man has ta!en deep root in the society of his day. he
Buddha criticism was mainly aimed at the idea especially $ecause this idea deprived
the man free-will.
Brahmanism, which was the predominant faith of the people of India, when the
Buddha appeared, put forward the theory that the world and all things in it were
created $y an all powerful Bod. And that everything happens according to his wishes.
And that Bod presided over the destiny of man. his is called the divine creation
'Issara nimmana vada(. During the 5g .edic time, it was called the ma!er
'vishva!arma(.
In that later period, the creator $ecame 8aha$rahma. In the Kevatta "utta and
Brahma&ala "utta description is given a$out this creator. According to his creation
people were divided into four castes. And they were deprived of their rights. hey had
to do &o$ according to the wish of the creator. hey were una$le to protest and
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diso$ey $ecause to go against the wishes of the Bod meant misery. he only thing
they could do was to passively, e#cept this situation and $ecome hum$le and
o$edient.
"ince the idea of divine creation was the $asis of thee caste pre&udices. Buddha
vehemently critici/ed the idea of Bod in the evi&&a "utta. here is a discussion
$etween the Buddha and some Brahmins. hese Brahmins who strongly $elieved in
the creator never thought of the freedom of the individual. In this manner, Buddha
refuted not only the idea of Brahmanism he was also against the teachings that denied
the free-will to man. +or e#ample the si# heretical teachers also did not give freedom
to the individual. 8a!!aligosala preached against Kamma and he was a fatalistic. %e
not only denied man supremacy, he never spo!e a$out moral value. 2eople who
followed these si# heretical teachers were deprived of their freedom. hey $ehaved in
the society without !nowing the different $etween good and $ad Kamma.
2urana!assapa e#pressed his Agiriyavada, which was against Kamma.
here are two premises on which the concept of freedom and responsi$ility. In
Buddhism are $uilt up namelyG "upremacy of man and the concept of his e9uality $y
$irth. %aving esta$lished the fact of supremacy of man and his e9uality $y $irth, the
Buddha pointed out five $asic things that should $e adhered to $y all who are
concerned a$out the freedom well $eing and happiness of all.
+irstly, anyone should respect the others live and refrain from doing anything that
would cause in&ury or damaged to the life of the others directly or indirectly, and
whenever possi$le to do everything to ma!e things pleasant and easy to others.
"econdly, everyone should respect the lawful possession of the others and refrain
from appropriating what is not voluntarily given to him.
hirdly, everyone should refrain from wrongful indulgence in sensual gratification
that would cause damage or em$arrassment to the others.
+ourthly, everyone should refrain from uttering falsehood, slanderous speech, hash
speech, and practice, spea!ing the truth, which is pleasant to hear and help $uilding
up trust and friendship.
+ifthly, everyone should refrain from $ecoming addicted to into#icating food and
drin! there$y $ecoming a $urden and the source of irritation to the others.
hese five things are $asically safeguard against transgression on others freedom.
herefore we o$serve $y practicing 2ancasila we respect the free-will of others.
Buddha, $y personal e#perience, realised that only $y understanding things in their
correct perspective that pro$lem of live and death could $e solved throughout his
dispensation. %e discouraged $lind faith in view, action or in people. %e says that
people ta!e refuge in various o$&ects through fear and ignorance. 0linging to views
without understanding leads to distur$ance and misery.
he Buddha made it clear that one has to ma!e a clear decision of li!es and disli!es
according to his free-will if he were to lead a peaceful life and contri$ute something
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to social harmony. According to Kalamas of Kesaputta the Buddha said )Do not
$elieve something $y mere hearsay, do not $elieve something merely $ecause it
comes in some tradition, do not $elieve something merely $ecause it is written in
$oo!, do not $elieve something merely $ecause of it pro$a$ility, do not $elieve
something through mere respect of teachers, do accept the thing after e#amining it
thoroughly. If you are convinced that it conduces to the well $eing and happiness $oth
yours and of others as well. he idea underlines this warning is that the truth of a
thing does not depend on a thing $eing taught $y one teacher or it $eing occurring in
some $oo! or $ecoming down $y tradition etc. It should not $e misunderstood here
that the Buddha wanted people to re&ect everything $ecause it comes in a tradition etc.
the Buddha streeed that one should have an open mind and e#amine whether a thing is
true or false. ,ith the aid of fact he can verify for himself. herefore, freedom is
given to an individual to do according to his own wish.
he Buddha never accepted his followers to $elief in him $lindly. %is dhamma was
not $ased on mere logic. ,hatever he taught was $ased on first hand !nowledge and
e#perience. 3nce he spo!e to 7pali the chief disciple of -igantanataputta. ,hen
7pali was in a hurry to accept Buddhism Buddha said )do not $e in a hurry, thin!
again whether you are 9uite sure that you intend to $ecome a Buddhist ' 7pali sutta of
8.-(.
In this manner we o$serve that, according to Buddhims, the individual is given the
freedom to act according to his own free-will. ,hen acting according to ones own
free-will, a person will commit either Kusala or A!usala. 3ne who commits Kusala or
A!usala will $e responsi$le for his own actions. herefore, we o$serve that Buddha
admired free-will of the individual.
#riteria of (holeso!e ('usala) and un(holeso!e (%kusala)
Kusala and A!usala are different from 2unna and 2apa. Kusala means wholesome
actions done to reach the ultimate aim -i$$ana. Kusala is $ased on $odily vervally
mentally whatever actions done. Accordingly Kusala is defined thus: Kusala done
ver$ally:
1. -ot to spea! untruth
:. -ot to slander
<. -ot to spea! harsh word
=. -ot to spea! useless word
Kusala done through the $ody: not to !ill or harm, not to steal, not to indulge in
unlawful sensual pleasure. Kusala done through the mind that is mentally: to avid
Avi&&ha- desire, to avoid .yapada-evil, to avoid 8icchaditthi- wrong view. If a person
acts on the contrary, it will $e A!usala.
Kusala is also defined as something leading to the welfare of oneself as well as others.
If a person spea!s, act $odily and thin! with the intention of welfare of $oth parties
'oneself and others, it is a Kusala(. The criteria of usala and Akusala! in the
Ambalatthika Rahulo"ada Sutta! is defined thus#
1. Action done leading to the welfare of oneself and others is Kusala
:. Action done without $ringing welfare to others as well as to oneself is A!usala
<. Action done $ringing welfare only to oneself is A!usala
=. Action done $ringing welfare only to others is A!usala
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2ali "uttas introduce Kusala and A!usala and indicate that they are different from
2unna and 2apa. he term Kusala is used to denote mental and $ehaviour activities
lading to the primary attaiment. Actions done with the aim of attaining -i$$ana is
defined as Kusala 'A.--> 2a- :=D-:A<(. It is often e#plained that a person with ten
9ualities ac9uiring wholesome actions through the $ody, word and mind is called an
individual with Kusala. Accordingly the Buddha has defined various dhammas
$elonging to Kusala. hey are the highest. hey help to eradicate defilements and it
will lead to the emancipation of the mind. The follo$ing are the categori%ation of
usala according to D&N#
1. +our "atipatthana- Kayanupassana, .edana, 0itta, Dhamma
:. +our 2adhana- four types of .iriya 'effort( regard to good and $ad
<. +our Iddhipada- 0anda, 0itta, .iriya, .imamsa
=. +ive Indriya- "addha, .iriya, "ati, "amadhi, 2anna
>. +ive Bala- "addha, .iriya, "ati, "amadhi, 2anna
@. "even Bodhi anga- "ati, Dhamavi&aya, .iriya, 2iti, 2assadhi, "amadhi,
7pe!!ha
A. Cight -o$le paths- "ammaditthi etc
-i$$ana is very often defined as something leading to the eradication of 5aga, Dosa
and 8oha. his itself is Kusala. A!usala means engaged in 5aga, Dasa and 8oha.
herefore, defining the term Kusala, we understand that Kusala is not something li!e
2unna $ecause. It is not to $e discontinued at a certain stage. he Buddha also
discontinues 2unna. But throughout he practises Kusala in the 7dana 2ali '2a-@@(.
here is a saying that Buddha pondered on various types of Kusala while living a
solitary life. he Buddhas advice to the ordinary $eings can $e defined thus: "a$$a
pasassa a!aranam, Kusalassa upasampada, "acitta pariyo damanam etam $uddhana
sasanam.
he 8.- gives information a$out a statement made $y Ananda hera to !ing Kosala
a$out the Buddha. %e says that the Buddha is a person who has ac9uired everything
$elinging to Kusala. It is stated that 2unna is something connected with senses. It will
give happiness in this life and thereafter. Kusala is something $eyond that. he ".--I
2a->>, gives an e#planation of a dialogue $etween the Buddha and 7ttara devaputta
'god(. Devaputta says thus: life is gradually passing away, life span is very short, old
age has con9uered us, at the door step of death try to ac9uire merit '2unna(. he
Buddha uttered the same stan/a ending up saying that one should thin! a$out $liss of
-i$$ana at the door step of death. his dialogue reveals that the Devaputta was
spea!ing a$out 2unna. he Buddha was spea!ing a$out Kusala. ,hen the Buddha
said that one must thin! a$out the $liss of -i$$ana. %e means that one should
accumulate Kusala. Although the word Kusala is not mentioned thin!ing a$out the
$liss of -i$$ana is Kusala.
In the 8.- with reference to 5attapala "utta an e#planation given $etween the
difference of 2unna and Kusala. According to this "utta we o$serve that 5attapala
heras parents want to disro$e him and ma!e him ac9uire merit. But his intention
was far great. %e wanted to attain -i$$ana. herefore, with regard to the intention of
$oth parties we understand doin" "ood action (ithout the !oti$e of attainin"
Niana is Punna. %nd 'usala !eans to do "ood acti$ities (ith the intention of
1H
attainin" Niana. The one (ho is accu!ulatin" 'usala de$elops !indfulness
(&ati)) lo$in" kindness (Metta)) and (isdo! (Panna).
A!usla is something that $loc!s the path to -i$$ana. According to "utta the five
hindrances are defined as A!usala. hey are called -ivarana $ecause they $loc! or
cover the path to -i$$ana. hey are as follows:
1. Kamacchanda-sensual desire
:. .yapada-hatred
<. hina middha-sloth and torpor
=. 7ddhacca Ku!!ucca- la/iness and restlessness
>. .ici!iccha- dou$t
,hen a person is acting with these types of hindrances, it is una$le for him to see the
reality. he reality is Anicca, Du!!ha and Anatta. he understanding this reality will
lead to -i$$an. -ot understanding of this reality will $loc! the path to -i$$ana.
Because of the wrong view the Buddha has e#plained the draw$ac! of these
hindrances with the help of similes:
1. he Buddha ta!ing a $owl of colour water said that one cannot see the
reflection through this water. It is &ust li!e sensual desire $loc!ing the path to
-i$$ana.
:. he Buddha pointed out a $owl of hot water with $u$$les said that one cannot
see the reflection clearly. It is &ust li!e the path to -i$$ana covered $y
.yapada.
<. he Buddha pointed out a $owl of water with waves and torrents. It is &ust li!e
the path to -i$$an covered $y sloth and torpor 'hina 8itta(.
=. he Buddha pointed out a $owl of water covered with moss, the reflection
cannot $e seen here. It is &ust li!e the path to -i$$ana caused $y restlessness
and worry '7ddhacca Ku!!ucca(
>. +inally he pointed out a $owl of muddy water where the reflection cannot $e
seen. It is &ust li!e $loc!ing the path to -i$$ana $y dou$t '.ici!iccha(
In the Dhammadayata "utta of 8.- and "alle!a "utta, there are descriptions on
A!usala. ,e all o$serve in the "alle!a "utta good activities contrary to A!usala also
given '8.--I, 2a-1> onward(.
In this manner we o$serve gravity of $oth Kusala and A!usala. Kusala is something,
which is done with the motive of emancipation.
*inaya
.inaya means discipline. o classify it further it is "ila. +or ':D( years after Buddhas
enlightenment, there were no .inaya precepts 'si!!hapada(. here was no necessity to
introduce .inaya precepts $ecause the mon!s were $ehaving well. Fater
Asavatthaniya dhammas 'those leading to desires( arose. hey are classified thus:
1. he num$er of mon!s increasing
:. he num$er of learned mon!s increasing
<. 8on!s getting profit
=. 8on!s getting fame
Because of the a$ove reasons .inaya precepts were promulgated. he Buddha spo!e
to "riputta, who informed him that time has come to lay down the .inaya rules, in this
:D
manner ) "ariputta I !now the time to lay down the .inaya precepts. It is the Buddha
who will do it. And it is not the tas! of disciples*. Before .inaya precepts were
promulgated the mon!s followed 0ulasila, 8a&&himasila, and 8ahasila. he
2atimo!!ha rules were there for the mon!s to follow. And at that time the mon!s were
free to do what is good. Fater on the Buddha promulgated .inaya precepts. hey were
categorised as:
1. 2ara&i!a
:. "anghadisesa
<. 2acittiya
=. Aniyatta
>. A$hi!aranasamatha
@. "e!!hiya
he mon!s had to follow them. And if they $rea! these precepts they had to face
punishment. +or the $hi!!hus there were four 2ara&i!a rules, '1<( "anghadisesa, ':(
Aniyata, '<D( -isa!!iyapacittiya, 'H:( 2acittiya, '=( 2atidesaniya, 'A>( "e!!hiya and
'A( A$hi!aranasamatha.
Para+ika
According to this rule, 2ara&i!a stands prominent. here are four 2ara&i!a rules. he
violation of 2ara&i!a rules will lead to e#pulsion.
1. "e#ual intercourse of any !ind
:. a!ing what is not given
<. a!ing of human life or conspiring to do so
=. 0laiming falsely to have achieved superior status
he first 2ara&i!a rule was laid down $y the Buddha with regard to "udinna, the son
of a wealthy merchant. %e $ecame a mon! with the conscience of his appearance. But
later "udinna mother together with his wife planed to ma!e him disro$e and come
$ac! home. "udinna was unwilling to come $ac! home. Fater on they somehow made
him agree to give a son to continue the generation. "udinna finally consents and
impregnates his wife who $ears him a son. "udinna $ecomes physically sic! and
confessed his sin to the Bhi!!hus. he mon!s re$u!ed him and the matter was
reported to the Buddha who then admonishes "udinna and e#pelled him from the
3rder.
In the 2ara&i!a pali several stories are given to illustrate this grave offences. 3nce a
mon! !ept a female mon!ey with him. he other mon!s who visited his .ihara
suspected, the $ehaviour of this female mon!ey. hey re$u!ed that mon! for that
$ehaviour. hen he said, )Buddha refers to the human woman and not the female
animals*. Fater the matter was reported to the Buddha and the mon! was e#pelled.
here is third story concerning a group of mon!s who lived $y drin!ing, eating and
$athing as they desire. According to their lives pattern they fre9uently engaged in
se#ual intercourse. hen the matter was reported to the Buddha $y Ananda. he
Buddha re$u!ed those mon!s and they were e#pelled. Apart from this story there are
any instances where the mon!s were rather suspicious a$out their $ehaviours. ,hen
they had dou$t whether they had committed offences. "ome cases were innocent and
some cases were guilty.
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,ith regard to the second 2ara&i!a stealing or ta!ing what is not given is considered
as an offence. hief or ta!ing what is not given arises due to the ignorance or
confusion a$out what can $e properly appropriated. According to this offence once a
mon! stole some wood from the !ings position. %is act was re$u!ed. And the second
2ara&i!a was laid down.
In the same manner, when the occasion arse where mon!s were committing homicide
the third 2ara&i!a offence had $een laid down.
In the case of committing the false of pretending superior status the fourth 2ara&i!a
offence had $een committed. All these offences arise from the motivation of 5aga,
Dasa and 8oha. And the mean of e#pression is $y $ody, speech and thought. hey
were grouped as grave offences leading to e#pulsion.
The teacher and pupil relationship in *inaya
he young mon!s who have entered the 3rder from various families should have
some protection while they are living in a monastery. "ince they have ordained from
various families they are deprived of their close relation, when they are sic!, when
they have some pro$lems there should $e some $ody to fulfil their needs. In the
.inaya we o$serve the connection $etween the teacher and pupil. his connection has
a psychological importance.
he 7padhyaya and Acariya are two important concepts in Buddhism. 3ut of these
concepts first evolved the 7padhyaya which is commonly called 7pa&&haya. his is
the first position given to mon!s when the mon!s were living untrained. In order to
train them the post of 7pa&&haya was given. In this manner the young mon! who
newly entered the 3rder was trained $y the 7pa&&haya 'preceptor(.
hen came the position of Acariya. "ome time when the 7pa&&haya was not there in
the case where he is dead or disro$ed there was anyone for the student to approve to
receive some advices. Because of these situations the Acariya was appointed. hose
who are under the 7pa&&haya are called "addhivihari!a. hose who under Acariya are
Antevasi!a. he relation $etween the teachers and pupils of $oth categories were &ust
li!e the relation $etween the father and sons. he teachers and preceptors considered
their pupils as sons. And always loo! after them when they are in trou$le or sic!.
,hen they need something they always provided whatever necessary &ust as a father
may loo! after the sons. he pupils also loo! after their teachers and preceptors with
great respect. As if they loo! after their won father, they did their duties to the
teachers and preceptors. ,hen they are sic! the pupils attended on them. ,hen they
need some thing they provided.
The difference et(een %cariya and ,pa++haya
here is a different in these two positions of teacher 'Acariya( and preceptor
'7pa&&haya(. 7pa&&haya means a teacher who ma!es a very sharp e#amination ).a&&a
va&&am upani&&hayati upapa&&hayo*. %e is a teacher who e#amines the wrong action of
the pupil whether the wrong done is very small or very $ig. he 2ali Cnglish
dictionary gives the meaning for the 7pa&&haya )the teacher of inner*.
::
Acariya means the teacher. he term is defined thus )Cvam sa&&hayita$$am evam
a$hi!!hami ta$$am adina si!!hapana !ho acariya- he is the one who gives education
a teacher of politeness and eti9uette*.
In the Buddhist educational theory 7pa&&haya gets the higher place or superiority
while the Acariya gets the second place. If a person is to $e trained well the duty of
the teachers and preceptors are $oth very important. Because of this type of training
given to the mon!s in the monastery the Buddhist ordination was always successful.
he environment in the monastery at the very $eginning led to the appointing of
teachers and preceptors $y the Buddha. At the $eginning the mon!s who were
ordained even after receiving higher ordination e#hi$ited certain draw$ac!. "ome
mon!s did not wear the ro$e properly. "ome did not go for alms in an orderly way.
"ome used to stretch out the $owl approaching those who are eating foot. "ome
$agged for alms going here and there. And the people were discarded with their
$ehaviours. herefore, the needs arose to appoint a new mon!.
hereafter the position of 7pa&&haya was given. It was the custom in Buddhist .inaya
that the pupil should accept the 7pa&&haya saying thus: sir, please $e good enough to
$ecome my 7pa&&haya. hen the teacher $y $ody and word made an e#pression to
accept the re9uest. hereafter $oth of them were e#pected to have the regard of
parents and teachers. he pupil thus receives what they e#pected from their parents
and teachers. Both parties honoured and respected each other.
his connection was enforced $y the Buddha in favour of the welfare of Dhamma and
.inaya. ,hen the "addhivihari!a is ill all the necessary attention should $e paid $y
the 7pa&&haya. his type of connection is ethically appreciated and it com$ined their
connection. It was Du!!ata offence if one does not honour and attend on his
7pa&&haya. he Buddha ordered to 9uite those "addhivihari!as who $elieved $adly.
"ome time "addhivihari!as were $ehaving $adly. he Buddha laid down a .inaya
rule to allow the "addhivihari!as to $eg pardon. "ome time tough 'harsh( minded.
7pa&&haya did not give pardon. hen the Buddha said the 7pa&&haya who does not $eg
pardon will $e facing the offence Du!!ata. "ome 7pa&&haya wanted to 9uite good
manner 'saddhivihari!a( that was very unfair. hen the Buddha said it is a Du!!ata
offence for an 7pa&&haya to 9uite a polite "addhivihari!a.
,ith regard to this, the Buddha pointed out the type of "addhivihari!as who are
suita$le to $e sent away. hey are:
1. hose who have no great love for the 7pa&&haya
:. hose who have no great pleasing for 7pa&&haya
<. hose who have no shame for 7pa&&haya
=. hose who have no great honour for 7pa&&haya
>. hose who have no loving !indness for 7pa&&haya
In this manner the teacher and pupil relationship in the Buddhist .inaya has $ased on
ethics. And it was cycle psychologically very sound for the young mon!s who enter
the 3rder. hey had protection and self-satisfaction in the 3rder. It was some sort of
mutual understanding $etween two parents. +inally we o$serve the accent of Buddhist
ethical $ac!ground.
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%dhikaranasa!atha
he Buddhist monastic legislation comes in the Khandha!as under the section
"amatha!handha!a. here are seven Adhi!aranasamatha. hey were very important
for the purpose of maintaining unity and peace among the mon!s in the monastery.
,hen a large num$er of mon!s are living in the monastery various pro$lems naturally
arise. here should $e some method or some persons responsi$le to settle such
pro$lems. By this 'A( !in!s of Adhi!aranasamatha, it was a$le to find out who is
guilty and who is in innocent accordingly the gravity of the offence $eing considered
the cases are duly settled. he following are 'A( Adhi!aranasamatha.
1. "ammu!h$vinaya- verdict in the presence of
:. "ativinay- verdict in innocence
<. Am7lhavinaya- verdict of past insanity
=. 2ati''ata!arana- carrying out the ac!nowledgement
>. 6e$huyyasi!$- $y the decision of the ma&ority
@. assap$piyyasi!$- an act of condemnation for shameless $ehaviour
A. inavatth$ra!a- $y the covering up of grass
Sammukh A "inaya# according to this method recogni/ing is done $y reali/ing the
offence and no penalties should $e done on the offender in his a$sence. he verdict
should $e given in the presence of one who has done the false. In the .inaya te#t it is
said that, it is a Du!!ata offence to give a punishment when the offender is a$sent.
his is very important and considered as pre-re9uisite in forms of Adhi!aranasamatha.
Sati"inaya and Amulha"inaya# these two provide against possi$le discourage of
&ustice in monastic administration. he law is to $e carried on with human
consideration and not $e done through malice, &ealousy, or pre&udice.
he "ativinaya is intended for the e#oneration of a guiltless mon!s falsely accused $y
malice party. herefore, "ativinaya is actually for verdict of innocence.
he Amulhavinaya see!s e#ception for offences committed in a state of unsound
mind. .inaya is always against offenders who claimed falsely, pretending to $e
unsound.
Pati GG atakarana# It means the disciplinary action should $e done with
ac!nowledgement of the guilty mon!. he mon! who had committed the offence
should understand his offence and he should accept the disciplinary action imposed on
him.
'ebhuyyasika and Tina"attharaka# hese two are different from the rest of the
Adhi!aranasamathas. hey are not only interested in safeguarding the character of
individual. But the y are also concerned with settling their dispute. By the decision of
ma&ority disputer are settled. he covering up of grass means collective disciplinary
measure carried on safeguarding the character. In this case the offences treated are
minor in character. hey e#cluded ma&or offences as 2ara&i!a and "anghadisesa.
Tassapapiyyasika# It has a great deal more in common with the Danda Kammas as a
means of maintaining order in the community. According to "amanta$hasati!a, it is
:=
the same as a&&aniya!amma. It is possi$le to punish and an offender who refuses to
accept the &udgement of the "angha. It is carried out on one who deli$erately lies and
attempt to evade a charge laid upon him.
According to Kan!havitarani, it would result in complete elimination from the
monastic community, if a 2ara&i!a offence is committed or else a possi$le correction
of a lesser offence.
3ut of these 'A( Adhi!aranasamatha, the 6e$huyyasi!a is supposed to $e the most
comple# when it is not possi$le to settle a monastic dispute. ,ithin the monastery the
Bhi!!hu connected with it, should ta!e the method to the mem$er of another
monastery who are greater in num$er $y mutual agreement the mon!s would settle
the dispute. hen the mon! refers the method to select committee for settlement. +or
the mem$ership of the community not only good virtuous conduct was necessary. It
was essential to have a through !nowledge of Dhamma and .inaya. If they still
cannot solve the pro$lems it should $e refer to the 8ahasangha. By method of direct
and indirect canvassing the "angha must assure itself of a ma&ority for a righteous
cause. he three forms of voting are recommended. hey are secret $allot, whispering
in the ear and open $allot.
All these methods are carried on for the welfare of the community. It was necessary to
preserve unity and harmony among the fellow mon!s. It is also very important to note
that under the 2atinnata!arana no punishment of penalty should $e imposed without
offender admitting his false. A mon! who has committed on offence whether urged $y
others or not should recognise and confess it. %e is then as!ed to address himself to a
senior mem$er of another and owning and admitting his offence under ta!en to guard
himself in the future. In this manner each individual should $e responsi$le to $e free
from offences in order to protect a purity of the community.
In this manner Adhi!aranasamatha as part of the missionary for the maintenance of
monastic discipline, em$race a wider field of activity than the 2atimo!!ha. hey are
not offences $ut are only methods and ways $y means of which the collective
organi/ation of the "angha may arrive at a settlement of monastic dispute.
Penalties
According to &udicial procedure laid down in the 2ali te#ts to deal with offences
committed $y mon!s consist of an ela$orated procedure for the hearing of case as
well as e#ecution of &udgement. here are four forms of rules:
1. .inaya rules formulated $y the Buddha himself
:. "utt$nuloma- other relevant rules
<. Acariyavada- convention esta$lished $y ac!nowledged teachers
=. Attanomati-personal view of .inayadhamma

he Buddha prescri$es the .inaya rules with the view to achieving the follow ten
purposes:
1. o esta$lish the "angha in a sound footing
:. o !eep the "angha free from trou$le
<. o punish those who do not o$ey even after $eing punished
=. o guarantee the freedom of those who are peaceful
:>
>. o !eep mem$er of the "angha free from worldly defilement
@. o !eep them free from of defilement, which may result in the future
A. o ma!e non-$elievers, $elieve
?. o ma!e $elievers dou$le their faith
H. o esta$lish the law
1D. o strengthen the course of discipline
he primary purpose to guarantee the li$erty of individual $hi!!hu was to create a
pleasant social atmosphere within and without the organi/ation of "angha. An attempt
is made to ensure that punishment is given only to the person who is guilty. he
philosophy $ehind the method of punishment was to correct them and not to ta!e
revenge. 3nce a $hi!!hu is convicted. %e is not completely written off as an
encouragea$le. But the "angha would $e 9uite willing to reinstate him and provided
him to reform himself and amended his evil ways suita$ly. %owever in the case of
those who are convicted of the four ma&or offences there is no reinstatement. here is
a specific procedure to $e following the $hi!!hu acting as &udge should strictly follow
the procedure. ,hen a mon! is $rought $efore the court when charge with
committing and offence, he is as!ed to e#plain what he has committed. he accused is
given the opportunity to depend himself. ,hen $oth to accuse and the component
have placed. heir fact, $efore the court, the .inayadhara mon! e#amine carefully the
following si# points:
1. he fact of the case as reported to the court
:. 5elevant vinaya
<. 0orrect interpretaltion
=. he three-fold group of rules
>. 8inor offences
@. he circumstances, which are not lia$le
he .inayadhara mon!s need 9ualification:
1. hrough with law in all aspect
:. Buided $y law and firm
<. 0onversant with legal convention
here are various type of penalties:
1. a&&aniya!amma J act of censure
:. -issaya !amma- act of su$-ordination
<. 2a$$a&aniya !amma- act of $anishment
=. 2atisaraniya !amma- act of reconciliation
>. 7!!hepaniya !amma- suspension
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