Aircraft Design Project

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT
1

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT - 1
Department of Aerospace Engineering,
SRM University, Kattankulathur,
Chennai.

NAME: P H Abhishek
Aerospace A
REG. NO: 1191110068


2

Acknowledgement

Foremost, I would like to thank Mr. Abdur Rasheed and Mr. Mohammed Ariff for
their knowledge and guidance in completing this project. I am also thankful to our
Head of the Department Mr. Vasudevan for his knowledge, insight and experience in
diverse fields. Besides, Im also thankful to the rest of the faculty members of the
department for their expertise and knowledge in various subjects. Finally, I would like
to thank my friends for their continuous motivation and support.


3

Abbreviations

= density at cruise altitude
= cruising velocity

= Reynolds number at cruising altitude

= viscosity at cruising altitude
= Aspect ratio of the wing
= span of the wing
= chord of the wing
= viscosity at sea level

= sweep angle
= Taper ratio
= Root chord
= Tip chord
= Mean chord
= Thrust required
= Thrust at cruising altitude
= density at the specified altitude

= density at sea level
= Take off velocity
= Landing velocity
= Stalling velocity
= Gross weight of the airplane
= Take off distance
= Landing distance
= maximum rate of climb


4

Aim of the project

The aim of this design project is to design a cargo aircraft capable of carrying a payload of
20,000 kgs. It covers both the design and the performance characteristics of the aircraft. The
following design requirements and research studies are set for the project:
To operate on an international scale.
To use advanced and state of the art technologies to reduce operating costs.
To offer a unique and competitive service to existing scheduled operations.
To produce a commercial analysis of the aircraft project.


5

Abstract

This projects motive is to develop a functional 20,000 kg payload cargo aircraft. The aircraft
has a gross weight of 68554.56 kgs. It uses a NACA 2414 airfoil and has a high wing with
slotted flaps. The engine selected has a thrust of 226 KN with one engine on either side. It is
of the turbofan type such that it produces the adequate speed, range and fuel economy. The
aircraft has a conventional type tail.


6

Basic design process


7

Introduction:
An airplane design is both an art and a science. It is an intellectual engineering
process of creating on paper a flying machine to
Meet specifications established by users.
Pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology.
The design process is an intellectual activity developed via experience, by attention paid to
successful airplane designs that have been used in the past and by design procedures and
databases that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.
Phases of airplane design:
From time when an airplane materializes as a new thought to the time the finished
product is ready, the complete design undergoes 3 distinct phases in perfect sequences
which are:
Conceptual Design
Preliminary Design
Detail Design
Conceptual Design:
The design process starts with a set of specifications or much less frequently to desire
to implement pioneering. There is a concrete goal where we designers are aiming at. The
first step towards it is conceptual design. Within a fuzzy latitude, overall shape, size, weight
are determined for the potential user.
The product of the conceptual design phase is layout of the airplane
configuration on paper. This drawing has flexible lines, which can be slightly changed.
However when we get a detailed account of layout configuration at the end of this phase.
The major drivers during conceptual design process are aerodynamics, propulsion and flight
performance.
Structural and control system considerations are not dealt in detail but
however they are not totally absent. The designer is influenced by qualitative aspects. No
part of the design process is carried out in total vacuum unrelated to other parts.
Preliminary design:
This phase includes only minor changes to be made in the configuration layout. There
is serious control and structural system analysis and design takes place. During this phase
substantial wind tunnel testing will be carried out and major computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) calculation. At the end of this phase, the airplane configuration is frozen and defined.
The drawing process is called lofting. This process makes precise shape of outside skin of
airplane making certain all sections fit together.

8

The end of the phase is the decision if the plane is to be manufactured or not. It is no
longer a critical condition where you- bet your company on fuel scale development of a
new airplane.

Detail Design:
This phase is literally the nuts and bolts phase of the airplane design. The
aerodynamic, propulsion, structures, performance and flight control analysis are over in the
preliminary phase. The airplane is to be fabricated and machined. The size, number and
location of rivets, fasteners are determined mow. Flight simulators are developed. At the end
of this phase, the aircraft is ready to be fabricated.
The seven intellectual pivot points for conceptual design
The overall conceptual design is anchored seven intellectual pivot points seven
factors that anchor the conceptual design thought process. They allow different, detailed
thinking to reach out in all directions from each point.
Requirements:
The requirements are given by the people who are going to buy the customers. For
other aircrafts, these requirements are usually set by the manufacturer in full appreciation of
needs of the owner. Requirements of one airplane are different form the other. There can be
no stipulated specific standard. There must be established requirements that serve as
impinge off point for design processes. The requirements that are frequently stipulated are:
Range
Take-off distance
Stalling velocity
Endurance
Maximum velocity
Rate of climb.
For dog fighting combat, maximum turn rate and minimum turn radius are required. The
others are:
Maximum load factor
Service ceiling
Cost
Reliability and Maintainability
Maximum size


9

Critical performance parameters:
Requirements stipulate the performance of the new aircraft. The critical parameters
are:
Maximum lift coefficient
Lift to drag ratio ( L/D )
Thrust to weight ratio ( T/W )
Therefore the next step is to make first estimates of W/S and T/W to achieve the
performance as stipulated by the requirements.

10

Fig 1.1

11

Configuration layout:
The configuration layout is a drawing of the shape and size of the plane as evolved
till stage. The critical performance parameters along with first estimate helps to draw the
configuration and approximate the size of the aircraft.
Better Weight Estimate:
The overall size and shape of the airplane are better known now. There is now and
improved estimate of weight based performance parameters. A more detailed estimate of
fuel is required now.

Performance analysis:
This is the point where the configuration is judged if it can meet all original
specifications. An interactive process is initiated where the configuration in modified. The
critical performance parameters are just adjusted for improving performance. In this stage,
some mature decisions should be made as the specifications or cost or unavailable
technology. Hence some specifications might be relaxed so that others might get higher
priority.
Optimization:
When iterative process is over, it has produced a viable airplane. This leads to
optimization. The optimization analysis is carried out, may be carried out by a systematic
variation of different parameters T/W, W/S and plotting the performance of graphs which
can be found using a sizing matrix or a carpet plot form which optimum design can be
found.

Weight of the airplane First estimate:
No airplane can take off the ground unless it produces a lift greater than its weight.
There should be a first estimate of gross take-off weight. The weight estimate is the next
pivot point after the requirements. Lilienthal Langley and wright brothers knew more weight
means more drag. This needed an engine with greater power and hence more weight.
Constraint diagram:
A constraint diagram is constructed which identifies allowable solution space for
airplane design. A constraint diagram consists of plots of the sea level thrust to take-off
weight ratio versus wing loading at take-off weight ratio T0/W0 versus wing loading at take-
off W0/s determined by intellectual pivot point.


12

The design wheel

Fig 1.2


13

Literature Survey


14

The following tables include the geometric, performance, engine and weight parameters of a
list of cargo aircrafts with a payload of 20,000 kg.
GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS:
S.No. Name of the
aircraft
Aspect
Ratio
Wing Span
(m)
Length (m) Height (m) Wing Area
(m
2
)
1. Antonov An
12
11.86:1 38 33.1 10.53 121.7
2. Lockheed L
100
10.06:1 40.4 34.35 11.66 162.1
3. Shaanxi Y 8 11.84:1 38 34.02 11.16 121.9
4. Lockheed C
130
10.06:1 40.4 29.8 11.6 162.1
5. Shaanxi Y 9 40 36 11.3
6. Tupolev Tu
204
9.48:1 41.8 46.14 13.9 184.2
7. Embraer KC
390
35.06 33.91 10.26
8. Transall C
160
10:1 40 32.4 11.65 160
9. UAC/HAL Il
214
30.1 33.2 10
10. Airbus A310
MRTT
43.9 47.4 15.8
11. Lockheed KC
130
10.07:1 40.41 29.79 11.84 162.1
12. Boeing C 40 34.32 33.63 12.55
13. Aero
Spacelines
Super Guppy
12.42:1 47.625 43.84 14.78 182.51
14. Aero
Spacelines
Mini Guppy
11.53:1 43.1 33.7 11.7 161.1
15. Boeing 727
200F
7.08:1 32.92 40.6 10.36 153
16. Boeing 737
200F
7.87:1 28.35 28.65 11.23 102
Table 1.1


15

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS:
S.No. Name of the
aircraft
Range
(Km)
Service
Ceiling (m)
Max.
Speed
(km/hr )
Cruising
speed
(km/hr )
Rate of
climb
(m/min)
1. Antonov An
12
3600 10200 777 670 597.4
2. Lockheed L
100
2470 7000 570 541 557.78
3. Shaanxi Y 8 5615 10400 660 550 609.6
4. Lockheed C
130
3800 10060 592 540 557.78
5. Shaanxi Y 9 7800 10400 650
6. Tupolev Tu
204
4300 12600 900 850
7. Embraer KC
390
4815 10973 850
8. Transall C
160
1853 8230 513 335 396.24
9. UAC/HAL Il
214
2500 12000 870 830
10. Airbus A310
MRTT
8889 978
11. Lockheed KC
130
5250 8615 671 643
12. Boeing C 40 5600 12500 990
13. Aero
Spacelines
Super Guppy
3219 7620 463 407
14. Aero
Spacelines Mini
Guppy
6920 10670 603 482
15. Boeing 727
200F
4300 11000 1072.44 864 896.112
16. Boeing 737
200F
2850 10700 876 780
Table 1.2


16

ENGINE PARAMETERS:
S.No. Name of the
aircraft
Name of the
engine
Type of
engine
No of
engines
Thrust ( KN )
1. Antonov An 12 Progress Al 20 Turboprop 4
2. Lockheed L
100
Allison 501
D22A
Turboprop 4
3. Shaanxi Y 8 Zhuzhou
WoJiang 6
Turboprop 4
4. Lockheed C
130
Allison T56A
15
Turboprop 4
5. Shaanxi Y 9 Zhuzhou
WoJiang 6C
Turboprop 4
6. Tupolev Tu
204
Aviadviagetel
PS90 A
Turbofan 2 157
7. Embraer KC
390
IAE V2500
E5
Turbofan 2 129
8. Transall C 160 Rolls Royce
Type MK22
Turboprop 2
9. UAC/HAL Il
214
Aviadviagetel
PS90 A 76
Turbofan 2 140
10. Airbus A310
MRTT
GE CF 6 Turbofan 2 262
11. Lockheed KC
130
Dowty
propellers Rolls
Royce AE 2100
Turboprop 4
12. Boeing C 40 CFM
international
CM 56 7
Turbofan 2 121
13. Aero Spacelines
Super Guppy
Allison 501
D22C
Turboprop 4
14. Aero Spacelines
Mini Guppy
Pratt and
Whitney R4360
Radial 4
15. Boeing 727
200F
Pratt and
Whitney JT8D
1
Turbofan 3 62
16. Boeing 737
200F
Pratt and
Whitney JT8D
1
Turbofan 2 64
Table 1.3


17

WEIGHT PARAMETERS:
S.No. Name of the
aircraft
Empty
Weight (Kg)
Max. Takeoff
Weight (Kg)
Payload (Kg) Fuel Weight
(kg)
1. Antonov An 12 28000 61000 20000
2. Lockheed L
100
35260 70300 23150
3. Shaanxi Y 8 35490 61000 20000
4. Lockheed C
130
34400 70300 20400
5. Shaanxi Y 9 39000 77000 25000
6. Tupolev Tu 204 103000 21000
7. Embraer KC
390
74000 81000 23600
8. Transall C 160 29000 51000 16000
9. UAC/HAL Il
214
68000 20000 13500
10. Airbus A310
MRTT
113999 163998 28000
11. Lockheed KC
130
34274 79378 19090
12. Boeing C 40 57150 78000 18000
13. Aero Spacelines
Super Guppy
46039 77110 24720
14. Aero Spacelines
Mini Guppy
37410 79370 17010
15. Boeing 727
200F
36560 77000 23500 28876
16. Boeing 737
200F
28100 50300 18140 17747.12
Table 1.4


18

Graph 1.1

Graph 1.2
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
R
a
n
g
e

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs Range
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
L
e
n
g
t
h

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs Length

19

Graph 1.3

Graph 1.4
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
H
e
i
g
h
t

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs Height
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
180000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
M
a
x
.

T
a
k
e
o
f
f

w
e
i
g
h
t

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs Max. Take - off weight

20

Graph 1.5

Graph 1.6
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
W
i
n
g

l
o
a
d
i
n
g

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs Wing loading
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
W
i
n
g

a
r
e
a

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs Wing area

21

Graph 1.7

Graph 1.8
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
S
e
r
v
i
c
e

c
e
i
l
i
n
g

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs Service ceiling
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
S
p
a
n

/

l
e
n
g
t
h

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs Span / Length

22

Graph 1.9

Graph 1.10
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
P
a
y
l
o
a
d

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs Payload
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
W
i
n
g
s
p
a
n

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs Wingspan

23

Graph 1.11
Design Values:
Parameter Avg. Value
Range 4400 km
Aspect ratio 10.52:1
Rate of climb 770 m/min
Max. Take-off Weight 70,000 kgs
Service Ceiling 11,000 m
Span/Length 1.02
Length 36 m
Height 11.52 m
Wing Loading 400
Table 1.5

Conclusion:
Thus the literature survey was performed on various aircrafts and the design values
were obtained.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
R
a
t
e

o
f

c
l
i
m
b

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs Rate of climb

24

Weight Estimation


25

The second pivot point in our conceptual design analysis is the preliminary estimation of the
gross weight of the airplane.
The various components of an airplane are:
Crew weight (

):
The crew comprises the people necessary to operate the airplane in flight.
Payload weight (
):

The payload is what the airplane is intended to transport passengers, baggage,
freight etc. If the airplane is intended for military use, the payload includes bombs,
rockets and other disposable ordnance.

Fuel weight(
):
This is the weight of the fuel in the fuel tanks. Since fuel is consumed during flight,
is a variable, decreasing with time during flight.
Empty weight (
):
This is the weight of everything else the structure, engines, electronic equipment,
landing gear, fixed equipment etc.
The sum of these weights is the total weight of the airplane W. The design
take off gross weight

is the weight of the airplane the instant it begins its
mission.

Rewriting the above equation,

Or

Solving for

)


26

Estimation of

:
The historical, statistical data on previous airplanes provide a starting point for the
conceptual design of a new airplane. By drawing a graph between

and

, we get the
required value.
Estimation of

:
The amount of fuel required to carry out the mission depends critically on the efficiency of
the propulsion device the engine specific fuel consumption and propeller efficiency. It
depends critically on the aerodynamic efficiency the lift to drag ratio. By the Brequet
Range equation, we have

The mission segment weight fraction is given by,
Mission segment weight fraction =

The mission profile, a conceptual sketch of altitude versus time is shown,

Fig 2.1
From the mission profile, the ratio of the airplane weight at the end of the mission to the
initial gross weight is W
5
/W
0
. In turn,

If, at the end of the flight, the fuel tanks were completely empty, then

Having a 6% allowance, we get,

27

(from table 3.1 Airplane Design by Raymer, Ref. Annex. Table 7)

Calculation:

Graph 2.1

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000 160000 180000
W
e

/

W
0

W
0
W
e
/ W
0
vs W
0

28

(from table 2.1 Airplane Design by Dr. Ian Roskam, Ref. Annex. Table 4)

For cruise,


For loiter,


Therefore,


29

Conclusion:
Thus the weight estimation for the cargo aircraft with a payload of 20,000 kg was
done and the gross weight was found to be

Also,


30

Selection of airfoil

Introduction:

31

Before the design layout can be started, values for a number of parameters which includes
the airfoils must be chosen. The airfoil of a plane is chosen such that there is maximum lift
and minimum drag.
An airfoil is the shape of a wing as seen in cross section. An airfoil-shaped body moved
through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force. The component of this force perpendicular
to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the direction of motion is
called drag. Subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a rounded leading edge,
followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with asymmetric camber.
Importance of airfoil in an aircraft:
The airfoil, in many respects, is the heart of the airplane. The shape of the airfoil affects the
following factors:
Cruising speed
Takeoff and landing distance
Stall speed
Handling qualities (especially near the stall), and
Overall aerodynamic efficiency during all phases of fight.

The P-51 was regarded as the finest fighter of world war 2 in part because of its radial
laminar - flow airfoil.
Schemes have been devised to define airfoils an example is the NACA system. Various
airfoil generation systems are also used. An example of a general purpose airfoil that finds
wide application, and predates the NACA system, is the Clark-Y. Today, airfoils can be
designed for specific functions using inverse design programs such as PROFOIL, XFOIL and
Aerofoil.
The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile by:
First digit describing maximum camber as percentage of the chord. Second digit describing
the distance of maximum camber from the airfoil leading edge in tens of percents of the
chord. Last two digits describing maximum thickness of the airfoil as percent of the chord.
Next developed, was the five digit series. In NACA 23012, the first digit when multiplied by
3/2, gives the design lift coefficient in tenths. The design lift coefficient is an index of the
amount of camber. The second and third digits together are a number which, when
multiplied by gives the location of the maximum camber. The last two digits give the
maximum thickness in percentage of the chord.
The NACA 6 digit series included the NACA 64 212, in which the first number simply gives
the series designation. The second digit is the location of minimum pressure. The third digit
gives the design lift coefficient in tenths. The last two digits, as usual, give the maximum
thickness in percentage of the chord.

32

Fig 3.1
Airfoil nomenclature

Fig 3.2
The front of the airfoil is defined by a leading - edge radius which is tangent to the
upper and lower surfaces.
An airfoil designed to operate in supersonic flow will have a sharp or nearly - sharp
leading - edge to prevent a drag producing bow shock.
The chord of the airfoil is the straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge.
The camber refers to the curvature characteristic of most airfoils. The mean camber
line is the line equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces. Total airfoil camber is
defined as the maximum distance of the mean camber line to the chord line.


33

Calculation:
The Reynolds number at cruise is given by,

From graph, we know that,

Where

Service ceiling = 11,000 m
From gas tables,

We know that,


34

S.No Name of the airfoil

1 NACA 66 009 1.01 0.06 66.2
2 NACA 63 015 0.85 0.018 47.22
3 NACA 2414 0.8 0.01 80
4 NACA 2408 1 0.015 66.67
5 EPPLER 520 AIRFOIL 0.75 0.01 75
6 LWK 80 150/K25 0.65 0.015 43.3
7 B737C IL 0.9 0.012 75
Table 3.1
From the above data we can see that NACA 2414 has the maximum Cl and the minimum Cd
for the reynolds number
.

Conclusion:
The airfoil is the best suited airfoil for the calculated reynolds number.


35

NACA 2414

Fig 3.3
Coordinates

1.00000 0.00147
0.99739 0.00210
0.98929 0.00396
0.97587 0.00700
0.95729 0.01112
0.93372 0.01620
0.90542 0.02207
0.87267 0.02857
0.83582 0.03552
0.79527 0.04274
0.75143 0.05004
0.70480 0.05723
0.65586 0.06412
0.60515 0.07053
0.55324 0.07629
0.50069 0.08120
0.44808 0.08512
0.39598 0.08787
0.34454 0.08913
0.29482 0.08866
0.24740 0.08645
0.20285 0.08255
0.16169 0.07707
0.12440 0.07014
0.09141 0.06198
0.06310 0.05281
0.03977 0.04289
0.02165 0.03245
0.00892 0.02171
0.00169 0.01085
0.00000 0.00000

0.00379 -0.01031
0.01293 -0.01956
0.02730 -0.02770
0.04669 -0.03471
0.07087 -0.04054
0.09957 -0.04516
0.13246 -0.04858
0.16918 -0.05082
0.20937 -0.05195
0.25260 -0.05208
0.29844 -0.05133
0.34644 -0.04987
0.39611 -0.04787
0.44739 -0.04537
0.49931 -0.04232
0.55129 -0.03886
0.60276 -0.03516
0.65316 -0.03132
0.70194 -0.02745
0.74857 -0.02365
0.79252 -0.01998
0.83331 -0.01650
0.87048 -0.01328
0.90360 -0.01035
0.93230 -0.00776
0.95626 -0.00557
0.97518 -0.00381
0.98886 -0.00252
1.00000 -0.00147

Table 3.1


36

Wing parameters


37

Sweep angle:
The angle between the lateral arms and the quarter-chord line. It is also referred to as
the leading-edge sweep. Referring to fig 4.2 in A conceptual approach by Raymer the
quarter Chord sweep (in degrees) = 7

Fig 4.1

Fig 4.2

38

Taper ratio:
It is the ratio between the tip chord and the centre-line root chord. Most wings of low
sweep have a taper ratio of 0.4-0.6. Most swept wings have taper ratios of 0.2 to 0.4.
For sweep angle= 7 , taper ratio= 0.35 (approx.)
Chord of the wing:
The chord decreases along the length of the wing from wing root to wing tip. The
chord at the root of the wing is called root chord and the chord at the wing tip, the tip
chord.
Root chord:

Position of wing:

Fig 4.3
High wing: It is mounted on the upper fuselage when contrasted to shoulder wing applies to
awing mounted on a projector (carbon roof) above the top of the main fuselage.
Advantages:
Short landing distance
More ground clearance for engines
Easier passenger and cargo loading
Better view
Disadvantages:
Poor visibility towards the top and rear of the aircraft.

39

Placement of landing gear
Has more frontal area which increases drag
Applications:
Antonov An-140
ATR-42
Mid-wing:

Fig 4.4
It is mounted approximately half-way up the fuselage.
Advantages:
Structurally efficient
Capable of performing extreme maneuvers and aerobatics
Space for armaments and cargo available
Less interference drag
Disadvantages:
More expensive
Reinforcement at wing root not possible
Used in less aircrafts
Applications:
Milla JM-2
Sawya Skyjacker-II
Low wing:

Fig 4.5

40

It is mounted near the bottom of the fuselage.
Advantages:
Easy maintenance
Better visibility
Dihedral configuration makes it stable
Disadvantages:
More interference drag
Susceptible to ground effects
More speed required at approach
Applications:
Airbus A380

Conclusion:
The following are the wing parameters chosen for a 20000 kg cargo aircraft.


41

Engine selection


42

To select the required engine, a graph between
and
is plotted.

Graph 5.1
From graph,

Now

The closest value we get from literature survey is chosen as the best engine for this aircraft.
Name of the engine No of the engines Thrust( per engine) Kn
By calculation From literature
survey
CFM International
CM 56- 7
2 113.115 121
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
T

/

W
t
a
k
e
o
f
f

Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs T / Wtakeoff

43

Table 5.1

Fig 5.1
Engine specifications:
General characteristics:
Type: Twin-spool, high-bypass turbofan
Length: 2.5 m
Diameter: 1.55 m (fan)
Dry weight: 2,366 kg (dry)

Components:
Compressor: Single-stage fan, 3-stage low-pressure compressor, 9-stage high pressure
compressor
Combustors: annular
Turbine: Single-stage high-pressure turbine, 4-stage low-pressure turbine

Performance:
Maximum thrust: 121 kN
Overall pressure ratio: 32.8:1
Bypass ratio: 5.5:1
Thrust-to-weight ratio: 3.7:1

Conclusion:

44

The engine chosen for this aircraft from the literature survey was the
which has a thrust of

Fuel Validation


45

We know that the fuel weight can be calculated using the following formula,

Where

Substituting in
,

Therefore,

=

Conclusion:

46

The weight of fuel at cruise by calculation, for a 20000kg cargo was found to
be
From report 2,
=>

Flap selection, Lift distribution, Lift and drag estimation


47

Lift is generated in accordance with the fundamental principles of physics. The most relevant
physics reduce to three principles:
Conservation of Momentum, which is a direct consequence of Newton's laws of
motion, especially Newton's second law which relates the net force on an element of
air to its rate of momentum change,
Conservation of Mass, including the common assumption that the airfoil's surface is
impermeable for the air flowing around, and
Conservation of Energy, which says that energy is neither created nor destroyed.

Fig 6.1
In addition, one needs an expression relating the fluid stresses (consisting of pressure and
shear stress components) to the properties of the flow. The pressure depends on the other
flow properties, such as its mass density, through the (thermodynamic) equation of state,
while the shear stresses are related to the flow through the air's viscosity.
The Prandtl lifting-line theory, is a mathematical model for predicting the lift distribution
over a three-dimensional wing based on its geometry.
The lifting-line theory makes use of the concept of circulation and of the KuttaJoukowski
theorem,

Where T is the circulation over the entire wing (m/s)
so that instead of the lift distribution function, the unknown effectively becomes the
distribution of circulation over the span.


48

Flap selection:
When in cases where the
is not enough for safe takeoff, we need to augment

the lift produced and therefore, we find the use of high lift devices.
They can be plain flap, split flap, leading edge slot, single slotted flap, double slotted flap
and combinations each.
A plain flap has a part of the airfoil is hinged to move, the split flap has a separate thinner
flap selection along the rear end of the airfoil that is hinged and moves.
A leading edge slat is a highly cambered airfoil kept at the tip of the airfoil (leading edge). A
slotted flap is a plain flap with a slot in between the hinged portion and the airfoil.

Fig 6.2

Lift:
Lift is the component of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow
direction.
Drag:
It is the component of the surface force parallel to the flow direction.
Lift coefficient
:
The lift coefficient
is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift generated by

a lifting body to the density of the fluid around the body, its velocity and an associated
reference area.

49

Drag coefficient
:
The drag coefficient
is a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify the drag

or resistance of an object in a fluid environment such as air or water.

Types of drag:
Parasitic drag:
Parasitic drag is drag that results when an object is moved through a fluid medium
(in the case of aerodynamics, a gaseous medium, more specifically, the atmosphere).
Parasitic drag is a combination of form drag, skin friction and interference drag.
Form drag:
Form drag or pressure drag arises because of the shape of the object.
Skin friction drag:
Skin friction arises from the friction of the fluid against the "skin" of the object that is
moving through it.
Interference drag:
Interference drag results when airflow around one part of an object (such as a
fuselage) must occupy the same space as the airflow around another part (such as a wing).
Wave drag:
Wave drag is a component of the drag on aircraft, blade tips and projectiles moving
at transonic and supersonic speeds, due to the presence of shock waves.

Lift estimation:
At ground,

At takeoff,

At landing,

50

The values of
correspond to the slotted flap which are,

=
=

Drag estimation:

Drag equation,
)
Calculation:
(

)

At takeoff,

Where

Therefore,


51

At landing,

Drag estimation:
At cruise,

For a jet transport the values of

and are given as,

At takeoff,


52

At landing,

Result:


53

Sizing of aircraft


54

Fuselage sizing:
Fuselage length

From table 6.3 as seen in Aircraft design by Raymer, the values of a and c for a cargo
aircraft with a payload of 20,000 kg was found to be a = 0.23 and c = 0.5 (Ref. Annex. Table
2)
Therefore,

Tail sizing:
Vertical tail:
Vertical tail area,

Where
Tail arm of vertical tail

Wing mean chord,
(from report 4)
Wing span,

Wing surface area,

Vertical tail volume coefficient,

(from table 6.4 Aircraft design by Raymer, Ref. Annex. Table 1)

Horizontal tail:
Horizontal tail area,

Where

55

Tail arm of horizontal tail

=
Horizontal tail volume coefficient,

(from table 6.4 Aircraft design by Raymer, Ref. Annex. Table 1)

Tail configuration:
It may be characterized by
No. of tailplanes from 0 (tailless or canard ) to 3 ( Roe triplane)
Location of tailplane mounted high, mid, or low on the fuselag.
Fixed stabilizer and moveable elevator surfaces, or a single combined stabilizer.
The major difference between a tail and a wing is that, the wing is designed to carry a
substantial amount of lift, a tail is designed to operate normally at only a fraction of its lift
potential.
Tails provide trim, stability and control. Trim refers to the generation of a lift force that by
acting through some moment about the center of gravity, balances some other moment
produced by the aircraft.
Conventional tails:

Fig 7.1
Provides adequate stability and control at lightest weight.
More than 70% of the aircrafts in service have this arrangement.


56

T tail:

Fig 7.2
Heavier than a conventional tail because the vertical must be strengthened in order
to support the tail.
Vertical tail is smaller.
More efficient because it allows size reduction, thus reducing fatigue for the
structure.
V Tail:

Fig 7.3
Intended to reduce wetted area of tail
Reduced interference drag but at the penality in control actuation complexity.
Y Tail:

57

Fig 7.4
Similar to v tail, but a third suface is mounted vertically beneath the V.
Reduces interference drag when compared to the conventional tail.
It is used to primarily to keep the horizontal surfaces out of the wing wake at high
angles of attack.
Tail configuration used:
The most suitable tail for a 20000 kg cargo aircraft is the conventional tail. It
provides the following advantages:
Less weight.
Adequate stability.
Some of the aircrafts (from literature survey) had the same type of tail.

Conclusion:

58

The following were found from this report.

Landing gear


59

The landing gear is the structure that supports an aircraft on the ground and allows it to taxi,
take-off, and land. In fact, landing gear design tends to have several interferences with the
aircraft structural design.

Components:
The landing gear usually includes wheels, but some aircraft are equipped with skis for snow
or float for water. In the case of a vertical take-off and landing aircraft such as a helicopter,
wheels may be replaced with skids. The figure below illustrates landing gear primary
parameters. The descriptions of primary parameters are as follows. Landing gear height is
the distance between the lowest point of the landing gear (i.e. bottom of the tire) and the
attachment point to the aircraft. Since, landing gear may be attached to the fuselage or to
the wing; the term height has different meaning. Furthermore, the landing gear height is a
function of shock absorber and the landing gear deflection. The height is usually measured
when the aircraft is on the ground; it has maximum take-off weight; and landing gear has the
maximum deflection.

Fig 8.1
Thus, the landing gear when it has the maximum extension is still height, but is less
important and application. The distance between the lowest point of the landing gear (i.e.
ground) to the aircraft cg is also of significant importance and will be employed during

60

calculations. Wheel base is the distance between main gear and other gear (from side view).
The landing gear is divided into two sections: 1. Main gear or main wheel, 2. Secondary gear
or secondary wheel. Main gear is the gear which is the closest to the aircraft center of gravity
(cg). During the landing operation, the main wheel touches first with the point of contact to
the ground. Furthermore, during the take-off operation, the main wheel leaves the ground
last. On the other hand, main gear is carrying great portion of the aircraft load on the
ground. Wheel track is the distance between two main gears (left and right) from front view.
If a gear is expected to carry high load, it may have more than one wheel. In general, the
landing gear weight is about 3% to 5% of the aircraft take-off weight. For instance, in the
case of a Boeing 747 (Figures 3.7, 3.12 and 9.4), the landing gear assembly weight about
16,000 lb.

Functional Analysis and Design Requirements:
It terms of design procedure, the landing gear is the last aircraft major component which is
designed. In another word, all major components (such as wing, tail, fuselage, and
propulsion system) must be designed prior to the design of landing gear. Furthermore, the
aircraft most aft center of gravity (cg) and the most forward cg must be known for landing
gear design. In some instances, the landing gear may drive the aircraft designer to change
the aircraft configuration to satisfy landing gear design requirements.
The primary functions of a landing gear are as follows:
1. To keep the aircraft stable on the ground and during loading, unloading, and taxi.
2. To allow the aircraft to freely move and maneuver during taxing.
3. To provide a safe distance between other aircraft components such as wing and
fuselage while the aircraft is on the ground position to prevent any damage by the
ground contact.
4. To absorb the landing shocks during landing operation.
5. To facilitate take-off by allowing aircraft acceleration and rotation with the lowest
friction.
In order to allow for a landing gear to function effectively, the following design requirements
are established.
1. Ground clearance requirement.
2. Steering requirement.
3. Take-off rotation requirement.
4. Tip back prevention requirement.
5. Overturn prevention requirement.
6. Touch-down requirement.
7. Landing requirement.
8. Static and dynamic load requirement.
9. Aircraft structural integrity.
10. Ground lateral stability

61

11. Low cost
12. Low weight
13. Maintainability
14. Manufacturability

Landing Gear Configuration:
The first job of an aircraft designer in the landing gear design process is to select the landing
gear configuration. Landing gear functions may be performed through the application of
various landing gear types and configuration. Landing gear design requirements are parts of
the aircraft general design requirements including cost, aircraft performance, aircraft stability,
aircraft contact, maintainability, productibility and operational considerations. In general,
there are ten configurations for a landing gear as follows:
1. Single main
2. Bicycle
3. Tail-gear
4. Tricycle or nose-gear
5. Quadricycle
6. Multi-bogery
7. Releasable rail
8. Skid
9. Seaplane landing device
Configuration Selection
As aircraft grow larger, they employ more wheels to cope with the increasing weights. The
earliest "giant" aircraft ever placed in quantity production, the Zeppelin-Staaken R.VI German
World War I long-range bomber of 1916, used a total of eighteen wheels for its
undercarriage, split between two wheels on its nose gear struts, and a total of sixteen wheels
on its main gear units under each tandem engine nacelle, to support its loaded weight of
almost 12 metric tons. The Boeing 747 has five sets of wheels: a nose-wheel assembly and
four sets of four-wheel bogies. A set is located under each wing, and two inner sets are
located in the fuselage, a little rearward of the outer bogies, adding up to a total of eighteen
wheels and tires. The Airbus A380 also has a four-wheel bogie under each wing with two sets
of six-wheel bogies under the fuselage. The enormous Ukrainian Antonov An-225 jet cargo
aircraft has one of the largest, if not the largest, number of individual wheel/tire assemblies
in its landing gear design with a total of four wheels on the twin-strut nose gear units, and
a total of 28 main gear wheel/tire units, adding up to a total of 32 wheels and tires.
Retractable gear:
To decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings and/or fuselage with
wheels ar against or concealed behind doors, this is called retractable gear. It was in late

62

1920s and 1930s that such retractable landing gear became common. This type of gear
arrangement increased the performance of aircraft by reducing the drag.
Tire Sizing:
Technically, the term wheel refers to a circular metal plastic object around which the rubber
tire is mounted. The brake system is mounted inside the wheel to slow the aircraft during
landing. However, in majority of cases, the entire wheel, tire, and brake system is also
referred to as the wheel. The fundamental materials of modern tires are synthetic or natural
rubber, fabric and wire, along with other compound chemicals. Today, the vast majority of
tires is generally pneumatic inflatable and includes a doughnut-shaped body of cords and
wires encased in rubber. So they consist of a tread and a body. Tires perform four important
functions with the assistance of the air contained within them: 1. Tires support the aircraft
structure off the ground. 2. They help absorb shocks from the runway surface. 3. They help
transmit acceleration and braking forces to the runway surface. 4. They help change and
maintain the direction of motion.

Fig 8.2
As a guideline, the following is the information about tires of a civil transport, a military
fighter, and a GA aircraft. The transport aircraft Boeing 777-200 is employing (8) Goodyear
main tires H49x19-22, and Michelin radial nose wheel tires 44x18-18. The fighter aircraft
McDonnell Dougles F-15 Eagle is utilizing (8) Bendix wheels and Michelin AIR X with nose
wheel tires size 22x7.75-9, and main wheel tires size 36x11-18 where tire pressure is 305 psi.
The main wheel tire of business jet Cessna 650 Citation VII (8) is of size 22x5.75 (pressure of
168 psi), while the nose wheel tire size is 188x4.4 (140 psi).
Generally speaking, for a tricycle configuration, nose tires may be assumed to be about 50-
100% the size of the main tires. For quadricycle and bicycle configurations, the front tires are
often the same size as the main tires.


63

Fuselage Design


64

Introduction:
The fuselage is an aircrafts main body section that holds crew and passengers or cargo. In
single-engine aircraft it will usually contain an engine, although in some amphibious aircraft
the single engine is mounted on a pylon attached to the fuselage which in turn is used as a
floating hull. The fuselage also serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in
specific relationships to lifting surfaces, required for aircraft stability and maneuverability.
Common practice to modularize layout:
1. Crew compartment, power plant system, payload configuration, fuel volume, landing
gear stowage, wing carry-through structure, empennage etc.
2. Or simply into front, centre and rear fuselage section designs.
Functions of fuselage:
1. Provision of volume for payload.
2. Provide overall structural integrity.
3. Possible mounting of landing gear and power plant.
Once fundamental configuration is established, fuselage layout proceeds almost
independently of other design aspects.
Primary considerations:
Most of the fuselage volume is occupied by the payload, except for:
Single and two-seat light aircraft.
Trainer and light strike aircraft.
Combat aircraft with weapons on outer fuselage & wing.
High performance combat aircraft.
Structure:
The primary concern in the development of a good structural arrangement is the provision
of efficient load paths the structural elements by which opposing forces are connected.
The primary forces to be resolved are the lift of the wing and the opposing weight or the

65

major parts of the aircrafts, such as the engines and payload. The size and the weight of the
structural members will be minimized by locating these opposing forces near to each other.
The fighter skin is fastened by a longer or stringer or stiffener which is thin strip of material,
to which the skin of the aircraft is fastened. In the fuselage, stringers are attached to formers
(also called frames) and run the longitudinal direction of the fighter jet. They are primarily
responsible for transferring the loads (aerodynamic) acting on the skin onto the frames/
formers. In the wing or horizontal stabilizer, longerons run span wise and attach between
the ribs. The primary function here also is to transfer the bending loads acting on the wings
onto the ribs and spar.

Fig 9.1

The ring-frame approach relies upon large, heavy bulkhead to carry the bending moment
through the fuselage. The wings panels are attached to fittings on the side of these fuselage
bulkheads. While this approach is usually heavier from a structural viewpoint, the resulting
drag reduction at high speeds has led to the use of the approach for most modern fighters.
The fuselage width for the cargo aircraft would be around 8.38 m (B 747).

66

Fig 9.2

Payload includes:
Internal weapons (guns, free-fall bombs, bay-housed guided weapons)
Crew (significant for anti-sub and early-warning aircraft)
Avionics equipment.
Fight test instrumentation (experimental aircraft)
Fuel (often interchangeable with other payload items on a mass basis).
Fuselage Aerodynamics:
Aim to achieve reasonable streamlined form together with minimum surface area to
meet required internal volume.
Both drag and mass heavily influenced by surface area.
Require absence of steps and minimum number of excrescences
Fundamental differences between subsonic and supersonic applications.
Concerned with: cross-section shape, nose shape & length, tail shape/length, overall
length.
Cross-Section Shape supersonic Aircraft:
Not too critical aerodynamically, but should:
Avoid sharp corners
Provide fairings for protuberances

67

Constant cross-section preferable for optimized volume utilization and ease of
manufacture.
Nose Shape:
Should not be unduly bluff.
Local changes in cross-section needed to accommodate windscreen panels.
Windscreen angle involves compromise between aerodynamics, bird-strike, reflection
and visibility requirements.
Windscreen panel sizes should be less than 0.5m2 each.
Starting point for front fuselage layout is often satisfactory position for pilots eye.
Reasonable nose length is about:
4 x fuselage diameter (supersonic).
Tail Shape:
Smooth change in section required, from maximum section area to ideally zero.
Minimization of base area especially important for transonic/ supersonic aircraft.
Important parameter for determining tail upsweep angle is ground clearance
required for take-off and landing rotation.
Typically 12 to 15.
Typical tail section lengths are:
6 to 7 x diameter (supersonic)

Centre Fuselage & Overall Length Supersonic Aircraft:
Theoretically minimum drag for streamlined body with fineness ratio (length /
diameter) of 3.
In reality, typical value is around 10, due to:
Need to utilize internal volume efficiently.
Requirement for sufficiently large moment arm for stability / control purposes.
Suitable placement of overall CG.

Wing Location Aerodynamics Considerations:
Mid-wing position gives lowest interference drag, especially well for supersonic
stealth fighter aircraft.
Top-mounted wing minimizes trailing vortex drag, especially well for low speed
aircraft.
Low wing gives improved landing gear stowage & more usable flap area.
From the above given locations of wings, the one chosen is the Low wing
configuration which gives improved landing gear stowage & more usable flap area.

68

Empennage Layout:
Vertical Surface:
Single central fin most common arrangement, positioned as far aft as possible.
Horizontal Surface:
Efficiency affected by wing downwash, thus vertical location relative to wing
important.
Usually mounted higher then wing except on high design or with small moment arm
low tail can give ground clearance problems.
Avionics:
1. Three X-band AESA radars located at the front and sides of the aircraft. These will be
accompanied by L-band radars on the wing leading edges. L-band radars are proven
to have increased effectiveness against very low observable, or stealthy, targets which
are optimized only against X-band frequencies, but their longer wavelength reduce
their resolution.

2. Full authority digital engine (or electronics) control (FADEC) is a system consisting of
digital computer, called an electronic engine controller (EEC) or engine control unit
(ECU), and its related accessories that control all aspects of aircraft engine
performance.
Advantages
Better fuel efficiency.
Automatic engine protection against out-of-tolerance operations
After as the multiple channel FADEC computer provides redundancy in ease of
failure.
Care-free engine handling, with guaranteed thrust settings
Ability to use single engine type for wide thrust requirements by just
reprogramming for FADECs
Provides semi-automatic engine starting.

3. An infra-red search and track (IRST) system (sometimes known as infra-red sighting
and tracking) on the nose of fighter which is a method for detecting and tracking
objects which give off infrared radiation such as jet aircraft and helicopters.

4. 3-D thrust vectoring along with all three aircraft axes: pitch, yaw and roll.
Weapon carriage and missiles:
Two internal bays estimated at 4.6-4.7 meters by 1-1.1 meters in an internal missile and
bomb carriage tank.
The missile is launched by ejection launch mechanism.

69

The Zvezda Kh-35U (Russian: X-35Y; AS-20 Kayak) is the jet-launched version of a Russian
subsonic anti-ship missile. It is launched by the Ejection launch mechanism. Weight = 520 kg
4 * JDAM: The Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) is a guidance kit that converts unguided
bombs, or dumb bombs into all-weather smart munitions. JDAM-equipped bombs are
guided by an integrated inertial guidance system coupled to a Global Positioning System
(GPS) receiver, giving them a published range of upto 15 nautical miles (28km) = 910 kg.

Fig 9.3

External hardpoint missiles:
The missiles are launched by the rail launch mechanism which is attached to pylons of the
wing.
The M61 Vulcan It a hydraulically or pneumatically driven, six-barreled, air cooled,
electrically fired Gatling-style rotary cannon which fires 20 mm rounds at an extremely high
rate. Weight = 112 kg.


70


71

Performance Characteristics

Take - off Performance:

Take-off distance,

, smooth panel surface
, grass


72

(

Climbing performance:
Rate of climb,

Constant Altitude Bank Turn:


73

Landing Performance:
Ground roll landing distance,

Where
W is in Newtons


74

Result:
The performance characteristics were found to be:

Conclusion
Thus all the design and performance parameters were found to be as follows:.
Geometric parameters Wing parameters Performance parameters

75

Aspect ratio = 10.52
Max. Take off weight =
70,000 kgs
Service ceiling = 11,000
m
Length = 36 m
Height = 11.52 m
= 27.252 m

= 9901.439 (By
calculation)

Wing loading = 400
Wingspan = 39.47 m
Wing area = 150.06 m
2

Airfoil selected = NACA 2414
Sweep angle = 7
Taper ratio = 0.35

= 5.707 m

= 4.1496 m

= 1.99 m
Position of wing = High wing
Flap selected = Slotted flap

Range = 4400km
Rate of climb = 770 m/min

Table 11.1

Lift and Drag parameters Tail parameters Engine parameters

Tail selected = Conventional
type

Engine selected = CFM
International CM 56 7
No. of engines = 2
Thrust = 226.23 KN
Table 11.2

Bibliography
Aircraft design: A conceptual approach, Raymer, Daniel P, American Institute
of Aeronautics & Astronautics; 5th Revised edition, ISBN-10: 1600869114

76

Theory of wing sections including a summary of airfoil data, Abott, Ira H,
ISBN-10: 0486605868
Airplane Design, Roskam, Ian, Darcorporation; 2nd edition, ISBN-10:
1884885241
Aircraft Performance & Design, Anderson J D, Tata McGraw-Hill Education,
ISBN 0070702454, 9780070702455
Airfoiltools.com
Wikipedia.org
web.mit.edu/drela/Public/web/xfoil/


77

Annexure
Table 1

Table 2

78

Table 3

Table 4

79

Table 5

Type of aircraft

e

Piston Propeller

0.022-0.028

0.82

Large Turbo-prop

0.025

0.79

Small General Aviation

0.025

0.77

Small General Aviation

0.032

0.72

Agricultural A/C

0.75

0.68

80

Subsonic Jet

0.014

0.78
Table 6

Table 7

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= viscosity at sea level

= Thrust at cruising altitude

= density at the specified altitude

= Take off velocity

= Gross weight of the airplane

= Take off distance

= maximum rate of climb

is not enough for safe takeoff, we need to augment

is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift generated by

is a dimensionless quantity that is used to quantify the drag

correspond to the slotted flap which are,

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