Ch11 Physics

11.
1
WAVES AND SOUND
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
1. SOLVE If the frequency doubles in a medium where the speed of the wave is independant of the frequency then
the relationship between speed frequency and wavelength determines the change in wavelength.
w o o
v f =
where
w
v is the velocity of waves in water.
If the frequency
1
2
o
f f = is doubled the wavelength
1
is given by:
1
1
1
2 2
w w
o
o
v v
f f
= = =
The wavelength is halved if the frequency is doubled.
REFLECT The relationship between frequency, velocity, and wavelength places each of these quantities on the
same level of mathematical importance. Physically, however, in most cases the velocity is fixed in homogeneous
media so the equation reflects an inverse relationship between frequency and wavelength.
1
f

While this relationship is generic for all wave phenomena, it cannot always be used in the way it is used above.
Consider the example of light of different frequencies traveling in glass. The speed of the light through the glass is
dependent upon frequency, which is the reason we have rainbows. For each color (frequency) the fundamental
relationship above still applies but because the velocity is dependant upon frequency, doubling the frequency will
not correspond to light with half the wavelength.
2. SOLVE Based on experience, the speed of sound in air is frequency independent. If velocity were frequency
dependant, music heard from a long distance away would sound very strange. The bass notes on the downbeat, for
example, would not arrive at your ears at the same as the treble notes on the downbeat.
REFLECT Explosive sounds (like the crack of a gun) are composed of high-frequency components and
low-frequency components. If velocity were frequency dependent in air you would not hear a crack, you would
hear the low/high frequency followed by the high/low frequencies, and this effect would be increased the farther
the source was away from the listener.
3. SOLVE The frequency and wavelength do not depend upon the amplitude of the wave, therefore the frequency
and wavelength will be unaffected by an increase in amplitude.
REFLECT The frequency is simply dependent upon how quickly the source in the medium is oscillating, and the
wavelength is dependent upon the frequency and the speed that the disturbance travels through the medium. The
amplitude may determine how far the wave travels before being dampened out by dispersive mechanisms, but it
does not affect the speed of travel of disturbances in the medium.
4. SOLVE Imagine a transfer station at the interface between the air and water consisting of a little bug that jiggles
in response to the wave in the air. Then, the jiggling bug causes the water to jiggle. This disturbance then radiates
into the bulk of the water as a wave. The frequency of the disturbance is unchanged as it goes from water to air.
11
11.2 Chapter 11
What is different between the two mediums is the speed of travel of the wave. The wave travels slower through the
air than it does through the water. From the fundamental relationship between wavelength, frequency, and speed
of travel v f = the fixed frequency and difference in speed of travel between the air and water produced longer
wavelengths in the water than in the air.
REFLECT This result would be true if the wave originated in the air and penetrated into the water as well as if the
wave originated in the water and was passed into the air. For the air water system the difference in speed is about
1.5 times so the wavelength is about 1.5 longer in water than it is in air. The invariance in the frequency means that
you will hear the same basic pitch of the voice above and below the water.
5. SOLVE The energy in a wave is not described by one point in space. The energy of a wave is distributed over a
volume containing the wave. If there is a point in space that destructive interference is observed there will be
points of constructive interference observed (i.e., where the local energy density is greater than each of the waves
individually). These points of constructive interference are where the energy goes. The energy of the wave is a
sum over all these points in space. Therefore, when considering all constructive and destructive interference, the
total energy of the wave is the sum of the energies radiating from the two sources of the wave.
REFLECT The principle of conservation of energy is one of the most important tools in our understanding of
nature. If you ever come up to a puzzle that appears to contradict this principle you can rest assured that if you look
hard enough you will find the missing energy. If you cannot find it you could be on your way to a Nobel prize.
6. SOLVE With two nodes there is one anti-node (think of a jump rope), three nodes correspond to 2 anti-nodes
(imaging a figure eight), 4 nodes yield 3 anti-nodes. Extrapolating we discover for n nodes we will observe 1 n
anti-nodes.
REFLECT Imagine a circular racetrack. One circuit around the track consists of two nodes (start and finish line)
and one anti-node (point at which you are as far away from the start/finish line as possible). Two laps introduces
one crossing of the starting line (one node) and one anti-node. Each successive lap added, adds one node and one
anti-node. We start out with one more node than anti-node so every lap will still leave a total of one more node
than anti-node.
7. SOLVE The velocity of a wave pulse on a rope increases as the tension in the rope increases. The tension in the
rope is maximum where it is fastened to the ceiling because at that point the rope must support the weight of the
entire rope below it. Therefore, assuming the rope is hanging under its own weight alone, the wave will increase in
speed as it travels up the rope because the tension in the rope increases as the position on the rope approaches the
ceiling. As the reflected wave travels back down the rope, the pulse will slow down because the tension on the rope
decreases as the rope has to support less of a percentage of the total weight of the rope.
REFLECT Pulse slowing down the rope is an easy effect to observe. Try it! If the rope supports a weight that is
much greater than the weight of the rope itself, this effect would diminish because the tension in the rope would be
due almost entirely to the weight hanging from the rope causing an effectively uniform wave velocity along the
entire rope.
8. SOLVE Tuning a brass instrument (as with other wind instruments) is achieved by changing the length of the
piping between the mouthpiece and the bell of the horn. Increase in temperature causes metals to expand hence
making the piping longer when it is warm than when it is cold. The goal of a tuned instrument is to produce
standardized frequencies during a performance. During a performance the instrument is being warmed by the
musician so it makes sense to have the temperature of the instrument match that of the performance temperature
before tuning the instrument.
REFLECT It does not take much change in length of the instrument to produce a noticeable detuning of the
instrument. The longer the pipe distance between the mouthpiece and the bell the more temperature can have an
effect on the tuning. Temperature is a very important consideration in many musical instruments from percussion
to the wind instruments.
9. SOLVE An octave difference between string 1 and string 2 (
1
S and
2
S ) corresponds to a factor of 2 difference
between the fundamental frequencies of the two strings
2 1
2
o o
f f = (we shall assume that string two has a
fundamental frequency an octave above
1
S ). The fundamental frequency is proportional to the velocity of the wave
Waves and Sound 11.3
on the string. Since the velocity with fixed tension is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass per unit
length ( ), the frequency is inversely proportional to the mass per unit length.
1
o
f

Assuming the volume density of the material of the two strings is the same, the mass per unit length is proportional
to the volume of the string which is proportional to
2
D where D is the diameter of the string (the strings have the
same length).
2
D
Combining the above proportionalities yields:
1
o
f
D

If
1 2
2
o o
f f = then =
1 2
1 2
D D
which yields:
2
1
2
D
D =
Consequently, a string whose fundamental frequency is twice that of another possesses, half the diameter.
REFLECT The high E and low E string of a guitar are under approximately the same tension and have
approximately the same volume mass density (larger steel strings are wound while the smaller strings are not). The
fundamental frequency of these two strings differs by two octaves (so differs by a factor of 4). The thicknesses (or
gauge) of the strings listed in Wikipedia also differs by a factor of 4 (approximately).
10. SOLVE Air is composed of roughly 80% N
2
and 20% O
2
. Nitrogen is lighter than oxygen. Table 11.1 shows the
speed of sound in helium is approximately 3 times that of the speed of sound in oxygen, suggesting that the speed
of sound increases as the mass of the molecules of the gas decreases. Since air has oxygen in it, it has an average
molecular mass which is larger than nitrogen alone. Therefore, we infer from the table that the speed of sound in
Nitrogen alone is greater than it would be in a nitrogen/oxygen mixture.
REFLECT The speed of sound in nitrogen under standard temperature
27 C is 353 m/s, greater than the speed

of sound in air under similar temperature and pressure conditions. This is consistent with the fact that sound travels
faster in humid air than it does in dry air. Water has a smaller molecular mass (18 amu) while airs is 29 amu.
11. SOLVE Assuming a point source of the sound, the sound intensity will decrease as a function of
2
1 r / where r is
the distance of the observer from the source. Doubling the distance will decrease the intensity by a factor of 4.
The sound intensity level is measured in units of decibels on a logarithmic scale given by:
( ) 10 log
o
SIL I I = /
Let the SIL at one distance be ( )
1 1
10 log .
o
SIL I I = / Doubling the distance produces
( ) ( )
2 1 1 1
10 log 4 10 log 10 log4 6 dB
o o
SIL I I I I SIL = / = / =
Therefore, every time the distance is doubled the sound intensity level decreases by 6 decibels.
REFLECT The SIL is constructed to produce a value of 0 dB when a sound cannot be heard anymore by the
typical human auditory system. Normal talking dB levels at 1 m distant range from 4060 dB. By our calculation,
at 2 m normal talking would have a range of 3454 dB and so on until at about 100 meters the above range is 020
dB. Which means that with a soft talker in a very quiet environment you could just barely tell that they were
talking if you were 100 meters away, and the loud talker would sound like a whisper.
12. SOLVE The standing wave mode frequencies in a tube are dependant upon the length of the tube. Longer tubes
produce lower frequencies. When all the holes are covered in a flute the tube is as long as the flute. To a first
approximation, the tube will be as long as the distance between the mouthpiece and the first open hole, so opening
holes shortens that length of the flute, increasing the fundamental pitch played.
11.4 Chapter 11
REFLECT This basic idea is generally true for all wind instruments. Of course the detailed physics involved are
more complicated. The above is true for the so-called open tone holes (they are bigger). However, so-called
register holes (smaller) are a bit more complicated and have to do with shaping the harmonic composition of the
note much like light fingering of a guitar string can omit harmonics from a tone.
13. SOLVE Sliding a trombone changes the length of the air column supporting the standing wave mode which
ultimately produces the sound emanating from the instrument. The longer the air column, the lower the pitch of the
fundamental mode. The same effect is seen in a slide whistle.
REFLECT Directly changing the length of the tube is the principle behind all brass wind instruments. However,
while the trombone allows for a continuous change in the lengths (producing a distinctive glissando capability),
other instrumentslike the trumpetproduce discrete changes in length by rerouting through paths of different
length.
14. SOLVE No, if the relative velocity of source and observer is zero (which is the case in this problem) then there is
no Doppler shift.
REFLECT If the Doppler shift depended on a velocity relative to the ground or to the average position of the gas
then you would notice many strange effects that do not occur; for example, the pitch of the music in your car
would sound differently if you were traveling on the highway (in a convertible) than if you were parked.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE PROBLEMS
15. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Given values: frequency f and wavelength .
We are asked to find speed . v The fundamental relationship connecting these three values is:
v f =
SOLVE Plugging in values yields:
0 40 Hz 2 0 m 0 80 m/s v = . . = .
Choice (d)
REFLECT A straightforward application of the fundamental relationship between , , v f and .
16. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Given values: frequency v and wavelength .
We are asked to find frequency . f The fundamental relationship connecting these three values is:
v f =
Solving for f yields:
v
f =

SOLVE Plugging in values yields:
360 m/s
240 Hz
1 5 m
f = =
.

Choice (c)
REFLECT Another straightforward application of the fundamental relationship between , , v f and .
17. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The wavelength is independent from the amplitude of the wave so changes in amplitude
will produce no change in wavelength.
SOLVE Doubling the amplitude does not affect the original wavelength of 2 67 m = .
Choice (b)
REFLECT If amplitude had an affect upon wavelength musical instruments would be even more challenging to
play than they are. Pianos would change pitch with loudness so playing a specific pitch would require both a
dynamic level and key. Music would change in pitch on your stereo depending on volume. Experience tells us this
simply is not the case.
18. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given the frequency f and the velocity . c
The fundamental relationship is:
v f =
Solving for lambda :
v
f
=
Additional notes: Frequency is given in units of
6
MHz 10 Hz =
SOLVE Plugging in values:
8
6
3 0 10 m/s
3 1 m
98 1 10 Hz
.
= = .
.

REFLECT Another straightforward application of the fundamental relationship with a slight wrinkle of units. We
learn that the wavelength of an FM radio station is around 3 meters. This wavelength gives an idea of the size of
objects that the waves can diffract (or bend) around and why you cannot receive FM radio under a bridge.
19. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The first harmonic is the fundamental frequency which has 2 nodes and 1 anti-nodes.
From Conceptual Question 6 we deduced that for the
th
n harmonic there are 1 n + nodes and n anti-nodes.
SOLVE For the third harmonic there are 3 1 + nodes and 3 anti-nodes.
Choice (b)
REFLECT A straightforward application of previous result and a little vocabulary.
20. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Sound intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source:
2
1 I d /
We are given a sound intensity
o
I at a known distance
o
d and asked to find the intensity at
1
2 :
o
d d = The
proportionality yields:
2 2
1 1 o o
I d I d =
Solving for
1
I :
2
1
2
1
o
o
d
I I
d
=
Since, in this problem,
1
2 :
o
d d =
1
4
o
I
I =
5 2
5 2
1
4 0 10 W/m
1 0 10 W/m
4
I
.
= = .
Choice (c)
REFLECT In open space, doubling the distance decreases the intensity by a factor of 1/4. The
2
1 d / dependence
does not hold in all spaces however. In a long, narrow tunnel where the sound can bounce freely off the walls
without being absorbed the sound does not diminish in intensity with distance.
11.6 Chapter 11
21. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The sound intensity level is given by:
10 log( )
o
SIL I I = /
Where the intensity
12 2
10 W/m
o
I

= is chosen to be the threshold intensity that can be heard by typical human
ears.
If we are given the intensity of a sound as we are in this problem, the determination of the SIL is a one-step
calculation.
7 12
10 log(2 0 10 10 ) 10 (log2 0 5) 53 dB SIL

= . / = . + =
Choice (b)
REFLECT As a student, you may ask why not just use the intensity. One reason is the operational intensity range
for human hearing spans approximately 12 orders of magnitude from
2
0 000000000001 W/m . to
2
1 W/m . It is
common to use a logarithmic scale when dealing with such widely ranging values.
22. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given the intensity level
1
SIL a distance
1
d from a source then asked to find
2
SIL
if the distance is doubled. Recalling the result from CQ 11 we note that doubling the distance produces a decrease
of 6 dB in the SIL value (reestablished below).
The sound intensity level is measured in units of decibels on a logarithmic scale given by:
( ) 10 log
o
SIL I I = /
Let the SIL at one distance be ( )
1 1
10 log
o
SIL I I = / . Doubling the distance produces
( ) ( )
2 1 1 1
10 log 4 10 log 10 log4 6 dB
o o
SIL I I I I SIL = / = / =
SOLVE So if the SIL is 72 dB at 25 m it must be 72 dB 6 dB 66 dB = at 50 m
Choice (a)
REFLECT Building intuition about SIL values takes some time. However, even though most of you will never
use the decibel scale in your chosen profession it is not uncommon to require some skill in manipulating
logarithms. The 6 dB rule is a handy thing to have, and if you know how to derive such rules you can produce
them for yourself in other areas.
23. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given an approach velocity of the train and the source frequency of a sound and
asked to find the frequency perceived by a stationary observer. We call upon Equation 11.7:
1
s
f
f
v v
=
/

where f is the frequency as heard from the train,
s
v is the velocity of the train approaching the stationary
observer, v is the speed of the wave (in this case the speed of sound 343 m/s).
1 13 kHz
1 2 kHz
1 (20 m/s) (343 m/s)
f
.
= = .
/

Choice (b)
REFLECT This is a significant difference in pitch and corresponds to roughly the pitch difference between any
two adjacent keys on a piano.
24. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The fractional value of the observed frequency with respect to the emitted frequency from
a retreating source is obtained by manipulations of Equation 11.8:
1
s
f
f
v v
=
+ /

It follows directly that:
1
1
s
f
f v v
=
+ /

In this problem we are given
f
f
and asked to solve for .

s
v For cleanliness let
f
f
= and isolate .
s
v
(1 1)
s
v v = /
The value 0 8 = . in this problem or 80% and we shall use 343 m/s for the speed of sound . v
343 m/s 0 25 86 m/s
s
v = . =
Choice (d)
REFLECT It is interesting to note that if the retreating velocity is the speed of sound the observed frequency is a
factor of 2 (or an octave) below the emitted frequency. Though it may seem like an object moving away at the
speed of sound would not be heard, it is not consistent with experience. You can hear a jet travel away from you
after you have heard the sonic boom. The situation is different if you are moving relative to the air away from the
source greater than the speed of sound. In this case, you cannot hear sound from the source. Study conceptual
Example 11.13 to understand this more deeply.
25. ORGANIZE AND PLAN From Figure 11.15b the fundamental and first overtone (third harmonic) is depicted. The
first overtone in the half-opened pipe is 3 times the frequency of the first harmonic since the first harmonic allows
for 1/4 of a wavelength in the tube while the first overtone allows for 3/4 of a wavelength.
We are given the fundamental frequency .
o
f To find the frequency of the first overtone we simply multiply by
three.
SOLVE The frequency of the first overtone is 3 3 220 Hz 660 Hz
o
f = =
Choice (d)
REFLECT One end closed pipe produces only odd harmonics because the standing wave modes require a node at
one end and an anti-node at the other. The one end closed pipe corresponds to instruments such as trumpets,
clarinets, oboes. If both ends are open (in a flute, for example) then all harmonics are produced. This distinct
difference in harmonic content is responsible for the distinctive sounds of the two types of instruments.
26. ORGANIZE AND PLAN From Figure 11.15c the fundamental and first overtone (second harmonic) is depicted. The
first overtone in the open pipe is 2 times the frequency of the first harmonic since the first harmonic allows for 1/2
of a wavelength in the tube while the first overtone allows for a full wavelength.
We are given the fundamental frequency .
o
f To find the frequency of the first overtone we simply multiply by
two.
SOLVE The frequency of the first overtone is 2 2 440 Hz 880 Hz
o
f = =
Choice (b)
REFLECT The first overtone in open pipes is twice the frequency (or a full octave above) the fundamental
frequency.
11.8 Chapter 11
PROBLEMS
27. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given values for wavelength and frequency and asked to determine wave speed.
We will employ the fundamental relationship: v f =
SOLVE Plugging in values: Part (a): 1 55 m 0 365 Hz 0 566 m/s v = . . = .
Part (b): 1 55 m 0 730 Hz 1 13 m/s v = . . = .
REFLECT Proportionality between frequency and velocity for fixed wavelength yields a doubling of the velocity
with a doubling of the frequency.
28. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given values for wavelength and speed and asked to determine frequency. We will
employ the fundamental relationship:
v
f =

SOLVE Plugging in values: Part (a): = =
.
343 m/s
312 Hz
1 10 m
f
Part (b): If the wavelength is halved the frequency is doubled:
343 m/s
624 Hz
0 55 m
f = =
.

REFLECT These frequencies correspond roughly to D sharp in the middle of the piano keyboard and one octave
above. So now we know that the frequencies near middle C on the piano correspond to wavelengths of roughly 1
meter.
29. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We assume the waves originated from the same spot at 0. t = The time of travel between
source and observer is t d v = / where d is the distance between source and observer and v is the velocity of the
wave.
The time of travel for the p waves is
p p
t d v = / while the time of travel for the s waves is .
s s
t d v = / Since the p
waves are faster than the s waves .
p s
t t <
We are given the difference in arrival times 24 . t s = We can derive the relationship between d and t as
follows:
1 1
( )
s p
s p
t t t d
v v
= =
Solving for d yields:
p s
p s
v v
t d
v v
=

2
2
km
6 4
s
24 s 288 km
km km
6 4
s s
d
= =

REFLECT P waves (primary waves) and s waves (secondary waves) are used to deduce many things including
location of earthquakes and the structure of the interior of the earth. Fundamental in making the connections
between the phenomena and the deduced information is an understanding of waves.
30. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given the wavelength and frequency of waves in order to deduce the velocity of
the waves. This is achieved via the fundamental relationship . v f =
From this and the relationship between the velocity and the depth v gd = we can determine d:
2 2 2
v f
d
g g
= =
where
2
9 8 m/s g = . (this will necessitate changing the units of the wavelength from cm to m).
As the depth doubles, the the velocity increases by a factor of 2. The frequency of oscillation will remain
unchanged at an interface so from the fundamental relationship the wavelength will increase by the same factor as
the velocity.
SOLVE The shallow depth:
2 2
2
(0 0110 m) (23 5 Hz)
0 0068 m
9 8 m/s
d
. .
= = .
.

If the depth is doubled the wavelength is
2 2 1 10 cm 1 56 cm
o
= = . = .
REFLECT The shallow water equation can be applied only when the wavelength is larger than the depth. In this
case, this relationship holds. Beyond this regime, the surface waves do not depend upon depth. An interesting
consequence of dependence upon depth is a kind of piling up of waves as water waves approach a sloping shore.
31. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Establishing the requested relationships require study of the arguments and understanding
the periodicity requirements of these arguments.
SOLVE The wave form ( ) cos( ) y x y A kx t , = describes the displacement as a function of x for all time. At
0 t = the wave completes one full cycle when the argument equals 2 (shown in figure below). We shall use this
fact to define the value of k as follows:
2 k =
Solving for k yields:
2
k

=

A
A
0
y = A cos(kx)
y
x = l

If we fix the position 0 x = and watch the point oscillate in time. One full oscillation occurs over one period . t T =
As above, one full oscillation corresponds to the argument equaling 2 . We use this fact to define the value of
as follows:
2 T =
Solving for yields:
2
2 f
T
= =
We shall determine the wave speed by looking at how the position of the peak changes with time. The location of
one peak is obtained by setting the argument of the sinusoid equal to zero and finding x as a function of time.
0 kx t =
11.10 Chapter 11
Solving for x yields:
x t
k
=
The slope of the position as a function of time is the velocity. Consequently the velocity is:
v
k
=
REFLECT The wave number and the angular frequency are the most natural numbers to describe waves, and in
more advanced physics these numbers dominate the theory. It is useful to be able to derive these relationships. For
quick recall these relationships can also be derived using unit analysis.
32. SOLVE See graph below.

0
y = A cos(kx p/2)
y = A cos(kx p)
y = A cos(kx 3p/2)
y = A cos(kx 2p)
y
x

REFLECT
The wave form moves to the right as time increases. After one period the wave has moved to the right one full
wavelength.
33. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The direction of the velocity of the wave is determined by the relative signs of the spatial
and temporal arguments in the expression for the waveform.
Recall from Problem 36 that the velocity was determined by setting the argument to zero:
0 kx t =
Isolating for x yields:
x t
k
=
SOLVE If the slope of the position as a function of time is negative then the wave travels in the negative x
direction. The sign in the argument that corresponds to a negative velocity is positive. Consequently, the sinusoidal
form is:
( ) cos( ) cos 2
x t
y x t A kx t A
T

, = + = +

REFLECT Knowing the functional form for a wave traveling in both directions is required to describe waves
arising out of any disturbance. The preceding three problems are important prerequisites for more advanced
mathematical treatments of waves.
34. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given frequency and the speed of waves in the two mediums. We use the
fundamental relationship to derive the wavelength as follows . v f = /
Part (a): Wavelength in air is
6
343 m/s
71 m.
4 8 10 Hz
= =
.

Part (b): Wavelength in muscle is
6
1580 m/s
330 m.
4 8 10 Hz
= =
.

Part (c): The resolution is approximately 330 m 0 33 mm. = . The dimensions of typical muscle cells are
approximately 3 m. Therefore the image will resolve details of hundreds cells but no better.
REFLECT Wave phenomena are widespread in many technologies. Ultrasound itself has saved countless lives.
Study your physics, kids!
35 ORGANIZE AND PLAN Our goal is to determine the units of the quantity representing the velocity of a wave on a
string given by / , T where T is the tension in a string (units of force) and is the linear mass density (units of
mass per unit length). In mks, the units of force are
2
kg m
[ ]
s
F

= and the linear mass density is
kg
[ ] .
m
=
SOLVE Inserting the constituent units yields
kg
[ ] v =
2
m
kg
2
m
s s
=
REFLECT Unit analysis can be a very powerful tool. Students should get in the habit of always checking units to
check solutions.
36. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The velocity of a wave on a string in terms of the tension T and the linear mass density
is given by . v T = /
6
250 10 N
250 m/s
4100 kg/m
v

= =
REFLECT The George Washington bridges highest cables are about 150 m long. If a car struck one cable it
would take about 1.2 s for the pulse to travel up and back down the cable.
37. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Recall from Problem 40 the condition for total destructive interference (the dead spot)
occurs when
+
= = , , ,...
1 2
(2 1)
0 1 2
2
n
d d n
where
1
d and
2
d are the distances between the observer and the two speakers.
At the midpoint the difference is
1 2
0. d d = The location of the first dead spot is when
1 2
.
2
d d

=
The amount that you have to move away from the midpoint
1 2
.
2
d d
x

= In terms of the given
x =
4

You must move
86 0 cm
21 5 cm
4
x
.
= = .
to reach the first dead spot.
11.12 Chapter 11
REFLECT Another hot spot occurs at 43 cm, dead spot at 64.5, etc. For a tone that is an octave above the given
wavelength, the first dead spot will occur at 10.8 cm, hot spot at 21.5 cm. Different frequencies will have different
hot spots and dead spots.
38. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given the linear mass density and tension in a string. This will allow us to deduce
the velocity v of the wave on the string using the relationship .
T
v
=
The wavelengths of the first three harmonics (standing wave modes) are
1 2 3
2
2 .
3
L
L L = = = Using the
fundamental relationship f v = / we find the frequencies of the first three harmonics.
Part (a): The wave velocity is
.
= =
.
36 5 M
417 m/s
4
2 1 10 kg/m
v
Part (b): The frequencies of the first three harmonics are:
1
417 m/s
278 Hz,
2 0 75 m
f = =
.

2 1
2 556 Hz, f f = = and
3 1
3 834 Hz f f = =
REFLECT The fundamental frequency of the string corresponds to C sharp just above middle C. The second
harmonic is one octave above the fundamental frequency.
39. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given the length and the fundamental frequency of a violin string and asked to find
the velocity of the wave on the string. We can use the expression for the fundamental frequency,
1
2
v
f
L
= and
isolate for v to find:
1
2 v Lf =
Given the velocity determined above and the tension in the string we can use the relationship v T = / and isolate
for to find:
2
2 2
1
4
T
T v
L f
= / =
Part (a): The velocity is 2 0 60 m 196 Hz 235 m/s v = . =
Part b: The linear mass density is
2 4
49 N (235 m/s) 8 9 10 kg/m

= / = .
REFLECT Tuning, or changing the fundamental frequency of the a string, consists of changing the tension of the
string. The design of the violin has roughly similar tensions on each of the four strings so the different open string
fundamental frequencies must come primarily from differing linear mass densities. See the next problem for a
quantitative description of this.
40. ORGANIZE AND PLAN From the previous problem we derived the equation for the linear mass density as a
function of tension, length of the string, and the fundamental frequency:
2 2
1
4
T
L f
=
Each string has the same length, we simply need to calculate for each string.
G String:

= = .
.
4
2 2
49
8 8 10 kg/m
4(0 60 m) (196 Hz)

D String:

= = .
.
4
2 2
53
4 3 10 kg/m
4(0 60 m) (294 Hz)

A String:

= = .
.
4
2 2
60
2 2 10 kg/m
4(0 60 m) (440 Hz)

E String:

= = .
.
4
2 2
83
1 3 10 kg/m
4(0 60 m) (659 Hz)

REFLECT Assuming each string is made of the same material, the thickness of the strings decreases as the
fundamental frequency increases. From a structural standpoint, the long-term wear on the instrument and feel of
the string on the bow, an approximately uniform tension for each string necessitates changing gauge to obtain the
range in frequencies instead of changing the tension.
41. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If the fundamental frequency is given by
1
f , the first two overtones of a vibrating string
are given by
1
2 f and
1
3 f .
G String: Second harmonic is:
2
2 196 Hz 392 Hz. f = = Third harmonic is:
3 1
3 588 Hz f f = =
D String: Second harmonic is:
2
3 1
3 882 Hz f f = =
A String: Second harmonic is:
2
3 1
3 1320 Hz f f = =
E String: Second harmonic is:
2
3 1
3 1977 Hz f f = =
REFLECT The harmonic content of musical instruments produces the tone of a note beyond just the note on the
music (which corresponds only to the fundamental frequency). Skilled violinist can shape the harmonic content by
positioning the bow or using light pressure on the strings to dampen certain harmonics.
42. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The standing wave modes on a string occur when
1
1 2
, L =
2
2 2
L = and
3
3 2
L =
corresponding to 1, 2, and 3 anti-nodes, respectively. The wavelength associated with a standing wave mode with 3
anti-nodes is given by
3
3 2
. L =
Given the tension and the linear mass density we can determine the velocity of the wave on the string using
. v T = / The derived velocity and wavelength we can determine the frequency of the third harmonic using the
fundamental relationship
3 3
f v = / .
SOLVE Part (a): The wavelength of the third harmonic is = = . = .
3
2 2
0 76 m 0 51 m
3 3
L

Part (b): The velocity of the wave on the string is
5
10 2 N
514 m/s
3 86 10 kg/m
v
.
= =
.

The corresponding frequency of the third harmonic is
3
514 m/s
1 0 kHz
0 51 m
f = = .
.

REFLECT The fundamental frequency is
3
1 3
f
f = which reveals this string to be a high E string on a guitar. The
guitar player can reduce the amplitude of the third harmonic by placing the finger lightly on one of the anti-nodes
1/3 of the way down the length of the string.
43. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The velocity as a function of tension and linear mass density is .
T
v
= The tension is
the total force applied to the wire. The total force per unit area is the pressure P T A = / where A is the cross-
sectional area of the cable. The equation of the velocity in terms of the pressure is then:
P A P P
v
A
= = =
/

where is the volume mass density.
The function of the velocity is now in the form given by the problem.
Note on units: The MPa is
6 2
10 N/m
SOLVE The velocity of the wave on the copper wire right at the threshold pressure is

6 2
3
331 10 N/m
193 m/s
8890 kg/m
v

= =
11.14 Chapter 11
The answer is independent of the diameter because as the diameter increases, more force would have to be applied
to break the wire. This would increase the tension and therefore increase the velocity. However, as the diameter is
increased, the linear mass density increases by the same factor as the tension. This would decrease the velocity.
These two effects cancel out.
REFLECT This velocity is the maximum velocity possible on a copper wire. Previous problems have shown wave
velocities on wires greater than 193 m/s. We can then conclude that guitar and violin wires cannot be made of
copper.
44. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The previous problem is similar to part a. Derivation shown above is used as a solution in
this part.
Finding the fundamental frequency is done here using the wavelength
1
2L = and the fundamental relationship:
1 1
f v = /
SOLVE Part (a): The velocity as a function of tension and linear mass density is .
T
v
= The tension is the total

force applied to the wire. The total force per unit area is the pressure T A = / where A is the cross-sectional area
of the cable. The equation of the velocity in terms of the pressure is then:
A P P
v
A
= = =
/

where is the volume mass density.
Part (b): The string model predicts a fundamental frequency of
3
1
3
1 17 5 10 Pa
144 Hz
2 0 0142 m 1040 kg/m
f
.
= =
.

REFLECT If the vocal ligament is the structure to produce high-pitched sounds then it does not do so as a
vibrating string with a dominant first harmonic as a guitar or violin string. The note on a piano that corresponds to
this frequency is about an octave below middle C, which does not seem to correspond to the high-pitched
sounds. Instead, the harmonic shaping of the resonant cavity formed by the mouth and throat shapes the harmonic
content produced by the vocal ligaments. In short, as is often the case in real evolved systems, the simple physics
provides just enough understanding to get started in a study.
45. ORGANIZE AND PLAN As is discussed in the text the beat frequency is half the difference in the individual waves
frequencies (proved in Problem 102). Therefore, the beat frequency will be
=
1 2
2
b
f f
f
440 Hz 439 6 Hz
0 2 Hz
2
b
f
.
= = .
REFLECT This frequency will be heard as an oscillation with about 5 periods per second. As the pitches get
closer, the period increases. Musicians get around this high tolerance required for a unnoticeable period by
employing vibrato, which is a manual modulation of the pitch frequency. The interested student can investigate
what sort of resolution is required in adjusting the tension of the string to actually be able to tune the instruments
(the A string of the violin) to even this precision.
46. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given the frequency, we know the speed of sound at 20 ,
and we are asked to find

the wavelength. The fundamental relationship is . v f = /
The wavelength associated with the highest frequency a dog can hear is
3
3
343 m/s
6 86 10 m 6 86 mm
50 10 Hz
= = . = .

REFLECT
The shortest wavelength humans can hear, roughly 17 mm corresponds to 20 kHz. The wavelength determines
the length scale of objects around which sound can diffract. Such considerations aid in developing theories of
sound localization and mechanisms for hearing.
47. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The distance traveled over the time it took the signal to reflect off the bottom and come
back is twice the distance the submarine is from the bottom. Recalling that rate times time equals distance we
obtain the required distance as follows:
2 h vt =
The depth of the ocean D at that point is simply the depth of the submarine d plus the distance between the sub
and the sea floor.
2
vt
D d h d = + = +
Note: The velocity of sound in water is 1480 m/s v =
The depth of the ocean is
1480 m/s 0 86 s
65 m 700 m
2
D
.
= + =
REFLECT The Abyssal Plain (the deepest flat part of the ocean) is around 4000 m so this part of the ocean is one
of the shallower parts. For example, about 30 miles west of the San Francisco coast has an ocean depth of about
700 m.
48. ORGANIZE AND PLAN As in Problem 54, the distance traveled of the sound from source, off cliffs, back to source
is two times the distance x between the source and the cliffs. Using rate times time equals distance yields:
2 x
t
v
=
where v is the velocity of sound in air.
The time it takes to hear the echo is
2 175 m
1 02 s
343 m/s
t

= = .
REFLECT You have produced a useful rule of thumb: Every second of time you wait for the echo corresponds to
175 m.
49. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Again, we recall . vt d = At
20 C the speed of sound is 343 m/s while at
0 C the speed
is 331 m/s. Therefore, it will take longer for the sound to travel a fixed distance in colder air.
SOLVE The distance traveled in 35 s is
3
343 m/s 35 s 12 10 m 12 km = =
11.16 Chapter 11
It will take
3
12 10 m
36 s
331 m/s
t

= =
REFLECT As expected, it takes longer for sound to travel a fixed distance d when it is colder but only a second
difference over 12 km.
50. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We shall treat the sound source as a point source in open space. The sound intensity is
inversely proportional to the distance squared,
2
1 1 1
( ) I P d = / where
1
P is a property of the source only and
1
25 m. d = The intensity at 50 m d = is
1
2 4
I
I = while the intensity at 250 m d = is
1
2 100
.
I
I =
The sound intensity level is defined to be
10 log
o
I
SIL
I
=
Manipulating the SIL into a form more appropriate for the given information we note:
1 1
10 log 10 log 10 log
o o
I I
SIL
I I
= =

We are given
1
55 dB 10 log
o
I
I
= so the SIL for this problem is:
55 dB 10 log SIL =
SOLVE Part (a): The SIL for 50 m d = (corresponding to 4 = ) is: 49 dB
Part (b): The SIL for 250 m d = (corresponding to 100 = ) is: 35 dB
REFLECT The SIL of this source at around 2 5 m . corresponds to roughly 80 dB (a busy city street). At
approximately 1.5 blocks away the SIL diminishes to below that of a soft conversation heard at a distance. A
useful thing to know if you are a real estate agent or home buyer on the hunt.
51. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Total power
t
P will be obtained from the impinging intensity
1
I since intensity is power
per unit area.
1 t
P I A =
Determination of
1
I is achieved by inverting the SIL for intensity:
10
1
10
SIL
o
I I =
Preliminary calculations:
12 2 8 5 3 5 2 2
1
10 W/m 10 10 W/m 0 000316 W/m I
. .
= = = .
SOLVE The power incident on the eardrum for an 85 dB sound is
2 2 9
0 000316 W/m (0 005 m) 25 10 W 25 nW
t
P

= . . = =
REFLECT There is a very small amount of power incident upon the eardrum. It is about the same power that
would be required to lift a flea in the Earths gravitational field at a rate of about 5/10 of an inch per minute.
52. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The wavelength is obtained using the fundamental relationship
v
f
=
The speed of sound in air is 343 m/s
a
v = while in glass it is much faster 5200 m/s.
g
v = We expect to find much
longer wavelength in glass.
SOLVE The wavelength of the 550 Hz sound in air:
343 m/s
0 62 m
550 Hz
a
= = .
The wavelength of the 550 Hz sound in glass:
5200 m/s
9 5 m
550 Hz
g
= = .
REFLECT This result brings up an interesting point. It is not common to have a piece of glass that is 9.5 m deep.
At no point will a full wavelength be present in the glass so describing the wavelength of the wave in the glass is
not very illuminating for 550 Hz sound waves.
53. ORGANIZE AND PLAN As we derived in Problem 57, the SIL can be given as
1
10 log 10 log
r
o
I
SIL SIL
I
= =

when there is a known reference .
r
SIL The decrease in SIL levels when the intensity diminishes by a factor of
1/ is 10 log .
We are given a drop of dB x and asked to find the corresponding value of . This can be found as follows: The
desired drop is
dB 10 log x =
Isolating for
10
10
x/
=
SOLVE If 3 x = then 2. In words, if the intensity decreases by a factor of 1/2 then the SIL diminishes by
3 dB
REFLECT These types of rules of thumb are very handy when dealing with measurement scales that are not
immediately intuitive.
54. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The intensity of sound for a given dB x is achieved by inverting the SIL definition for
intensity : I
( 10)
10
x
o
I I
/
=
where
=
12 2
10 W/m
o
I (the threshold of hearing for the typical human)
SOLVE If x = 95, then
12 2 9 5 2 5 2 2
10 W/m 10 10 W/m 0 0032 W/m I
. .
= = = .
REFLECT The SIL of 95 dB corresponds to a fairly loud sound. This is an intuition building calculation.
55. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The power output from the band is .
o
P The intensity level a distance d away is
determined by remembering that the total power is spread over the surface of a sphere with the radius given by . d
Intensity is power per unit area or
2
4
o
P
I P A
d
= / =

If we want to decrease the SIL by 15 dB we can recall the derivation in Problem 60:
We are given a drop of dB x and asked to find the corresponding value of (where 1/ is the fraction by which
the intensity is diminished). This can be found as follows: The desired drop is
dB 10 log x =
11.18 Chapter 11
Isolating for
10
10
x/
=
SOLVE Part (a): The intensity level at 25 m d = is
2
2
6 5 W
0 00083 W/m
4 (25 m)
I
.
= = .

which corresponds to the sound intensity level
4 2
12 2
0
8.3 10 W/m
log log 89.2 dB
10 W/m
I
SIL
I
= = =
Part (b): The fractional change in intensity required to diminish the SIL level by 15 dB is
1 5
1 10 0 0316
.
/ = = .
REFLECT A difference of 15 dB can also be seen as a decrease of 3 dB five times. In Problem 60 we discovered
that the intensity decreases by a factor of roughly 1/2 for every 3 db of diminished . SIL So, a decrease of 15 dB
corresponds to a decrease by a factor of
5
1
2
which is approximately equal to the value obtained above.
56. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We are given a drop of dB x and asked to find the corresponding value of (where 1/
is the fraction by which the intensity is diminished). This can be found as follows: The desired drop is
dB 10log x =
Isolating for
10
10
x/
=
The value of when (105 92) dB 13 dB x = = is
1 3
10 20
.
= =
The intensity at
1
15 m d = is
2
1
1
.
o
P
d
I = The new diminished intensity will be
1
2
.
I
I
= In terms of the distance, the

intensity is
2
2 2
1 2
o o
P P
I
d d
= =

The new distance is
2 1
d d =
The distance required to diminish the SIL from 105 dB to 92 dB is
2
15 m 20 67 m. d = =
REFLECT As an approximate guess at the answer using our calculated rules of thumb we note that the intensity is
about 4 times 3 dB, which means a decrease by a factor of 1/16. From the squared value of the distance this factor
corresponds to approximately a quadrupled distance, which is close to the more precisely derived value. The rules
of thumb are good things to have, especially if you dont have a calculator available.
57. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Because the intensity is inversely proportional to the distance squared a factor of p
increase in the distance results in a factor of
2
1 p / change in the intensity (derived in problem 57 where
2
p = ).
With a factor change of
2
1 p / in the intensity the original sound intensity level before the change in distance
o
SIL
is changed as follows:
20 log dB
o
SIL SIL p =
The value 20 log dB SIL p = is the intensity level change.
Part (a): If 2 p = 20 log2 dB 6 dB SIL = =
REFLECT Because of the logarithmic scale notice that changes in orders of magnitude of the intensity produce
linear changes in the . SIL In the previous problem at the rock concert if we moved 100 times farther away from
the original distance of 15 m (which is 1.5 km away), the very loud 105 dB sound diminishes to 65 dB, one could
still hear the sound as if watching the television.
58. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Adding instruments causes the intensity levels to add due to the superposition principle of
waves. So, if we have N identical sources each contributing an intensity of
1
, I the combined intensity is simply
1
.
t
I NI = The SIL of the combined sources is
1 1
1
10 log 10 log 10 log 10 log
N
o o
NI I
SIL N SIL N
I I
= = + = +
where
1
SIL is the sound intensity level of an individual source.
The change in the sound intensity level is 10 log . N For a given change SIL we can determine the required N
as follows:
( 10)
10
SIL
N
/
=
SOLVE An increase from 60 dB to 70 dB is an increase of 10 dB. The required number of clarinets is
1
10 10 N = =
REFLECT The first 10 decibels make it appear that you get one decibel increase for every clarinet. However,
observe what happens if we have 100 clarinets: 100 clarinets only produces a 20 dB increase in the . SIL So if one
clarinet produces a SIL of 60 dB it would take 10000000000 clarinets to burst your ear drums (more than the
number of people living on the Earth now).
59. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The intensity of sound is the power per unit area. If you are a distance d away from a
speaker, the total power P from the speaker is spread over the surface of a sphere with the radius , d so the
intensity at d is
2
( )
4
P
I d
d
=

The threshold of hearing of the human ear depends upon the frequency of the sound (this is obvious and implicit in
the fact that a frequency range of human hearing exists). In Figure 11.14 we see the response curve for the human
ear. We read of the curve that the threshold of hearing at 1000-Hz is
12 2
1000 Hz
10 W/m
o
I

,
= and interpolate the
threshold of hearing at 100-Hz to be
8 8 2
100 Hz
10 W/m .
o
I
.
,
=
Given the intensity and power we can isolate for the required distance:
4
P
d
I
=

Distance required to reach threshold of hearing for 1000 Hz frequencies:
12 2
0 1
90 000 m 90 km
4 10 W/m
W
d
.
= = , =

Distance required to reach threshold of hearing for 100 Hz frequencies:
8 8 2
0 1 W
2 000 m 2 km
4 10 W/m
d
.
.
= = , =

11.20 Chapter 11
REFLECT This is an interesting result, because of the response curve of the human ear we will hear frequencies
around 1000-Hz for much greater distances than other frequencies. It turns out that the human vocal range lies
between about 300-Hz to 3000-Hz. The apparent coincidence between these two facts is not surprising.
60. ORGANIZE AND PLAN This problem is similar to Problem 63.
We are given a drop of dB x and asked to find the corresponding value of (where 1/ is the fraction by which
the intensity is diminished). This can be found as follows: The desired drop is
dB 10 log x =
Isolating for
10
10
x/
=
If we let
1
I and
2
I be the two intensities. We note from above that
2 1
I I = / . So
1 2
I I = / (the requested quantity
in the problem).
SOLVE The value of for 1 x = is
1 10
10 1 25
/
= = .
REFLECT Therefore, the human ear can detect a volume change between a sound with an intensity of
1
I and a
sound with intensity
1
1 25 . I . These considerations are important in the digitization and subsequent storage of
music. If humans cannot hear a volume change less than a 1.25 times change in intensity then there is no benefit of
storing more information than that.
61. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The difference in dB between person A and person B is 9 4 dB 2 4 dB 7 dB. . . = As in
Problem 67 we find the value of
10
10
B x
A
I
I
/
= =
where x is the change in dB level.
SOLVE The ratio of sound intensities is
0 7
10 5.
.
= = In other words, the threshold intensity for person B is five
times that of person A.
REFLECT Converting between changes in dB levels and changes in intensity is good practice for other log
relationships such as pH values in chemistry. There is almost always another reason to do your physics homework
than simply answering the question.
62. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The fundamental frequency of a flute is = /
1
2 , f v L where v is the velocity of sound in air
and L is the length of the pipe. As shown in the text, playing low B of frequency 247 Hz requires a length of
0 694 m. .
If the length is changed by 0 01 m . the frequency will be determined by:
1
2( 0 01 m)
o
v
f
L
=
.

SOLVE If the flute is made 1 cm longer, then the fundamental frequency is:
1
343 m/s
244 Hz
2(0 704 m)
f

= =
.

If the flute is made 1 cm shorter, then the fundamental frequency is:
1
343 m/s
251 Hz
2(0 684 m)
f

= =
.

REFLECT These frequency shifts are not enough to produce a half-step difference in pitch required to reach
another note on the scale. For example, a half-step lower than low B (B flat) has a frequency of 233 Hz. A change
of length of 1 cm is a tuning change of the instrument. In fact, this is how a flute is tuned. There is a movable
junction called the headjoint between the mouthpiece and the body of the flute. By sliding this, the length of the
flute is changed, tuning the instrument.
63. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The fundamental frequency of a flute is = /
1
2 , f v L where v is the velocity of sound in air
and L is the length of the pipe. As shown in the text, playing a low B of frequency 247 Hz at temperature
20 C
requires a length of 0 694 m. . If the length is fixed and the temperature suddenly becomes chilly the speed of
sound will decrease which will decrease the fundamental frequency and thereby the pitch of the instrument.
The speed of sound at
0 C is
0
331 m/s. v =
SOLVE The fundamental frequency of the flute in the B position tuned for
20 C taken to
0 C temperatures is:
1
331 m/s
238 Hz
2(0 694 m)
f = =
.

REFLECT As expected, the instrument becomes flat.
64. ORGANIZE AND PLAN A pipe open at both ends has a fundamental frequency of
1
2 . f v L = / The first three
overtones have the frequencies
2 1 3 1
2 3 f f f f = , = , and
4 1
4 f f =
SOLVE The fundamental frequency is
1
343 m/s (2 (4 3 m)) 40 Hz f = / . = with overtones
2
80 Hz, f =
3
120 Hz, f = and
4
160 Hz f =
REFLECT The fundamental frequency corresponds most closely to the lowest note on a stand-up bass and has the
same harmonic content as a vibrating string fixed at both ends.
65. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If the pipe has one end open and the other closed the fundamental frequency is
1
4 . f v L = /
In the open-closed pipe only the odd harmonics are present so the first 3 overtones are
3 1 5 1
3 5 f f f f = , = , and
7 1
7 f f = .
SOLVE The fundamental frequency is
1
343 m/s (4 (4 3 m)) 20 Hz f = / . = with overtones
3
60 Hz, f =
5
100 Hz, f = and =
7
140 Hz f
REFLECT The flute and the clarinet are approximately the same length but the flute has a higher pitch and
distinctly different tonal flavor. The root of these fundamental differences is simply that fact that a flute is open at
both ends and the clarinet is closed at one end and open at the other. (The reed in the clarinet acts as a driver to the
oscillating cavity and is technically open sometimes but the pressure at the mouth piece is not the ambient
pressure. It is effectively a closed end).
66. ORGANIZE AND PLAN With a fundamental wavelength of ,
o
the frequency is .
o o
f v = / The second harmonic
has twice the frequency and half the wavelength. The distance between nodes for the second harmonic is 1/2 the
distance between nodes of the fundamental, which is /2.
o
Therefore the distance between nodes in the second
harmonic is /4.
o

SOLVE The fundamental frequency is 343 m/s 2 16 m 159 Hz
o
f = / . =
The distance between nodes for the second harmonic is 2 16 m 4 0 54 m . / = .
REFLECT The fundamental frequency of this pipe corresponds to a flat E or sharp E flat. You could place a small
hole in the pipe (like a register hole in a flute) at the node of the second harmonic and diminish the fundamentals
contribution to the tone but not affect the second harmonic.
11.22 Chapter 11
67. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The wavelength required for a particular frequency is given by the fundamental
relationship:
v f = /
For open-closed pipes the wavelength of the fundamental is 4 times the length of the pipe. In other words, the
length of the pipe
4
. L

= Combining the relationships:
4
v
L
f
=
SOLVE Plugging in values for the different frequencies:
Part (a): L for 56 Hz:
343 m/s
1.53 m
4 56 Hz
L = =

Part (b): L for 262 Hz:
343 m/s
0 33 m
4 262 Hz
L = = .

Part (c): L for 523 Hz:
343 m/s
0 16 m
4 523 Hz
L = = .

Part (d): L for 1200 Hz:
343 m/s
0 07 m
4 1200 Hz
L = = .

REFLECT This is a very wide range of sizes. The details of how pipe organs are constructed and how they
produce their sound is beyond the scope of this book but you know enough now to ask some of the right questions
if you are interested in knowing more.
68. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The frequencies of successive keys on the piano are simple multiplicative factors of
1 12
2 .
/

So if we sit at one key with a frequency
1
f the next key up will have frequency
1 12
2 1
2 . f f
/
= It follows that the
frequency of a note n keys away from a key with frequency
1
f will be
12
1
2 .
n
n
f f
/
= There are 12 steps per octave
(which is where the 12 comes from). The difference in frequency between octaves is a factor of 2.
SOLVE The frequency of the key above concert A (B flat) is
1 12
440 Hz2 466 Hz
/
=
The frequency of the third key above concert A (octave above middle C) is
3 12
440 Hz2 523 Hz
/
=
The frequency of the 12th key above concert A (octave above concert A) is 440 Hz2 880 Hz =
REFLECT The structure of music is beautifully mathematical. It is notable that such beauty and emotional content
can be expressed within such a numerically rational framework. Math and physics are not separate from human
beauty, they are an integral part of it.
69. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The fundamental frequency of a closed-open pipe is 1/2 the fundamental frequency of an
open pipe:
2
co o
f f =
The first overtone of an open pipe is twice the frequency of the fundamental, so the frequency of the first overtone
in the now opened pipe is
2
2 4
o o co
f f f = =
The frequency of the first overtone of the now-opened pipe is
2
4 512 Hz 2048 Hz
o
f = =
REFLECT The first overtone of the now-opened pipe is two octaves above the fundamental of the closed-open
pipe.
70. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The expression for the observed frequency f when the source is in relative motion to the
medium (where the observer is stationary with respect to the medium) is:
1
s
f
f
v v
=
/

where f is the emitted frequency of sound, v is the speed of sound in the medium,
s
v corresponds to the
velocity of the source approaching the observer, and
s
v + corresponds to the velocity of the source receding away
from the observer.
We are given f and
s
v in this problem.
SOLVE Observed frequency of sound when the jet approaches at 232 m/s :
850 Hz
2630 Hz
1 (232 m/s) (343 m/s)
f = =
/

Observed frequency of sound when the jet recedes at 232 m/s :
850 Hz
507 Hz
1 (232 m/s) (343 m/s)
f = =
+ /

REFLECT The jet is traveling at roughly 70% the speed of sound. The sound when approaching differs from the
receding sound by roughly 2.5 octaves. Remember this the next time you hear a fighter plane fly toward you.
71. ORGANIZE AND PLAN In this problem the observer is moving relative to the air and the emitter is stationary.
Following conceptual Example 11.13 the observed frequency f is related to the velocity and emitted frequency as
follows:
( ) 1
o
f f v v = + /
We are given , f f and we know the speed of sound in the medium 343 m/s. v = We are asked to deduce the
velocity. Isolating the above equation for
o
v yields:
( 1)
o
v v f f = /
The velocity of the runner is
359 Hz
343 m/s( 1) 6 8 m/s
352 Hz
o
v = = .
REFLECT The result is a reasonable speed for a fast runner (100 m dash record of just under 10 seconds
corresponds to about 10 ). unitm s / /
1
s
f
f
v v
=
/

s
s
from the observer.
We are given f and
s
v in this problem.
11.24 Chapter 11
In part (b) we are given the velocity in km/hr. We shall have to convert this to standard units of m/s.
1 km/hr 0 278 m/s = .
Preliminary calculation:
Speed of bullet train in m/s is 250 km/hr 250 0 278 m/s 69 m/s. = . =
SOLVE Part (a):
Observed frequency of sound when the slow train approaches at 27 0 m/s : .
1200 Hz
1300 Hz
1 (27 0 m/s) (343 m/s)
f = =
. /

Observed frequency of sound when the slow train recedes at 27 0 m/s : .
1200 Hz
1100 Hz
1 (27 0 m/s) (343 m/s)
f = =
+ . /

Part (b):
Observed frequency of sound when the bullet train approaches at 69 m/s :
1200 Hz
1500 Hz
1 (69 m/s) (343 m/s)
f = =
/

Observed frequency of sound when the bullet train recedes at 69 m/s :
1200 Hz
1000 Hz
1 (69 m/s) (343 m/s)
f = =
+ /

REFLECT As expected, the bullet train approaches with a higher pitched sound and recedes with a lower pitched
sound than the freight train. The difference is noticeable. The difference between receding and approaching in the
freight train is about 3 keys on the piano while the same difference for the bullet train in 6 keys on the piano.
73. ORGANIZE AND PLAN As in the previous problem, we use the relationship:
1
s
f
f
v v
=
/

s
s
from the observer.
We are given
s
v and f in this problem. Isolating to find f if the source is approaching the observer:
(1 )
s
f f v v = /
In the second part of the problem, we use the result from the first part and apply
1
s
f
f
v v
=
+ /

SOLVE The emitted frequency of the squawk:
257 Hz (1 (13 m/s) (343 m/s)) 247 Hz f = / =
Observed frequency as goose is receding:
247 Hz
238 Hz
1 (13 m/s) (343 m/s)
f = =
+ /

REFLECT These differences are noticeable. The difference in frequency between approaching goose and receding
goose corresponds approximately to adjacent keys on the piano.
74. ORGANIZE AND PLAN For Problem 80 the frequency of the approaching goose is 257 Hz while when receding
you hear a sound of frequency 238 Hz. The wavelengths associated with these frequencies are obtained using the
fundamental relationship:
v f = /
SOLVE Wavelength of squawk of approaching goose. 343 m/s 257 Hz 1 33 m = / = .
Wavelength of squawk of receding goose. 343 m/s 238 Hz 1 44 m = / = .
REFLECT The difference in wavelength is roughly 10%, which may be surprising given the relatively slow
velocity of geese.
75. ORGANIZE AND PLAN To determine the observed frequency from the stationary helicopter we must know the
velocity of the source (the parachutist). Recall kinematic equations for free-fall. After time t the velocity is v gt =
for constant acceleration. With the deduced velocity we employ the Doppler effect relation for a receding source:
1 /
s
f
f
v v
=
+

In this problem:
=
+ 1 /v
f
f
gt

The observed frequency of the shout is
2
425 Hz
381 Hz
9 8 m/s 4 s
1
343 m/s
f = =
.
+

REFLECT The frequency is diminished as expected and the effect is noticeable. The glissando of the falling man
is embedded in our cultural experience. What you hear in movies (or mimic with your voice when you are
pretending you are falling) is a mixture between the Doppler effect and free-fall under constant acceleration.
76. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The difference between the receding and approaching frequencies is obtained as follows:
2
1 1
2
1 1 1
a r
s s
f f f f
v v v v

= =

/ + /

where
s
v v /
This produces the quadratic equation:
2
2
1 0
a r
f
f f
+ =

We approximate the emitted frequency
+
2
a b
f f
f and define
+
=
a r
a r
f f
B
f f
which yields the quadratic equation:
2
1 0 B + =
11.26 Chapter 11
The possible mathematical solutions are
2
4
2
B B +
=
Only positive values of make sense in this problem so the only physically viable solution is:
2
4
2
B B + +
=
Backing out the value of the velocity yields:
2
4
2
s
B B
v v
+ +
=
628 Hz 686 Hz
22 66
686 Hz 628 Hz
B
+
= = .

SOLVE The velocity of the firetruck is
2
22 66 (22 66) 4
343 m/s 15 1 m/s
2
s
v
. + . +
= = .
REFLECT We can check the answer by placing the approximate emitted frequency of 657 Hz and the derived
velocity into the receding equation:
629 Hz
1
s
f
f
v v
= =
+ /

as well as the approaching equation:
687 Hz
1
s
f
f
v v
= =
/

This is consistent with the problem parameters (although the emitted frequency is probably closer to 656 Hz).
A speed of 15.1 m/s corresponds to 34 mph. One can only guess the firetruck is in traffic or not in a hurry.
1
s
f
f
v v
=
/

In this case we are given the combined value 0 99.
s
v v / = .
SOLVE Plugging in appropriate number and signs:
When the jet is flying toward us the observed frequency is
1200 Hz
120 000 Hz
1 0 99
f = = ,
.

When the jet is flying away from us the observed frequency is
1200 Hz
603 Hz
1 0 99
f = =
+ .

REFLECT The 1200 Hz sound is not audible to humans when the plane is approaching (human range of hearing
is 2020,000 Hz). After the jet passes the sound is approximately lowered a full octave from the emitting
frequency. Of course, at and past the speed of sound, the sound of the jet approaches us only when the jet hits us in
the same way that if you hear a supersonic bullet that has been successfully aimed at you, hearing it means you are
already bleeding.
1
s
f
f
v v
=
/

For the observed frequency to be twice that of the emitted frequency the object must be approaching and the
following condition must hold:
1 0 5
s
v v / = .
Solving for :
s
v
2
s
v v = /
SOLVE The source would have to move half of the velocity of the wave in the medium. In air, this velocity is
172 m/s.
REFLECT Double frequency corresponds to an octave above the emitted frequency.
79. ORGANIZE AND PLAN From conceptual Exercise 11.13, the expression for the observed frequency f when the
source is stationary with respect to the medium and the observer is moving with respect to the source is:
(1 )
o
f f v v = /
where
o
v is the velocity of the observer and v is the velocity of the wave in the medium. The sign is positive for
approaching and negative for receding.
To double the observed frequency the observer must be approaching the source and the following condition must
be met:
(1 ) 2
o
v v + / =
SOLVE Solving for
o
v yields:
o
v v = To double the observed frequency when moving with respect to a
stationary source you must travel the speed of sound in the medium.
REFLECT The difference between moving source and moving observer in this and the preceding problems
highlights the importance of knowing who is moving and who is not with respect to the medium.
80. ORGANIZE AND PLAN In this case we have both the source and the observer moving towards each other. We
shall first determine the frequency that would be observed due to the moving source moving towards a stationary
point in the medium:
1
s
f
f
v v
=
/

Now, from the perspective of the medium in this region there is no difference between a stationary source emitting
a frequency of f and the moving source emitting a frequency of . f Consequently, we may now treat the
observer as if he is moving toward a stationary source emitting at frequency . f The observed frequency in this
case is:
(1 )
o
f f v v = + /
11.28 Chapter 11
SOLVE Subbing in the value of f in terms of the actual emitted frequency f yields:
1
1
o
s
v v
f f
v v
+ /
=
/

REFLECT Notice that nothing pathological happens when the observer is traveling at the speed of sound but the
observed frequency diverges when the source reaches the speed of sound.
81. ORGANIZE AND PLAN In this case we have both the source and the observer moving away from each other. We
shall first determine the frequency that would be observed due to the moving source moving away from a
stationary point in the medium:
1
s
f
f
v v
=
+ /

Now, from the perspective of the medium in this region there is no difference between a stationary source emitting
a frequency of f and the moving source emitting a frequency of . f Consequently, we may now treat the
observer as if he is moving away from a stationary source emitting at frequency . f The observed frequency in
this case is:
(1 )
o
f f v v = /
SOLVE Subbing in the value of f in terms of the actual emitted frequency f yields:
1
1
o
s
v v
f f
v v
/
=
+ /

REFLECT In contrast to the previous problem, the unphysical results occur here when the observer is moving
away at and beyond the speed of sound (negative frequency does not make sense). Of course, this is a reflection of
the fact that the observer can actually outrun the sound if she is going away from it.
82. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Let the reference intensity be
1
. I The sound intensity level of this sound is:
1
1
10 log
o
I
SIL
I
=
If we consider another sound with intensity
1
2I the corresponding
2
SIL is:
1 1
1 1
2
10 log 10 log 10 log2 10 log2
o o
I I
SIL SIL
I I
= = + = +
SOLVE The value 10 log2 3 01 dB = .
REFLECT Since we never specified a specific value for the reference intensity, the result that a doubling of
intensity always produces an increase of 3 dB in the SIL is generic.
83. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Sound intensity is inversely proportional to the distance squared. Consequently, if you
double your distance from a sound source the intensity decreases by a factor of 1/4.
As in Problem 89: Let the reference intensity be
1
I . The sound intensity level of this sound is:
1
1
10 log
o
I
SIL
I
=
If we consider another sound with intensity
1
4 I / the corresponding
2
SIL is:
1 1
1 1
10 log 10 log 10 log4 10 log4
4
o o
I I
SIL SIL
I I
= = =
SOLVE Doubling the distance decreases the intensity by a factor of 1/4.
Since the value 10 log4 6 02 dB, = . doubling the distance reduces the SIL by 6 dB
REFLECT Going the other way we find that halving the distance doubles the intensity twice (quadruples) the
intensity. Either way you look at it you get the same answer using the two rules of thumb found in Problems 89
and 90. Doubling twice increases SIL by 3 3 dB. + Quadrupling intensity increases the SIL by 6 dB.
84. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The difference between the receding and approaching frequencies is obtained as follows:
( ) (1 ) (1 ) 2 ( )
a r o o o
f f f v v v v f v v = + / / = /
Solving for :
o
v
2
a r
o
f f
v v
f
=
The velocity required to observe a difference in frequency of 2 Hz for source frequency of 720 is
2 Hz
343 m/s 0 5 m/s
2 720 Hz
o
v = = .

REFLECT This is a walking velocity, but this change in frequency cannot likely be distinguished by a typical
human (the typical minimum change in pitch humans can distinguish corresponds to a frequency change of about
5 1200
2
/
).
85. ORGANIZE AND PLAN We have a measured value of intensity at a reference point:
2
1 1
I P d = /
and the corresponding
1
80 dB SIL =
If we change d from 10 m to 2600 m we increase the distance by a factor of 260. The new intensity level
2
I is
then
2
2 1
(260) I I = /
The corresponding SIL is then:
2 1
20 log260 SIL SIL =
SOLVE The SIL level at the removed location is
2
80 dB 48 dB 32 dB SIL = =
This SIL is about 10 dB louder than a quiet whisper.
REFLECT Considering that absorption effects were neglected and there is ambient noise outside even in the
quietest of places, this noise level is quite good. In urban environments, 40 dB is the low limit of ambient sound, so
32 dB will likely be drowned out by the noise.
11.30 Chapter 11
86. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The overtone sequence of a pipe with one end open is as follows:
, , , ... , , , ...
1 3 5 1 1 1
3 5 f f f f f f
The separation between successive overtones is
1 1
(2 1 2( 1) 1) 2 n n f f + + =
We are given the frequencies of two successive overtones
n
f and
2
.
n
f
+
The difference between these frequencies
must equal
1
2 f yielding the following relationship for the fundamental frequency:
2
1
2
n n
f f
f
+

=
With the fundamental frequency in hand we note that the fundamental frequency for a open-closed pipe is =
1 4
.
v
L
f
The velocity of sound is then
1
4 v Lf =
The fundamental frequency is
1
375 Hz 225 Hz
75 Hz
2
f

= =
The speed of sound is 4 1 12 m 75 Hz 336 m/s v = . =
REFLECT The pipe produces a fundamental note corresponding to lowest note of an upright bass. The overtones
we were given were the second and third overtones (3rd and 5th harmonics). The speed of sound is closer to the
speed of sound at a temperature of 0
C than at 20 .
It must be chilly where the pipe is.

87. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The bat emits a frequency that is Doppler shifted due to its velocity directed toward the
wall. The wall sees a frequency of
1
s
f
f
v v
=
/

where
s
v is the velocity of the bat and f is the emitted frequency of the sound from the bat.
Once the sound has left the bat, the bat is now an observer and the wall is the source. The wave emitted by the
wall is Doppler shifted with respect to the bat. Since the bat is moving and the source is stationary the frequency
that the bat receives is
(1 )
o
f f v v = + /
In terms of the primary frequency:
1
1
o
s
v v
f f
v v
+ /
=
/

Ultimately the bat receives the frequency
7 5 m/s
1
343 m/s
52 0 kHz 54 3 kHz
7 5 m/s
1
343 m/s
f
.
+
= . = .
.

REFLECT That speed is a respectable clip (it would hurt if you hit a wall going that fast). It is interesting to
contrast how we determine relative velocity with our eyes. We have to use some sort of geometrical calculation
built into our brains. Bats map pitch into a dynamic map of what is going on around them.
88. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The fundamental frequency of a pianos A string is 440 Hz. We are given the length of
this string . L Given these bits of information we can deduce the velocity of the waves on this string:
The wavelength associated with the fundamental frequency of a string fixed at both ends is = 2 . L
The fundamental relationship for waves is , v f = which in terms of given quantities is equivalent to:
= 2 v L f
The material properties of the string that determine the velocity are the tension T and the linear mass density .
v T = /
Isolating for and combining with the velocity in terms of L and f yields:
2 2
4
T
L f
=
However, we are asked to find the mass of the string. The mass M is just the linear mass density times the length
2
4
T
M
Lf
=
SOLVE Plugging in the values:
The mass of the string is
2
667 N
0 0022 kg 2 2 g
4 0 389 m (440 Hz)
M = = . = .
.

REFLECT Checking units is always a good idea. Make it a habit. Considering that a typical paper clip has a mass
of about 1 g, our piano wire has a mass equivalent to roughly two paper clips.
89. ORGANIZE AND PLAN A closed-open pipe has a fundamental frequency of
v
.
4
f
L
= The velocity of sound at
body temperature ( 37
C) can be obtained by Equation 11.4:

m
( ) 331 m/s 0 60 37C 353 m/s
sC
v T = + . =
Given the fundamental frequency and velocity the length of the pipe is:
4
v
L
f
=
The predicted length of the pipe from the crude model is
353 m/s
0 142 m
4 620 Hz
L = = .

REFLECT An effective length of 14 cm does not seem unreasonable. The physics of speech is very interesting
and this problem is but the tip of a significant iceberg.
90. ORGANIZE AND PLAN If the pipes fundamental frequency is to be 22 Hz it will need to be longer if it is open at
both ends than if it is open at one end only.
If it is open at both ends the fundamental frequency is = /
1
2 f v L while for an open-closed pipe = /
1
4 . f v L
Isolating for the lengths we find a length of
1
2 L v f = / required for the open pipe and a length of
1
4 L v f = / .
An open pipe must be
343 m/s
7 8 m
2 22 Hz
L = = .
to provide the lowest frequency that can be heard as a pitch.

An closed-open pipe must be
343 m/s
3 9 m
4 22 Hz
L = = .
to provide the lowest frequency that can be heard as a pitch.

REFLECT While both pipes will provide the same fundamental note, they will sound different because of the
differing harmonic content. In other words, if you want it all, you will need both types of pipe. Where would be a
good place to house an 8 m long tube? You got it, a cathedral!
11.32 Chapter 11
91. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Given the SIL at a given point, the intensity of the sound
1
I can be directly deduced:
10
1
10
SIL
o
I I
/
=
Since the intensity is the total power per unit area ( I P A = / ) we can extract the total power by multiplying the
intensity by the surface area of the sphere with a radius d where d is the distance from the source.
2
1
4 P d I =
Combining the relationships:
2 10
4 10
SIL
o
P d I
/
=
SOLVE The total power emitted from the speakers
2 12 2 90 10
4 (8 0 m) 10 W/m 10 0 80 W P
/
= . = .
REFLECT What this demonstrates is that it does not take much power to hurt your eardrums. It is important to
note that the power rating of a speaker is not the power that comes out in the form of sound. Compare this output
(less than a watt) to the output of a lightbulb (60 watts).
92. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Similar to Problem 75:
The separation in frequencies between notes in western music have been constructed such that octaves (notes
whose frequencies differ by a factor of 2) are broken into 12 steps. Two notes separated by one step differ in
frequency by a factor of
1 12
2 .
/
Notes that differ by N steps differ in frequency by a factor of
12
2 .
N/
If middle C
corresponds to a frequency
C
f and we know the reference frequency of concert A (440 Hz) is nine steps above
middle C then the following relation must hold:
9 12
2 440 Hz
C
f
/
=
Solving for
c
F yields:
3 4
2 440 Hz
C
f
/
=
The C note two octaves above middle C has a frequency of 4
C
f f = . The length of a closed-open pipe with that
fundamental frequency will be
4 16
C
L v f v f = / = /
SOLVE The frequency of middle C is 261 6 Hz.
C
f = .
The length of a closed-open pipe with a fundamental frequency two octaves above middle C is
343 m/s
0 082 m
16 261 6 Hz
L = = .
.

REFLECT A pipe length of 8 cm seems a little small especially if you look at a clarinet and know that two
octaves above middle C are well within the range of the standard clarinet. !There are no holes within 8 cm of the
mouthpiece! This is when you realize that things are a bit more complicated than presented here. Higher registers
are achieved by shaping the harmonic content of lower notes, in effect, removing lower harmonics to produce
higher pitched notes. Again, we present here only the tip of a very interesting subject.
93. ORGANIZE AND PLAN The moving heart wall acts as a moving observer of a stationary source as well as a
moving source of sound with respect to a stationary observer.
The moving observer observes a frequency of
(1 )
o
f f v v = /
where f is the frequency of the ultrasound machine emitter and v is the speed of sound in water.
The observed frequency is now the frequency emitted by a moving source. The reflected frequency is:
1
s
f
f
v v
=
/

In this case, both
o
v and
s
v are the same, say .
w
v Finding the reflected frequency in terms of the primary
frequency of the ultrasound emitter f :
1
1
w
w
v v
f f
v v
/
=
/

Solving for
w
v :
w
f f
v v
f f

=
+

The frequency shift is small compared to the source frequency so 2 . f f f +
2
w
f f
v v
f

=
(n.b.: We are only concerned with the speed of the heart wall (not the velocity) so the sign is not needed.)
SOLVE The speed of the heart wall is
6
100 Hz
1480 m/s 0 015 m/s
2 5 0 10 Hz
w
v = = .
.

REFLECT If you model the oscillation of the heart wall as a harmonic oscillator, the maximum velocity is the
amplitude of the oscillation times the angular frequency. The angular frequency is approximately 15 rad/s (typical
heart rate is 140 bpm). If you assume the amplitude of the oscillation is on the order of 1 mm, the maximum
velocity is 1.5 cm/s, exactly consistent with the obtained result.
94. ORGANIZE AND PLAN When the relative velocity of source and observer are small compared to the speed of the
wave in the medium, the distinction between a moving source and a moving object is not important. As a result of
this approximation, we will treat the double Doppler shift as if each shift was the same.
So, as shown in Problem 100, the frequency received and emitted from the car is:
2
(1 )
c
f f v c = + /
where
c
v is the speed of the car approaching the police car and
8
3 0 10 m/s. c = .
We shall make one more approximation by carrying out the squaring in the above equation:
2
2 ( )
c c
f f fv c f v c = + / + /
Since the velocity of the car is much, much less than the speed of light the squared term is negligible leaving:
2
c
f f fv c = /
1 h
130 km/h 130 000 m/h 36 m/s
3600 s
= , =
SOLVE The frequency shift is then
9
8
2 60 10 Hz 36 m/s
14 4 kHz
3 0 10 m/s
f f

= = .
.

11.34 Chapter 11
REFLECT The frequency shift is fractionally small to the original frequency. Detecting such a small shift is
achieved using beat phenomena combing the source wave with the reflected wave.
95. ORGANIZE AND PLAN Take a wave formed by the superposition of two waves with frequencies
1
f and
2
. f The
wave at a given point is described by the following equation:
1 2
( ) cos2 cos2 y t A f t A f t = +
Recall the trig identity
1 1
cos cos 2cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2

+ =

Replacing alpha with
1
2 f t and with
2
2 f t in the trig identity we find:
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1
cos2 cos2 2cos (2 2 ) cos (2 2 )
2 2
f t f t f t f t f t f t

+ = +

Cleaning up a little:
1 2 1 2
1 2
cos2 cos2 2 cos 2 cos 2
2 2
f f f f
A f t A f t A t t
+
+ =

SOLVE Finally:
( ) 2 cos 2 cos 2
b a
y t A f t f t =

where
1 2
2
f f
b
f

= and
1 2
2
.
f f
a
f
+
= The beat frequency
b
f is slower than the average frequency .
a
f The slower
frequency cosine function acts as an envelope of the higher frequency oscillation.
REFLECT Beat phenomena is a very helpful little trick that allows the detection of small changes in frequency.
For example, Problem 101. Radar detectors use a very high frequency wave that gets shifted by a very small
fraction. However, by superimposing the reflected signal with the source signal beat phenomena allow for a direct
measurement of the shift in the frequency by looking at the frequency of the beats of the superimposed wave.

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11.

27 C is 353 m/s, greater than the speed

and asked to solve for .

= The tension is the total

and we are asked to find

20 C the speed of sound is 343 m/s while at

= In terms of the distance, the

It must be chilly where the pipe is.

C) can be obtained by Equation 11.4:

to provide the lowest frequency that can be heard as a pitch.

to provide the lowest frequency that can be heard as a pitch.

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