and Perioperative Implications WILLIAM R. HOPPER, MD, FAAOS; ROSE MOSS, RN, MN, CNOR 3.4 ABSTRACT Prevention of health care-associated infections, specically surgical site infections, is a fundamental responsibility of the perioperative team. Breaks in sterile technique can and do occur, even for the most conscientious perioperative practitioners. Surgical site infections are associated with unnecessary patient pain and suffering and increased lengths of hospital stay and health care costs. Prevention of surgical site infections, therefore, takes on great signicance in todays dynamic health care environment. Key responsibilities of perioperative nurses are to recognize and correct common breaks in sterile technique that are made in preparation for and during a surgical procedure and to implement methods to prevent future occurrences. AORN J 91 (March 2010) 350-364. AORN, Inc, 2010 Key words: sterile technique, aseptic technique, asepsis, surgical site infections, health care-associated infections. P reventing infections in the surgical patient is a primary responsibility of every mem- ber of the perioperative team. One of the expected outcomes for surgical intervention is that the patient is free from signs and symptoms of infection. 1 Health care-associated infection (ie, an infection that a patient acquires during the course of receiving treatment for other conditions in a health care setting) is one of the top 10 leading causes of death in the United States today. 2 In a recent update, the Centers for Disease Con- trol and Prevention estimated that health care- associated infections account for approximately 1.7 million infections and 99,000 associated deaths each year in US hospitals alone; of these infections, 22% are surgical site infections (SSIs). 3 The economic burden of SSIs is signicant. de Lissovoy et al, 4 using data from the 2005 Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project National Inpatient Sample, identied SSIs in hospital dis- charge records for seven categories of surgical procedures performed: neurological; cardiovascular; indicates that continuing education contact hours are available for this activity. Earn the con- tact hours by reading this article, reviewing the purpose/goal and objectives, and completing the online Examination and Learner Evaluation at http://www.aorn.org/ce. The contact hours for this article expire March 31, 2013. 350 AORN Journal March 2010 Vol 91 No 3 AORN, Inc, 2010 colorectal; skin, subcutaneous tissue, and breast; gastrointestinal; orthopedic; and obstetric and gynecologic. The primary study outcomes were the rate of SSI by surgical procedure category and the effect of SSI on hospital length of stay and cost. The re- searchers identied 6,891 cases of SSI among the 723,490 surgical hospitalizations in the sample (ie, 1%). On average, an SSI increased length of stay by 9.7 days and increased costs by $20,842 per admission. The researchers then projected these results to the national level. National esti- mates of SSI would result in an additional 406,730 hospital days and hospital costs would exceed $900 million. An additional 91,613 patient readmissions for treating the SSIs would account for an estimated 521,933 extra days of care at a cost of approximately $674.4 million. 4 For health care facilities, the escalating costs of treating SSIs were further affected in July 2008 when the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Ser- vices announced new payment and coverage poli- cies. 5 A nal acute care inpatient prospective pay- ment system rule that updated Medicare payments to hospitals for scal year 2009 provided addi- tional incentives for hospitals to improve the quality of care provided to patients with Medicare by including payment provisions to reduce pre- ventable medical errors that occur in hospitals. If a condition is not present on admission but is subsequently acquired during the hospital stay, Medicare will no longer pay the additional cost of the hospitalization; furthermore, the patient is not responsible for the additional cost. Initially, hospi- tals were not reimbursed for infections associated with vascular catheters and coronary artery bypass graft surgery. As of October 1, 2008, hospitals are no longer reimbursed for SSIs after select elective procedures, including certain orthopedic surgeries and bariatric surgeries. 5 The 2009 Joint Commission National Patient Safety Goals also include requirements for reducing the risk of health care-associated infections, specically SSIs, and state that best practices for preventing SSIs should be implemented. 6 The sources of surgical site microbial contami- nation may be either resident ora (ie, endoge- nous microorganisms) or transient ora (ie, exog- enous microorganisms). Resident ora are bacteria or microorganisms considered to be per- manent residents of the skin and are not readily removed by hand washing. 7 Transient ora are bacteria or microorganisms that colonize the su- percial layers of the skin and are more easily removed by hand washing or use of a hand rub agent. 7 Transient ora are easily transmitted to hands from patients and inanimate surfaces. Mi- crobial contamination of the surgical site can cause an SSI. The risk of an SSI increases with the dose of bacterial contamination and the viru- lence of the bacteria. 8 One potential cause of exogenous microbial contamination in the OR is a break in sterile tech- nique. A key responsibility of perioperative nurses is to recognize and correct common breaks in sterile technique that are made in preparation for and during a surgical procedure and to imple- ment methods to prevent future occurrences. CATEGORIES OF BREAKS IN STERILE TECHNIQUE Breaks in sterile technique can be divided into four types: Type 1the break is recognized immediately. Type 2the break is recognized shortly after it occurs. Type 3the break is recognized later. Type 4the break is not recognized at all. Although quantifying type 4 breaks is not possi- ble because they go unrecognized, it is intuitive to believe that some unrecognized breaks in ster- ile technique must occur. The list of recognized breaks is long; theoreti- cally, it is possible to break sterile technique in an innite number of ways. Certain breaks in COMMON BREAKS IN STERILE TECHNIQUE www.aornjournal.org AORN Journal 351 sterile technique, however, occur repeatedly, such as stabbing oneself with a needle and thus poten- tially exposing oneself to bloodborne pathogens, having the suction or electrosurgical unit (ESU) active electrode fall over the side of the OR bed, or brushing ones gown against an unsterile sur- face. Consider a classic examplethe hole in the glove. If recognized immediately (ie, a type 1 break), containment (ie, solving the disruption of the sterile eld and returning it to its former, un- contaminated state) is possible. If a needle was the culprit, the scrub person would pass the nee- dle off the sterile eld in its needle holder, the circulating nurse would remove the scrubbed per- sons glove, and the scrubbed person would don another glove. With the passage of time, the problem becomes more complex (ie, a type 2 break). Suppose that the individual has set the contaminated needle on a Mayo stand containing other instruments. For absolute containment to be achieved with a type 2 break, the entire Mayo stand must be taken down and all of the instruments resterilized or new ones ob- tained, which may or may not be practical or possible. Invariably, the team pauses to determine what else has been contaminated. In these situations, the team does its best to cope with the con- tamination, but containment may not be possible (eg, during emergent surgery, for an unstable patient). In a type 3 break, a scrubbed team member looks down and sees a hole in his or her glove. The individual does not know where or when the hole occurred and cannot say whether anything else has been contaminated. Potentially everything, in- cluding the incision, could have been contaminated. This is an example of a break in sterile technique that cannot be contained be- cause this would require starting over completely: irrigating the incision with antibiotic solution, reprep- ping, redraping, and begin- ning again with all new Most Common Pathogens in HAIs According to an annual summary from the National Healthcare Safety Network on the frequency of selected antimicrobial resis- tance patterns among pathogens causing device-associated and procedure-associated health care-associated infections (HAIs), the 10 most common pathogens accounting for 84% of HAIs were coagulase-negative staphylococci (15%), Staphylococcus aureus (15%), Enterococcus species (12%), Candida species (11%), Escherichia coli (10%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (8%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (6%), Enterobacter species (5%), Acinetobacter baumannii (3%), and Klebsiella oxytoca (2%). 1 As many as 16% of all HAIs were associated with the following multidrug-resistant pathogens: methicillin-resistant S aureus (8%), vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (4%), carbapenem-resistant P aeruginosa (2%), extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant K pneumoniae (1%), extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant E coli (0.5%), and carbapenem-resistant A baumannii, K pneumoniae, K oxytoca, and E coli (0.5%). 1 1. Hidron AI, Edwards JR, Patel J, et al; National Healthcare Safety Network Team. NHSN update: antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infec- tions: annual summary of data reported to the National Healthcare Safety Network at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006-2007. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29(11):996-1011. March 2010 Vol 91 No 3 HOPPERMOSS 352 AORN Journal instruments. Typically, this approach is not prac- tical because the surgical procedure has started and time is of the essence, not just for cost rea- sons but for the patients safety as well. The team has noticed the unintended contamination, but it would not be in the patients best interest to start over. A better option for the patient might be to simply remove and replace any obviously contam- inated items and supplies (eg, punctured gloves) and administer prophylactic antibiotics. COMMON BREAKS IN STERILE TECHNIQUE Common breaks in sterile technique include dif- culties encountered with sterilization, setting up and opening the sterile eld, scrubbing and drying hands, gowning, gloving, positioning, prepping, draping, the OR environment, and surgical tech- nique. Breaks in sterile technique can and do oc- cur, even for the best and most conscientious perioperative practitioners. Sterilization Preparation for a surgical procedure actually starts in the central processing department. Without sterilized instruments, there can be no sterile technique. Elab- orate mechanisms, often only vaguely known to surgeons, are used to ensure quality control in the central processing department. Steam sterilization requires specic steam chamber temperatures and appropriate exposure times, and all parameters must be monitored regularly. Conrmation of sterilization parameters when using other methods (eg, low- temperature hydrogen peroxide gas plasma, ethylene oxide, ozone) may be more complex compared with steam sterilization. There are numerous points in the decontamina- tion and sterilization process where problems can occur. Despite advances in technology, disposable drapes and packaging remain water resistant rather than waterproof. Wet spots may occur from condensed steam that has soaked through a sterile package. These wet spots may wick contamina- tion into the package. Perioperative personnel may not check sterility indicator tapes as re- quired. These tapes turn a distinctive color and pattern when a dened level of exposure is reached. Knowledge is critical in the sterilization process. For instance, sterilization tape cannot be used again after it has gone through a sterilization cycle because it will have turned color, thus giv- ing the impression that the item has been pro- cessed through a sterilization cycle when in fact it has not. Small holes or punctures may occur in the packaging that perioperative personnel may not notice even when they check the item. To ensure that items used in the sterile eld are ster- ile, perioperative personnel preparing an OR for a procedure must inspect all items immediately be- fore they are presented to the sterile eld for proper packaging, correct processing, an intact seal, package container integrity, and inclusion of the proper sterilization indicator. 9 The item should not be used if any of these prob- lems are identied during the inspection process. Setting Up and Opening Assuming that the instruments are properly steril- ized, the circulating nurse, scrub person, and other members of the perioperative team set up and open the instruments and supplies for the pro- cedure. This process, although routine, may be fraught with opportunities for breaking sterile technique. The steps for preparing a sterile eld require concentration and should never be hurried. All items introduced to the sterile eld should be opened, dispensed, and transferred by methods that maintain both their sterility and integrity. 9 The circulating nurse and scrub person are well versed in setting up and preparing a sterile eld; they do this many times a day. In fact, they do it so often, it can become routine, and by sheer vol- ume, some errors may seem inevitable. Not checking sterility indicators. All steril- ized packages, regardless of size, should have sterility indicators on and in them. The color COMMON BREAKS IN STERILE TECHNIQUE www.aornjournal.org AORN Journal 353 change is very easy to recognize. Overlooking this is very uncommon but can occur. The indica- tor should be visually inspected immediately to verify the appropriate color change for the se- lected sterilization process. 9 Not noticing tears in sterile packaging. Recog- nizing holes or tears in sterile packaging may not be as easy as it sounds. Metal trays may tear their covers at corners, and it is time consuming to examine them all. Small holes may be missed, especially when the scrub person and circulating nurse are hurrying. All items presented to the sterile eld should be inspected immediately be- fore presentation. Not recognizing soaked-through spots. Most sterile packages are wrapped in water- resistant packaging material. Waterproof packag- ing material (ie, plastic) does not tolerate heat well. It is possible to have questionable wet spots in the packaging material. If there is any possibil- ity that moisture is present, the items should be considered unsterile, should not be used, and should be returned for reprocessing. Contaminating the sterile eld, instruments, or supplies. Perioperative textbooks emphasize this caveat: unsterile individuals must not touch or reach over a sterile eld or allow any unsterile item to contaminate the eld. 10 All items should be delivered to the sterile eld in a manner that prevents nonsterile objects or personnel from ex- tending over the sterile eld. 9 If care is not taken, it is possible to touch the inside of a package while opening it. It is also possible for the outside of the package to touch the inside, sterile portion. Use of covered metal containers has helped mini- mize chances for contamination. The instruments are lifted out of the containers by recessed metal trays with hinged handles. A good rule when handing an item directly to a scrubbed person is to have both the opener (eg, circulating nurse) and receiver (eg, scrub person) concentrate on the act together, watching carefully to observe for inadvertent breaks in technique. Charnley 11 recommends using as few sets of instruments as possible to minimize the risk of contamination when opening a sterile eld and to avoid clutter, which increases the chance of breaking sterile technique. Few surgeons have followed his example. 11 Some larger procedures require opening of a large number of trays, many of which are only needed for an instrument or two. Some facilities have worked to consolidate sets and supply packaging. Some instruments can be packaged individually to minimize the number of sets being opened for one or two instruments, but this still requires opening numerous individual instruments. Obtaining consensus among surgeons regarding what is needed in an instrument set or procedure pack is not always easy. Having preas- sembled supply packs saves time in picking the case and opening for the procedure and minimizes the opportunity for contamination. If the contents of the pack are not selected carefully, however, supplies can be wasted. Improperly delivering solutions. Delivering solutions to the sterile eld may not be easy. When solutions, such as normal saline irrigation, must be dispensed onto the sterile eld, the scrub person should place the labeled solution recepta- cle near the edge of the sterile eld to permit the circulating nurse to pour the solution without con- taminating the sterile eld, or the scrub person should hold the labeled solution receptacle while the circulating nurse pours the entire contents of the container slowly to avoid splashing. 9 Any re- maining uid should be discarded because the edge of the container is considered contaminated after the contents have been poured. Medications should be delivered to the sterile eld in an aseptic manner. The circulating nurse should not remove the vial stoppers to pour the medication into a labeled receptacle on the sterile eld. For example, bupivacaine hydrochloride can come in a ip-top bottle. It is easy to contaminate the medication if the circulating nurse attempts to ip off the top with a ngertip and pour the March 2010 Vol 91 No 3 HOPPERMOSS 354 AORN Journal solution from the other side. This technique risks the nger touching the edge of the bottle and the solution becoming contaminated as it is poured over the edge. Instead, the circulating nurse should use a sterile transfer device (eg, sterile vial spike, lter straw, plastic catheter). 9 Improperly moving tables. The risk exists that unsterile scrub attire can touch sterile drapes on tables and stands. Tables are sterile only at table level; only the top surface of a draped table is considered sterile. 10 The circulating nurse must always move draped tables by grasping them well below the sterile drape. The scrub person should not move tables by grabbing around the top and underside of the tabletop with gloved hands. If the scrub person needs to move the table, he or she should push on the top of the table with gloved hands. Leaving sterile supplies open too long. Situ- ations have occurred in which the instruments and supplies for a procedure have been opened and set up but the procedure is delayed, for ex- ample, because of the need to repeat a test or be- cause the surgeon is unavoidably delayed. What- ever the reason, instruments and supplies are left out. In the past, sterile drapes were used to cover tables in these situations, but this practice has been abandoned because of the risk of contami- nating the sterile items when placing and remov- ing the sterile drape. In particular, removing the drape could result in a part of the drape that was below the table level being drawn above the table level or air currents drawing microorganisms from a nonsterile area to the sterile eld. 9 The current recommendation, therefore, is that sterile elds should not be covered; 9 this raises the question, how long is it safe to leave the setup open? There is no specied amount of time that a setup can remain open and unused and still be considered sterile; the sterility of an open eld is event related, and the eld requires continuous visual observation. 9 Surgical Hand Antisepsis The skin can never be rendered sterile, but it can be made surgically clean by reducing the number of microorganisms. 10(p79) Transient and some resident bacteria can be removed by effective sur- gical hand antisepsis. Anecdotal evidence sug- gests that enforcement of hand antisepsis rules may be lax in some surgical suites. Perioperative personnel are on an honor system, but perceived lack of time may adversely affect individual hand antisepsis practices. The facility should implement a hand antisepsis policy that includes removing rings, watches, and bracelets; keeping ngernails short, clean, and healthy; not wearing articial nails; donning a mask before scrubbing; prewashing the hands and forearms with soap and running water immediately before per- forming the surgical hand scrub if hands are visibly soiled; and cleaning the subungual areas of both hands under running water using a disposable nail cleaner. 7 A three- to ve-minute, standardized, anatomic, timed method 7 for surgical hand antisepsis using an antimicrobial scrub solution that has met US Food and Drug Administration requirements for surgical hand antisepsis should be used to reduce microbial bioburden. 7 Alcohol-based solutions (eg, alcohol-based surgical hand rubs) reduce bac- terial count on hands more rapidly than do anti- microbial soaps or detergents. A standardized protocol for their use should follow the manufac- turers written instructions. 7 When drying scrubbed hands and forearms, the top half of the towel is held securely with one hand and the opposite ngers and hand are thor- oughly blotted dry before moving to the forearm; the lower end of the towel is then grasped with the dried hand and the same procedure is used to dry the second hand and forearm. 10 The towel should not touch the scrub suit. COMMON BREAKS IN STERILE TECHNIQUE www.aornjournal.org AORN Journal 355 Gowning Gowning should occur on a separate table. The front of a sterile gown is considered sterile from the chest to the level of the sterile eld. 9 Therefore, only the inner side of a sterile gown can be touched when picking it up, usually at the neck. As a result of the way gowns are folded, a ngertip inadvertently can graze the front of the gown if the ngertip strays from the inside of the gown. Another aseptic break in gowning another person can occur when a scrub person grazes the surgeons shoulders with the gloved ngertips as the gown is cinched up. The white cuffs at the wrists of the gown are made of soft, permeable material that is not wa- terproof. The sleeve cuffs are considered unsterile when the scrubbed persons hands pass beyond the cuff and also because they tend to collect moisture and are not an effective bacterial barrier. 9,10 If the surgical gloves do not cover the cuffs, contamination may occur from inside out or from outside in. This is es- pecially dangerous when the clinicians hands are deep in the patients body, such as in the abdominal cavity. Gloving There are three methods of gloving: open, closed, and assisted. 10 The open method is fraught with potential for aseptic breaks, for obvious reasons. It is difcult not to touch any part of the skin to the sterile glove exterior; therefore, this method should be performed with care. It is not acceptable to tolerate poor open gloving technique; rather, it is better to start over. The open method is used for many minor proce- dures, from emergency de- partment suturing to admin- istering spinal anesthesia, but it can be used during a Gowning and Draping Materials The best materials for gloves, gowns, and drapes remains a con- troversial subject. Disposable gowns and drapes have proven their worth because washable, reusable fabric or linens of the past can- not remain waterproof. Some facilities still use washable linens, however, and reusable fabrics that are breathable and waterproof continue to evolve, including polyester microbers and porous forms of polytetrauoroethylene bonded between two layers of lightweight polyester. Cost is a signicant factor, especially in developing countries, but the cost of washing, sterilizing, storing, and replacing linens must also be considered. Disposables may replace reusables over time, even in underdeveloped countries, although dealing with hospital waste has become a pressing issue. The disposable gowns and drapes of today provide an effective uid-proof sterile barrier. 1 The shiny, plastic, adhesive-bordered drapes, laparotomy drapes, and extremity drapes have been em- braced in the surgical environment. See-through, adhesive plastic drapes (eg, antiabsorbent adhesive drapes, incise drapes) have be- come popular in many draping situations, although sometimes they are not practical (ie, in hand and foot surgery). These drapes may or may not be impregnated with an antimicrobial agent in the ad- hesive. 1 When selecting surgical drapes, personnel should consult practice standards, guidelines, and recommended practices, such as AORNs Recommended practices for selection and use of surgi- cal gowns and drapes 2 and the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation guideline Liquid Barrier Performance and Classication of Protective Apparel and Drapes Intended for Use in Health Care Facilities. 3 1. Mews P. Establish and maintain the sterile eld. In: Phippen M, Ulmer B, Wells M, eds. Competency for Safe Patient Care During Operative and Invasive Procedures. Denver, CO: Competency and Credentialing Institute; 2009:272. 2. Recommended practices for selection and use of surgical gowns and drapes. Periop- erative Standards and Recommended Practices. Denver, CO: AORN, Inc; 2010:127-131. 3. ANSI/AAMI PB70 Liquid Barrier Performance and Classication of Protective Ap- parel and Drapes Intended for Use in Health Care Facilities. Arlington, VA: Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation; 2003. March 2010 Vol 91 No 3 HOPPERMOSS 356 AORN Journal surgical procedure when the scrub person discov- ers a hole in the glove. He or she may change the glove by having the circulating nurse pull it off and then proceed to put on a new glove using the open method. It would be better to be regloved using the assisted method, but the scrub person may not wish to or be able to disturb the team. The closed method is better, but not perfect. The scrub person uses the cuff of the gown or the gown itself to perform a modied open technique. When the scrubbed persons hands protrude through the sleeve cuffs, the cuffs should be con- sidered contaminated. 9 The assisted method is the usual way to glove the surgeon and his or her assistants. Although it is the safest, it also can be complex. As the scrub person spreads the glove apart, the surgeons skin or hair may touch the glove exterior as the hand enters the glove. The key is for the scrub person to spread the glove as widely and as circumferen- tially as possible. Neither the scrub person nor the surgeon should hesitate to mention if a possible break in technique is suspected. Sterile gloves that become contaminated in any manner should be changed as soon as possible. 9 Scrubbed personnel should inspect gloves for in- tegrity after donning them. 9 When a hole in a glove is identied, the surgical team should at- tempt to isolate all equipment suspected of being contaminated. Irrigating the incision and applying additional drapes should be considered. Double gloving is increasingly popular. Many surgeons wear two gloves to apply the drapes, discard the outer pair of gloves after draping the surgical site but before beginning the procedure, and then don new outer gloves after draping. Tac- tile sensation may be diminished, but the trade-off is that a small hole in the outer glove may not penetrate through the inner glove. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the American College of Surgeons, and the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons support the practice of double gloving during invasive procedures. 8,12,13 Another possible break can occur when turning the gown after gowning and gloving. The scrub person may turn his or her gown with another scrubbed person or turn it with a nonscrubbed person (eg, the circulating nurse). If the scrub person turns with a nonscrubbed person, the scrub person hands the tie for turning to the non- scrubbed person; care must be taken to prevent the tie from striking the nonscrubbed persons bare hand as it traverses the cardboard tab. This break in technique may go unnoticed, especially if it occurs quickly or if staff members are hurry- ing. One solution is to insist on turning with a scrubbed person; however, often this is not possi- ble for the scrub person because no one else is scrubbed in at the time. Positioning the Patient Some of the positions required for optimal surgi- cal exposure may make draping the patient awk- ward. Typically, this is not a problem with ab- dominal surgery or other procedures performed in the supine position. Positioning should always be accomplished with draping in mind; any awk- wardness in draping increases the chance of a break in technique. The portion of the sterile sur- gical drape that establishes the sterile eld should not be moved after it has been placed; moving the sterile drape may compromise the sterility of the eld. 9 Performing the Surgical Skin Prep Skin cannot be sterilized; it is merely disinfected. The goal of performing a surgical skin prep is to reduce the risk of postoperative SSIs by removing soil and transient microorganisms from the skin, decreasing the resident microbial count to sub- pathogenic levels, and inhibiting rapid rebound growth of micro- organisms. 14 In the past, vigorous washing was recommended, and clinicians believed that the longer the skin was prepped (eg, 10 minutes), the better. It was later theorized, however, that long, vigorous COMMON BREAKS IN STERILE TECHNIQUE www.aornjournal.org AORN Journal 357 washing could actually increase dangerous ora by bringing to the surface deeper bacteria lurking in the dermis or could cause damage to the pa- tients skin; therefore, rapid, gentle washing might be best. The basic tenets of prepping are to begin at the center (ie, at the point of the inci- sion) and continue to the periphery of the area and never bring a soiled applicator back over a previously prepped surface. 10 A common error is to not follow this principle rigorously. Another error is for the circulating nurse to don the prep gloves and pick up the unscrubbed ex- tremity; when prep- ping the extremity, the circulating nurse moves his or her hand from the unscrubbed section (eg, ankle) to a scrubbed section (eg, lower calf). This action breaks technique by contaminating the al- ready scrubbed area. Using positioning devices and draping them appropriately during the scrub process can prevent this problem. Draping Draping is very important for minimizing the chance of breaks in sterile technique. The princi- ple is simple: sterile drapes are used to establish a sterile eld in which to operate. 9 During surgical site draping, the potential for complications abounds. When clinicians are moving in the ster- ile eld, their gowns can billow, even when the gowns are turned and tied. All personnel moving in or around a sterile eld should do so in a man- ner that maintains the sterile eld without con- taminating it. Nonscrubbed personnel should maintain a distance of at least 12 inches from all parts of and people in the sterile eld. 9 The sterile area of the gown front extends from the chest to the level of the sterile eld. 9 Without proper care and attention to detail, it is easy to contaminate the front of the gown when draping the sterile eld. For example, when placing a rolled towel around an extremity, the clinician leans forward and it is easy to contaminate the front of the gown on the arm board or OR bed. This may go unrecognized because the clinician is concentrating on applying the rolled towel. Another common error is to touch the prepped skin or tourniquet when rolling the towel. The rolled towel concept was classically used to estab- lish a proximal bor- der. A stockinette was then rolled up to it and the cuff of the stockinette was used to secure half-sheets with nonperforating clamps. This tech- nique is being used less because of the availability of disposable, waterproof, adhesive plastic sheets, applied circumferentially around the extremity. In situations where disposable drapes may not be available, the stockinette method is still useful. Removing sticky strips. The disposable adhe- sive sheets have sticky strips that must be pulled off. The ends of these strips can be difcult to control, so they may become contaminated and thus may contaminate drapes or gowns. Contaminating the ends of sheets. When circumferentially wrapping plastic sheets around an extremity, great care must be taken to prevent the ends of the sheets from becom- ing contaminated and falling back onto the eld. This can be remedied by rst covering most of the table and arm boards with sterile half-sheets. Then, after a scrubbed team member places the extremity drape, another scrubbed person inserts the extremity through the incise hole and the rest of the extremity drape is placed over previous drapes. Clinicians moving in or around the sterile eld should do so in a manner that does not contaminate it. Nonscrubbed personnel should maintain a distance of at least 12 inches from all parts of and people in the sterile eld. March 2010 Vol 91 No 3 HOPPERMOSS 358 AORN Journal One scrubbed person placing the drapes. Even with the help of the circulating nurse, it is difcult for one scrubbed person to place the drapes without breaking sterile technique. If at all possible, draping should be a team task. Moving a drape. During a procedure, it may seem convenient to adjust the drapes for addi- tional exposure. This should not be done. The portion of the surgical drape that creates the ster- ile eld should not be shifted or moved after it is positioned; doing so can compromise the sterility of the eld. 9 Passing off the suction tubing or ESU cords improperly. A common error is for the suction tubing or ESU cord to be passed off in such a way that not enough length is left for use on the sterile eld. It may be human nature to tug on the cords to get more play, but this should not be done. When a sterile item extends beyond the sterile boundary, it is considered contaminated and should not be pulled onto the sterile eld. 10 If there is any doubt about the sterility of an item, the item should be replaced. Suture, suction, or ESU active electrode falling. Based on this same principle, if any item falls beyond the sterile eld, it must be con- sidered contaminated and, therefore, cannot be brought back up onto the sterile eld. 10 Although how far off the sterile eld is considered below the eld may bring up the politics of contain- ment, the prudent course of action is to remove the item carefully from the sterile eld without causing further contamination. A nonscrubbed surgical team member then places it in a desig- nated receptacle. X-ray cassette draping. Draping an x-ray cassette with a sterile plastic cover can be the cause of a break in technique. Since the advent of portable uoroscopy (ie, C-arm), two common errors are possible: neglecting to drape the C-arm and contaminating the drapes when swinging the C-arm for a lateral image. To reduce the chance of a break in technique, nonsterile equipment should be covered with sterile barrier materials before being introduced to or brought over a ster- ile eld; sterile barrier material should be applied to the portion of any nonsterile equipment that will be positioned immediately adjacent to the sterile eld. 9 Furthermore, staff members from the radiology department should receive instruction regarding the principles of aseptic technique to help reduce the chance of a break in technique (eg, proper cleaning of equipment before bringing it into the OR from outside the restricted area of the surgical suite). 15 Environmental Concerns Numerous environmental concerns should be con- sidered to ensure compliance with aseptic technique. Some environmental concerns include dirt falling from overhead lights, turbulent airow during sur- gery, and bacterial shedding from personnel. Dirt on lights. Dirt from overhead lights falling into the incision may be inevitable, unless sterile lighting is invented. Therefore, lights always should be meticulously damp dusted before the rst scheduled surgical procedure of the day and after each procedure with a facility-approved hos- pital detergent/disinfectant and water. 15 Turbulent airow during surgery. Turbulent airow in the OR can increase the patients risk of acquiring an SSI. In theory, talking can accel- erate the eventual contamination of the mask. Talking, as well as the number of people present in the OR, should be kept to a minimum during procedures. An increase in the amount of talking and the number of people present can increase the number of airborne microorganisms. 16 Open OR doors are conduits for potentially contaminated air. Each surgical suite should have strict rules about which doors should remain shut unless entrance or exit is required. Directional airow, positive air pressure, and use of high- efciency particulate air (HEPA) lters help mitigate this problem, but some older surgical COMMON BREAKS IN STERILE TECHNIQUE www.aornjournal.org AORN Journal 359 suites may not have all three components. Trafc in and out of the OR should be kept to a mini- mum. The doors to the OR should remain closed except when personnel are entering or leaving or patients, supplies, or equipment are being moved in or out of the OR. 16 The air pressure in the OR should be maintained under positive pressure with a specied number of total room air ex- changes per hour depending on the area in the surgical suite. 17 Frequently opening and closing doors in the OR also increases the risk of insects entering the OR. Every OR should have a proto- col to handle this sort of occurrence because this can oc- cur even when the OR suite has sealed windows or no win- dows at all. Flies and other insects manage to get into the surgical suitethrough bay doors in the receiving area, vents to the outside, or doors opened as people enter the hospital. The principle of containment starts with covering the incision with a hand towel while efforts ensue to kill the insect or move it out of the room. One trick to minimize increased air turbulence when trying to catch a y is to turn out all the lights except one that is away from the sterile eld to lure the insect to the light. Typically, these simple measures sufce. If the problem becomes frequent, the infection con- trol and plant operations personnel should be noti- ed so that they can initiate an investigation. All possible entrances to the facility should be evalu- ated to identify potential problems (eg, the bay doors in receiving being left open). A closed-door policy in the surgical suite should be enforced. Bacterial shedding. Dirty skin can release microorganisms into the air. Keeping this in mind, everybody in the OR, including observers and anesthesia care providers, should cover their skin as much as is practical. In the restricted ar- eas of the surgical suite, surgical attire and hair coverings are required. 16 Nonscrubbed personnel should wear long-sleeved jackets that are buttoned or snapped closed to prevent bacterial shedding from bare arms. 18 Surgical Technique Dead cells are a natural food source for bacteria, which cause SSIs. Furthermore, antibiotics carried in the bloodstream cannot reach necrotic tissue, because it has no blood supply. Major sources of tissue necrosis are electrosurgery, re- traction, and dissec- tion. Other concerns involving surgical technique include dealing with spray, bone dust, and de- bris; handing off specimens; irrigating the surgical wound; and avoiding sharps injuries. Electrosurgery. In 1926, William T. Bovie, MD, an American biophysicist, and Harvey Cushing, MD, a neurosurgeon, developed electrosurgical technology, thermal coagulation by electrical en- ergy, to minimize intraoperative bleeding. 19 One drawback of electrosurgery is the production of char, a by-product of thermal coagulation. If bac- teria are present in the wound, the addition of charred tissue, a nutrient source for bacteria, is an invitation for the bacteria to ourish. Therefore, the scrub person should clean the active electrode tip away from the incision frequently to remove char and debris. 20 Electrosurgery has become indispensable in modern surgery. Some surgeons use the cutting modality of electrosurgery as a dissecting tool. The higher current slices through the tissue and coagulates at the same time, which may be pref- erable to using a knife. This is especially true for dissecting periosteum off bone or cutting through Skin can release microorganisms into the air. Keeping this in mind, everybody in the OR, including observers and anesthesia care providers, should cover their skin as much as is practical. March 2010 Vol 91 No 3 HOPPERMOSS 360 AORN Journal muscle. The char left behind in crevices created by implants, metal, cement, or allografts, how- ever, may create a possible focus of infection be- cause no blood supply can get to it. Bacteria can go into a state of suspended animation, protected by a coat of bioslime (ie, a coating produced by some bacteria that enables them to resist host defenses like phagocytes). 21 Over time, the bacte- ria can establish colonies in dead tissue. 21 Many such colonies can be eradicated over time, espe- cially in a healthy person. Occasionally, however, one of the colonies may create an abscess, result- ing in a deep wound infection. This theory can offer one explanation for why infections around implants can be so chronic. Charnley believed that some painful joint replace- ments could be caused by a low-grade infection. 22 The model for this is chronic osteomyelitis, where bacteria lie dormant in bone and produce intermit- tent are-ups. Electrosurgery should be used pru- dently to avoid providing microorganisms in a surgical incision with char, a ready nutrient sup- ply. When electrosurgery is used, diligent irriga- tion should be used to remove as much of the char as possible. Tissue retraction. Retractors facilitate expo- sure of the surgical site but can cause tissue in- jury and necrosis, which can produce detritus, increasing the patients risk of infection. Even a skin hook can kill cells when used for tissue ex- posure. Although self-retaining retractors are very helpful for surgeons, they have drawbacks. In return for exposure, self-retaining retractors can cause tissue necrosis and, with time, cell death, especially if too much pressure is applied. In the- ory, releasing the blades or teeth of the retractor at periodic intervals eases the lack of blood sup- ply to the tissues and gives the tissue a chance to recover from the pressure. Releasing the self- retaining retractor causes loss of surgical expo- sure, however, so frequently this practice is not possible or practical. Dissection. Using a variety of instruments, the surgeon begins dissection and develops tissue planes for deep exposure. The surgeon uses for- ceps and scissors to incise the fascia as well as identify and spread or cut the muscle. He or she may use electrosurgery to minimize muscle bleed- ing. The surgeon may tie, clip, or coagulate ves- sels. Whether the dissection is sharp (eg, scissors, knife, electrosurgery) or dull (ie, ngers, peanuts, elevators), cell death occurs. Spray, bone dust, and debris. Any aerosol produced during surgery should be dealt with cau- tiously. Particles may rise in the air, touch unster- ile surfaces, and fall back in. This is especially true of bone debris when power tools are used. The classic example is the high-speed burr, which throws a spray of bone debris into the air. Power lavage also can be a culprit. Overzealous spraying can bring microorganisms back into the incision. The lights over the eld are not far away and are unsterile. Spray and debris can rise to touch the surfaces and fall back. When possible, shields (eg, lavage units) should be used to prevent the aerosol from being dispersed away from the point of use. Handing off specimens. Specimens should be handled carefully in a manner that protects and secures the specimen and also prevents contami- nation of the personnel handling the specimen. 23 Typically, the scrub person hands off the speci- men to the circulating nurse. It is best for the scrub person to pick up the specimen with an in- strument (eg, forceps) and pass the instrument off the eld with the tissue. Transferring the speci- men into the specimen container with the inten- tion of keeping the instrument presupposes that the tissue will drop neatly off of the instrument. More often, the tissue sticks to the instrument and needs to be manipulated against the side of the container, contaminating the instrument in the process. It is best practice to pass off the tissue and the instrument by placing both into the speci- men container. COMMON BREAKS IN STERILE TECHNIQUE www.aornjournal.org AORN Journal 361 Irrigating the surgical wound. Although stud- ies have not denitively determined whether it is necessary to add antibiotics to irrigation solution, this practice may be benecial. Irrigation rinses away dead cells, blood, and bacteria and prevents drying of the tissues. Bacteria, invisible to the naked eye, may be settling in the wound through- out the procedure. Irrigation is important during the procedure, as well as during closure. Pausing to irrigate at frequent intervals may help reduce the patients risk of acquiring an SSI. This is par- ticularly easy to accomplish when an interruption in surgery occurs (eg, taking an x-ray, preparing an implant). Avoiding sharps injuries. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration requires health care facilities to protect their workers from expo- sures to bloodborne pathogens and to have a writ- ten exposure control plan. 24 The Occupational Safety and Health Administration bloodborne pathogen standard requires protection through the use of universal precautions, engineering controls, work practice controls, organizational controls, and communication. It also mandates that em- ployers maintain a log of injuries from contami- nated sharps. 25 Personnel should report all expo- sure incidents (eg, needle sticks and other blood exposures) to the health care organization accord- ing to the facility policy; prompt reporting allows employers to provide timely and condential postexposure evaluation, intervention, and testing and appropriate prophylaxis. 26 One drawback of the bloodborne pathogen standard is that because the protocol is time con- suming, some employees may be reluctant to ad- mit that a needle stick occurred. There are the problematic issues of paperwork, time, and un- wanted injections. Mini sticks, where there is a question as to whether or not the needle really penetrated, are often the result of using a curved needle. When the problem is announced, the team should freeze, dispose of the needle and suture in a manner that maintains the surgical count, and inspect the glove and affected hand. The incident must be reported and protocols followed. Bone sticks may accompany attempts to reduce fracture fragments with ones gloved ngers. If at all possible, instruments should be used to manip- ulate the fragments, although there will always be a situation during which the surgeon wants or needs to hold a fragment of bone in place manu- ally. Bone tamps should always be used when tamping bone grafts down rather than doing it manually with the ngers. CONTAINING THE CONTAMINATION OF A BREAK IN STERILE TECHNIQUE What should be done if a break in technique has occurred but time has elapsed before the break is recognized (ie, a type 2 or type 3 break)? How can the extent of contamination be determined? How can the contamination be isolated and con- tained? One recommendation is to institute the use of a watchword, whereupon all surgical team members freeze. Team members would then com- municate the dilemma, discuss options, and iden- tify and implement a solution so the procedure can proceed. One facility implemented the FCC plan: freeze, communicate, and contain, using the watchword Boppo. The importance of freezing is that when a break is discovered, no one moves, which keeps the contamination from spreading. Communication is crucial at this point. Different options for resolution may be voiced, and all opinions should be considered valid. The circulat- ing nurse, scrub person, surgeon, assistants, and anesthesia care provider all may have valuable input. The team must reach a consensus on how to proceed. Consider the situation of a knife blade penetrating a sterile drape. The rst person to notice the prob- lem clearly says, Boppo, and all team members freeze while the situation is assessed and options are discussed. One team member might question whether the area is contaminated because the knife blade was sterile before it went through the sterile March 2010 Vol 91 No 3 HOPPERMOSS 362 AORN Journal drape. One team member might want to investigate to determine how many layers of sterile drapes were penetrated. How can this be accomplished safely and efciently? The team might discuss this option but decide that in the effort to determine the level of contamination, drapes would have to be pulled up, which would further spread the contamination. An- other team member might suggest using scissors to cut a wide patch out of the drape to see the extent of the contamination. One team member might question whether antibiotic prophylaxis is advisable. In the end, the team decides that the basic principle of sterile technique applies: if in doubt, treat it as contaminated. Cooperatively, the team decides that the knife blade and handle should be discarded im- mediately, not placed on the Mayo stand or back table, and the hole should be covered with a new, impermeable drape. The team determines that addi- tional antibiotics are not required because an antibi- otic was administered 15 minutes before the initial incision. At this point, the surgeon determines whether it is safe to continue surgery. Occasionally, heated disagreements may occur regarding how to handle a break in technique. The attending surgeon has the ultimate responsibility for determining when to resume the procedure, but what if the circulating nurse, scrub person, or an assistant (eg, RN rst assistant) disagrees? The dictatorial ways of the old-time surgeons and captain of the ship philosophy have largely been modied by new policies and changes in the workplace environment. This has given rise to a healthier atmosphere in which there is more of a team approach. CORRECTIVE ACTION AND REPORTING When a break in sterile technique occurs and cannot be rectied, appropriate corrective actions should be implemented immediately unless doing so would compromise the patients safety. If the patients safety would be at risk, the break should be cor- rected as soon as it is safe to do so. 9 In these situa- tions, the policies and procedures of the health care facility should specify how to report the break in sterile technique to appropriate risk management personnel and how to revise the wound classica- tion after a break in sterile technique occurs. 9 CONCLUSION For the surgical patient, acquiring an SSI leads to needless discomfort and treatments, as well as an increased hospital stay. For the health care facil- ity, an SSI also means additional cost. A break in sterile technique is one potential cause of an SSI. As patient advocates, all members of the periop- erative team must have a good surgical conscience; be knowledgeable about the principles of ster- ile technique; remain vigilant to prevent and identify breaks; and initiate appropriate corrective actions as soon as possible after a break is realized. With this knowledge and skill, each member of the perioperative team can proactively reduce the adverse effects of a break in sterile technique and, consequently, an SSI, ultimately improving the patients surgical outcome. References 1. Petersen C. Perioperative Nursing Data Set: The Peri- operative Nursing Vocabulary. 3rd ed. Denver, CO: AORN, Inc. In press. 2. Health-care associated infections (HAIs). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/ ncidod/dhqp/healthdis.html. Accessed November 9, 2009. 3. Estimates of healthcare-associated infections. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc .gov/ncidod/dhqp/hai.html. Accessed November 9, 2009. 4. de Lissovoy G, Fraeman K, Hutchins V, Murphy D, Song D, Vaught BB. Surgical site infection: incidence and impact on hospital utilization and treatment costs. Am J Infect Control. 2009;37(5):387-397. 5. Medicare and Medicaid move aggressively to encour- age greater patient safety in hospitals and reduce never events [news release]. Baltimore, MD: Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services; July 31, 2008. http:// www.cms.hhs.gov/apps/media/press/release.asp? Counter3219&intNumPerPage10&checkDate &checkKey&srchType1&numDays3500&srch Opt0&srchData&keywordTypeAll&chkNews Type1%2C2%2C3%2C4%2C5&intPage& showAll&pYear&year&descfalse&cboOrder date. Accessed November 9, 2009. 6. Accreditation Program: Hospital National Patient Safety Goals. The Joint Commission. http://www.joint COMMON BREAKS IN STERILE TECHNIQUE www.aornjournal.org AORN Journal 363 commission.org/NR/rdonlyres/31666E86-E7F4-423E- 9BE8-F05BD1CB0AA8/0/09_NPSG_HAP.pdf. Accessed November 9, 2009. 7. Recommended practices for hand hygiene in the perioper- ative setting. In: Perioperative Standards and Recom- mended Practices. Denver, CO: AORN, Inc; 2010:75-89. 8. Mangram AJ, Horan TC, Pearson ML, Silver LC, Jarvis WR. Guideline for prevention of surgical site infection, 1999. Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1999;20(4):250-278. 9. Recommended practices for maintaining a sterile eld. In: Perioperative Standards and Recommended Prac- tices. Denver, CO: AORN, Inc; 2010:91-99. 10. Nicolette LH. Infection prevention and control in the perioperative setting. In: Rothrock JC, ed. Alexanders Care of the Patient in Surgery. 13th ed. St Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier; 2007:75. 11. Charnley J. Surgical infection in orthopaedic surgery, Wrightingtons glass-house [in French]. Rev Chir Orthop Reparatrice Appar Mot. 1969;55(3):231-233. 12. [ST-58] Statement on sharps safety. American College of Surgeons. http://www.facs.org/fellows_info/statements/ st-58.html. Accessed December 7, 2009. 13. Information statement: preventing the transmission if bloodborne pathogens. American Academy of Ortho- pedic Surgeons. http://www.aaos.org/about/papers/ advistmt/1018.asp. Accessed December 7, 2009. 14. Recommended practices for preoperative patient skin anti- sepsis. In: Perioperative Standards and Recommended Practices. Denver, CO: AORN, Inc; 2010:351-369. 15. Recommended practices for environmental cleaning in the perioperative setting. In: Perioperative Standards and Recommended Practices. Denver, CO: AORN, Inc; 2010:241-255. 16. Recommended practices for trafc patterns in the peri- operative practice setting. In: Perioperative Standards and Recommended Practices. Denver, CO: AORN, Inc; 2010:101-104. 17. American Institute of Architects Academy of Architec- ture for Health. Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospital and Health Care Facilities. Washington, DC: American Institute of Architects Press; 2006:130- 131. 18. Recommended practices for surgical attire. In: Periop- erative Standards and Recommended Practices. Denver, CO: AORN, Inc; 2010:67-73. 19. Ball KA. Surgical modalities. In: Rothrock JC, ed. Alexanders Care of the Patient in Surgery. 13th ed. St Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier; 2007:219. 20. Recommended practices for electrosurgery. In: Periop- erative Standards and Recommended Practices. Denver, CO: AORN, Inc; 2010:105-125. 21. DAmbrosio R, Masier R. Orthopaedic Infections. Thorofore, NJ: Slack, Inc; 1989:53-55. 22. Charnley J. Acrylic Cement in Orthopaedic Surgery. Edinburgh, Scotland; Churchill Livingstone; 1970: 42. 23. Recommended practices for the care and handling of specimens in the perioperative environment. In: Periop- erative Standards and Recommended Practices. Denver, CO: AORN, Inc; 2010:269-276. 24. AORN guidance statement: Sharps injury prevention in the perioperative setting. In: Perioperative Standards and Recommended Practices. Denver, CO: AORN, Inc; 2010:697-702. 25. Standards 29 CFR. Bloodborne pathogens. 1910.1030. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. http:// www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_ tableSTANDARDS&p_id10051. Accessed November 9, 2009. 26. Recommended practices for prevention of transmissible infections in the perioperative practice setting. In: Peri- operative Standards and Recommended Practices. Den- ver, CO: AORN, Inc; 2010:277-287. William R. Hopper, MD, FAAOS, is a retired attending orthopaedic surgeon, AO Fox Memo- rial Hospital, Oneonta, NY. Dr Hopper has no declared afliation that could be perceived as a potential conict of interest in publishing this article. Rose Moss, RN, MN, CNOR, is an indepen- dent nurse consultant, Hendersonville, NC. Ms Moss has no declared afliation that could be perceived as a potential conict of interest in publishing this article. March 2010 Vol 91 No 3 HOPPERMOSS 364 AORN Journal CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAM 3.4 Common Breaks in Sterile Technique: Clinical Perspectives and Perioperative Implications PURPOSE/GOAL To educate perioperative nurses about identifying and preventing common breaks in sterile technique. OBJECTIVES 1. Identify sources of surgical site infection. 2. Identify common breaks in sterile technique. 3. Describe means to prevent common breaks in sterile technique. The Examination and Learner Evaluation are printed here for your convenience. To receive continuing education credit, you must complete the Examination and Learner Evaluation online at http://www.aorn.org/CE. QUESTIONS 1. Transient ora 1. are considered to be permanent residents of the skin. 2. are easily transmitted to hands from patients and inanimate surfaces. 3. can be removed by hand washing or use of a hand rub agent. 4. are not readily removed by hand washing. 5. colonize the supercial layers of the skin. a. 1 and 4 b. 2, 3, and 5 c. 1, 2, 3, and 5 d. 1, 2, 4, and 5 2. The risk of a surgical site infection increases with the dose of bacterial contamination and the viru- lence of the bacteria. a. true b. false 3. A type 3 break in sterile technique is one that is a. recognized immediately. b. recognized shortly after occurrence. c. recognized at a later time. d. not recognized at all. 4. To ensure that items used within the sterile eld are sterile, perioperative personnel preparing an OR for a procedure must inspect all items imme- diately before they are presented to the sterile eld for 1. an intact seal. 2. correct processing. 3. inclusion of the proper sterilization indicator. 4. package container integrity. 5. proper packaging. a. 1 and 3 b. 2, 3, and 5 c. 1, 2, 4, and 5 d. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 EXAMINATION AORN, Inc, 2010 March 2010 Vol 91 No 3 AORN Journal 365 5. There is no specied amount of time that a setup can remain open and unused and still be consid- ered sterile because the sterility of an open eld is event related. a. true b. false 6. For surgical skin prep, a. rapid, gentle washing is recommended. b. the longer the skin is prepped, the better. c. vigorous scrubbing is recommended. 7. Turbulent airow can be caused by 1. excessive talking. 2. frequent opening and closing of the OR doors. 3. an increased number of personnel in the OR. 4. directional airow, positive air pressure, and use of high-efciency particulate air (HEPA) lters. a. 1 and 2 b. 2 and 4 c. 1, 2, and 3 d. 1, 2, 3, and 4 8. Char 1. is a by-product of thermal coagulation. 2. is a nutrient source for bacteria. 3. should frequently be cleaned off the active electrode tip. a. 1 b. 1 and 3 c. 2 and 3 d. 1, 2, and 3 9. The policies and procedures of a health care fa- cility should specify how to 1. report the break in sterile technique to appro- priate risk management personnel. 2. discipline the individual responsible for the break in technique. 3. revise the wound classication after a break in sterile technique occurs. a. 1 b. 1 and 3 c. 2 and 3 d. 1, 2, and 3 10. As patient advocates, all members of the periop- erative team must 1. be knowledgeable about the principles of ster- ile technique. 2. have a good surgical conscience. 3. initiate appropriate corrective actions as soon as possible after a break is realized. 4. remain vigilant to prevent and identify breaks. a. 1 and 3 b. 2 and 4 c. 1, 2, and 3 d. 1, 2, 3, and 4 The behavioral objectives and examination for this program were prepared by Rebecca Holm, RN, MSN, CNOR, clinical editor, with consultation from Susan Bakewell, RN, MS, BC, director, Center for Perioperative Education. Ms Holm and Ms Bakewell have no declared afliations that could be perceived as potential conicts of interest in publishing this article. March 2010 Vol 91 No 3 CE EXAMINATION 366 AORN Journal CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAM 3.4 Common Breaks in Sterile Technique: Clinical Perspectives and Perioperative Implications T his evaluation is used to determine the extent to which this continuing education program met your learning needs. Rate the items as described below. OBJECTIVES To what extent were the following objectives of this continuing education program achieved? 1. Identify sources of surgical site infection. Low 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High 2. Identify common breaks in sterile technique. Low 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High 3. Describe means to prevent common breaks in sterile technique. Low 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High CONTENT 4. To what extent did this article increase your knowledge of the subject matter? Low 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High 5. To what extent were your individual objectives met? Low 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High 6. Will you be able to use the information from this article in your work setting? 1. Yes 2. No 7. Will you change your practice as a result of reading this article? (If yes, answer question #7A. If no, answer question #7B.) 7A. How will you change your practice? (Select all that apply) 1. I will provide education to my team regarding why change is needed. 2. I will work with management to change/ implement a policy and procedure. 3. I will plan an informational meeting with phy- sicians to seek their input and acceptance of the need for change. 4. I will implement change and evaluate the ef- fect of the change at regular intervals until the change is incorporated as best practice. 5. Other: 7B. If you will not change your practice as a result of reading this article, why? (Select all that apply) 1. The content of this article is not relevant to my practice. 2. I do not have enough time to teach others about the purpose of the needed change. 3. I do not have management support to make the change. 4. Other: 8. Our accrediting body requires that we verify the time you needed to complete this 3.4 continuing education contact hour (204-minute) program: This program meets criteria for CNOR and CRNFA recertication, as well as other continuing education requirements. AORN is accredited as a provider of continuing nursing education by the American Nurses Credentialing Centers Commission on Accreditation. AORN recognizes these activities as continuing education for registered nurses. This recognition does not imply that AORN or the American Nurses Credentialing Center approves or endorses products mentioned in the activity. AORN is provider-approved by the California Board of Registered Nursing, Provider Number CEP 13019. Check with your state board of nursing for acceptance of this activity for relicensure. Event: #10011; Session: #4003 Fee: Members $17, Nonmembers $34 The deadline for this program is March 31, 2013. A score of 70% correct on the examination is required for credit. Participants receive feedback on incorrect answers. Each applicant who successfully completes this program will be able to print a certicate of completion. LEARNER EVALUATION AORN, Inc, 2010 March 2010 Vol 91 No 3 AORN Journal 367