UDC: 621.
86
Lubricant effects on strain fields of seven wire strands
subjected to tensile load
by P. Cappa, Department of Mechanics and Aeronautics, University of Rome, "La Sapienza" Via Eudossiana 18, 00184
Rome, /tal
As a part of an extensive analysis on strand behaviour the
lubricant effect in strain fields was examined. The strains
were measured by using electrical resistance strain
gauges. The results obtained, by loading the unlubricated
and lubricated sample both statically and quasi-statically,
showed relevant effects caused by different contact loads
developed among the wires. By examining the strains
measured during the severing of one helical wire the
inapplicability to the strands of one /talian regulation
relative to wire ropes, was a/so confirmed.
Key words: Seven wire strand, strain fields,lubricant
effects, electric resistance strain gauges
List of symbols
L = lubricated strand sample.
SD = standard deviation, interval ofuncertainty associated
with c
U = unlubricated strand sample.
8~:' = interval ofuncertainty associated with ~:'.
~: = mean strain value relative to each helical wire.
E' = representative strain value of the behaviour of the
helical wire.
lntroduction
Extensive tests are usually carried out by wire rope
manufacturers with the aim to mainly determine the tensile
hreaking load. However the difficulties associated with
theoretical studies 1' 7 on strands or wire rape behaviour
caused by the non-linearity of the physical phenomenon,
suggest more extensive experimental approaches.
Some articles have been published on the experimental
study of the wire strains in strands lubricated and
unlubricated and subjected to static tensile Ioads. The
results obtained reveal the unequal load sharing between
nominally identica! wires 8-13, and relevant effects of the
twisting constraints 14-IS.
The objective of the current work, carried out at the
Faculty of Engineering in Rome is to extend the
experimental analysis also to damaged strands subjected to
static, quasi-static and dynamic loads. The strains
'Stl·az'n', August 1989
measured by testing unlubricated strands with one helical
wire severed 1&-19 showed the inapplicability to the strands
of seven wire construction of one of the more accepted
Italian regulations regarding the length, measured from the
end of a severed helical wire, in which the wire behaves as
an undamaged one; the ltalian regulations indicate this
length only for the wire ropes. This inapplicability was
also observed 20.21 by examining the strains recorded during
and immediately after the transients caused by the severing
of a helical wire of unlubricated strands.
In this present work it is sought to verify the previous
result by testing different strand samples and to analyse the
effects caused by the presence of a lubricant. The study
reported bere represents a preliminary analysis for further
more exhaustive investigations of the strand response
loaded non statically; in fact, it is planned to examine the
wire tensions and bending moments by utilising three
strain gauges with parallel grids, applied in each wire, as
shown by Utting and Jones n.2J.
Experimental arrangement and procedure
The strand examined, of seven wire ccnstruction, has a
diameter of the core wire of 5.2 mm and those of the
helical wires of 5.0 mm (then the equivalent diameter is
15.2 mm); the lay length was 223.5 mm, and, finally, the
breaking strength was 198.0kN.
Two strand examples were cut from an unused piece. The
test samples measured approximately 1400 mm between
the end grips. One of the samples was kept unlubricated,
sample U, the other was lubricated, sample L.
The experimental procedure followed and the devices
utilised in the present study are similar to those described
in previous papers 18,19,21. They are briefly described for
convenience.
Six electrical resistance strain gauges were mounted
aligned with the axis ofthe wires, one on each helical wire
and near the middle of each strand sample. The strain
gauges chosen (HBM 0.6 120 LYII) have a nominai
resistance of 120 Q a grid length of 0.6 mm and a grid
width of 1.0 mm. The distance from the grips of the
longitudinal gauges allows one to consider the effects of
the end grips on the wire behaviour as negligible.
The measurements of resistance between the gauges and
the ground, carried out at the beginning of each series of
test, assured good mechanica1 properties of the adhesive
layers; in fact the values were always higher than 20000
MQ. The load applied was measured by means of a Ioad
celi placed in series with the strand. The intervals of
uncertainty were always less than 0.3%.
95
Before beginning the tests, the strands were loaded and .. t.o•
UNLUBAJ:CAT~C STRANO

unloaded severa! times, this initial preparation was given to ··r---------~------------------------~

Legand
.....,..__...,,,... 1
the samples to obtain a more uniform wire behaviour, and ...,..__......wtre 2
......,____.. wt. re a
to relieve the residua! stresses in the adhesive. ...___._.w tre 4
+----+wt.re !l
,..____,.,. w1,.. &

The strain measurement system utilised for the static

measurements is based on a manual measuring point r.
selector and a digitai strain meter. The strain measurement
system used for the quasi-static and dynamic tests is made
up of a signal conditioner and a magnetic tape recorder.
s
.
L
~
.
The connections of the gauges into the bridges are carried
out with the three lead wire system.
aa.e 58.1 7SI.e

It was possible to hypothesise that the strain measurements Loao (kN)

were subjected to many small sources of random error and

negligible systematic errors. In that cue, the Gauss •:1.01
LUBRICA TEC STAANC

distribution function describes the limiting distribution of ··~--------~--------------------------

L..agand
the random errors quite well. It was decided to report the .,....__....wira i
.......--.wtre 2
results of ali the tests carried out as: mean ± standard -------- w1 ,... 3
.,___wtre 4
.......__.wire 15
deviation (E± SD). The value ofthe standard deviation was ~wtree

calculated in accordance with the more conservative, i.e.

larger, definition.

The loading cycle chosen for the tests, both static and quasi
static, was equal to 19.6 - 98.0- 19.6 kN. Ten tests were
carried out.

The strain readings in static tests were done at increments :18.8 1!58.8 7lil.f!
and decrements in load of9.8 kN and with an interval of20 Laaa [kNl

minutes between each cycle.

Fig. 1 Static tests. Variation of the strains vs load

The time increment necessary to complete each quasi static

test was always less than 60sec. UNLUIIRICATED STRANO

••o Le gand
..---.,.tre 1
Finally, the strain fields during the severing of one helical ....---. ... tra a
...----...wlre S
.,.....__.....wt.re 4
wire while the sample was subjected to a constant load ot---+wtra 5
~wt.rae:

equal to 98.0 kN, were recorded. The wires chosen for the o
severings are those that appeared the most strained in static
and quasi- static tests.

Experimental results and discussion v. ~

~
A static analysis was carried out first. The strains measured o
ii.B 18.15 !51.1
~ 78.8
showed small intervals of uncertainty and, obviously, an LOBCI [kN]

increase of test repeatability caused by the lubricant. In fact

the SD values were always less than 35J. unlm and 16 J. un/m
for U and L, respectively. The SD values also confirmed L.UIIFUC.t.TI!'D STIIIANC
•~o' ...---------...--------------------------.
that the contact loads developed among the wires caused an Lagand
----wire l
increase of result dispersion during the unloading cycle. ...,..__......wt.re 2
,____...w tra 3
~wt.ra•
.....,_____..wlre s
~WiL"B8
In Fig. l a comparision of the E relative to each helical 100
wire obtained in the loading cycle is given. From the ~
examination of this figure the linear relation between the .3

strains and the tensile loads, and the irrelevance of the

lubricant effects were confirmed.

Fig. 2 shows the variations of the strain differences

between loàding and unloading as a function of the applied
loads. The results exhibited confirmed negligible hysteresis ~.~.•~~--~.8~.~.~-L~~.~g~_.-L~~--78~.•~~~~~
effects both in U and L samples; in fact these strain LOad [kN]

differences are always less than the associated intervals of Fig. 2 Static tests. Variations of the difference between the strains relative to the
uncertainty. increasing loads and those relative to the dereasing ones vs load

96 'Strain', August 1989

Then, the quasi-static tests were carried out. The strains The hysteresis effects were not observed, as confirmed in
recorded showed small intervals of uncertainty (SD always Fig. 4.
less than 57J..Lmlm for U and 39 J..Lm/m for L). By
comparing the SD values relative to the increasing loads LH..UIIAXC.t.TI!O STRÀND
with those of the decreasing ones, negligible differences teor----------r----------------------------,
Leg•nc:l
were observed. ~w.t.re
~w1re
i
2
..-----.... w1r • 3
...,..___._... wl re 4
+-----+wlre e
Fig. 3 shows the load-strain plots relative to the ~w\.ree

increasding loads; from the examination of this figure a

more uniform wire behaviour emerges.
UNL.UBRICATED S"''IIIAND
M10:1
3r---------~-----------------------------,
L.•g•nd
a----t1 wtre i
~w1re2
~wi.re3
.,_.__._... w1r e 4
~wtree
~wlre!'

~ 2
i• 79.1!1
.3

.
l
~
c

.. t
L.utiRICATf!D STRANO
teor----------r--------------------------~
Legend
......,__....wtre i
.-----wire 2
.....,___...,tre 3
....,___..... w tre 4
39.8 7&.11 ......,___._.....,ire 15
~..,~.,...e

tOO

LUBRICA TEC STRANO

~
.s
•so•
3 ~--------~----------------------------~
Lagend
~wire 1
~w1re 2
___.LW1re 3
~wire 4
____..wire !5
~wire e
~ 2
l
....
•
.3

..
~
L
111
79.15

Fig. 4 Quasi static tests. Variation of the difference between the strains relative to the
increasing loads and those relative to the decreasing ones vs load

~~.~~~~~.~9~.6~--~._~e~e.~e-L~--~~79~.~~~~_.~~
6 of the end grips while the samples were subjected to a
Loed [kN]
Fig. 3 Quasi static tests. Variations of the strains vs load
However, by comparing the results obtained loading the
samples statically and quasi-statically, noticeable
differences are observed. This consideration emerges from
the examination of the E', the mean value of the helical
wires, that is considered the representative strain of the
external wire behaviour. The associated intervals of
uncertainty, oe', were calculated by adding in quadrature
the SD values. At a load equa! to 98.0 kN, for example, e'
was in the ranges of 2652 J..Lmlm ~ e' ~ 2754 J..Lmlm (U),
an d 2659 J..Lmfm ~ e' ~ 2707 J..Lmfm (L), for the static tests,
while, in the quasi-static ones e' was in the ranges of 2357
J..Lm/m ~ E' ~ 2705J..Lmlm (U), and 2531 J..Lmfm ~ e' ~ 2605
11m/m. These different ranges of variation can be justified
by hypothesising that the core wire, not examined in the
present study, collaborates differently in load sharing both
when the lubricant is present, and the Ioading conditions
are changed.
Then the more strained helical wire was severed near one
constant tensile load of98.0 kN.
The decrease of load sharing capability on the interrupted
wire, and the partial compensation of the extemal adjacent
ones, appeared from the examination of Tab le I.
However, a sensible increase of the strain fields have to
characterise also the core wire; in fact, the difference
between the sum of the field helical wire strains
immediately before and after the severings was equa) to
896 J.imlm and 482 11m/m for U and L, respectively.
The examination of the recorded strains confirmed the
inapplicability to the seven wire strands of one of the more
accepted Italian regulations regarding the length, measured
from the severed abscissa, in which the wire behaves as an
undamaged one. The regulation indicates this length, for
wire ropes, as 30 equivalent diameters. The measured
strains showed, on the contrary, that a distance from the
severed abscissa :::: 650 mm (:::: 40 times the equivalent
diameter), the severed wire is almost unstrained.

'Strain', August 1989 97

r--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
Table l

Comparisons of the results in the dynamic tests

Unlubricated strand
Before the wire 6 severing lmmediately after the severing
(!lm/m) (!lm/m)
Wire l 2667 4056
Wire2 2667 2444
Wire3 2433 1533
Wire4 2378 2393
Wire 5 2467 3867
Wire 6 2706 129

Lubricated strand
Before the wire 5 severing lmmediately after the severing
(!lm/m) (!lm/m)
Wire l 2423 2269
Wire2 2500 1615
Wire 3 2556 2519
Wire4 2613 4115
Wire 5 2643 63
Wire6 2560 4232

~--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Concluding remarks References

l. Hall H.M. "Stresses in small wire ropes". Wire and

The following conclusions for the samples tested are
arrived at.
(l) The stati c an d quasi-static tests, carri ed out by
examining unlubricated and lubricated sample strands,
revealed that different contact loads are developed among
the wires.
Wire Products, 26, (1951), 228,257-259.
2. Leissa A. W. "Contact stresses in wire ropes", Wire and
Wire Products, 34, (1959), 307-314,372-373.
3. Starkey W.K., Cress H.A. "An analysis of criticai
stresses and mode of failure of wire ropes", ASME
Journal ofEngineering forlndustry, 81, ( 1959), 307-316.

(2) The strains recored during the severing of an external
wire indicates the inapp1icability to damaged strands of
one of the more accepted Italian regulations relative to
wire ropes.
4. Lutchansky M. "Axial stresses in armour wires of ben t
submarine cab l es", ASME Journal of Engineering for
Industry, 91, (1969), 687-693.
5. Costello G.A., Phillips J.W. "Contact stresses in thin
twisted rods'', ASME Journa1 of Applied Mechanics, 52,
(1973), 629-630.

6. Huang N.C. "Finite extension of an elastic strand with a

centrai core", ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics. 45,
(1978), 852-858.

7. Phillips J.W., Costello G.A. "Analysis of wire ropes

Acknowledgement
This research was supported by the Italian National
Research Council, under contract C.N.R. 87.02169.07.
The author is appreciative of this financial support.
with internai wire rope cores", ASME Journal of Applied
Mechanics, 52, (1985), 510-516.
8. Branca F.P., Cappa P., Molinari G. "Indagine
sperimentale sulle deformazioni dei fili in un trefolo
spiroidale semplice. Primi risultati".Elevatori, 5-6, ( 1985),
11-17, (in Italian).

98 'Strain', August 1989

9. Rossetti U., Ochner M. "Sul problema dell'analisi delle
sollecitazioni nelle funi metalliche", Disegno di
Macchine, 4, (1973), 245-248, (in Italian)
10. Paollini G., Bazzaro E., "Studio sullo stato di cimento
in fili di funi soggette a trazione semplice", Elevatori, 3,
(1974), 59-62, (in Italian).
Il. Paolini G., Bazzaro E. "Experimental research on the
stress state in the wires of steel ropes under tensile loads",
Proceedings ofOITAF, Vienna, (1975).
12. Paolini G., Bazzaro E., " Considerazioni interpretative
sull'analisi sperimentale delle tensioni in una fune
sollecitata a trazione", III Convegno AIAS, Bologna
(Italy), (1975), (in Italian).
13. Paolini G., Bazzaro E." A study on the deviation in the
experimental results obtained from strain gauge tests
carri ed out o n steel wire ropes un der tensile loads",
Proceedings of OITAF, Hlovec, ( 1978).
14. Bazzaro E. "Influenza del vincolo torsionale sul
comportamento statico di una fune soggetta a trazione
semplice", Elevatori, 6, (1979), 217 -238,(in Italian).
15. Utting W.S., Jones N., "Tensile testing of wire rope
strand", Joumal of Strain Analysis, 20, 3, (1985), 151-164.
16. Cappa P. "Analisi sperimentale delle deformazioni in
un trefolo spiroidale semplice con un filo periferico
interrotto", Elevatori, 5, (1986), 23-27, (in Italian)
17. Cappa P., "Effetto della interruzione di un filo esterno
A Short Course on
Practical Strain Measurement Techniques
will be held at
City of Birmingham Polytechnic
Perry Barr, Birmingham
18 - 22 September 1989
This course is for engineers and technicians employed
in the design, construction and quality contro! of
components, assemblies and structures where
methods of evaluating the materia! properties are
required. The course includes a good deal of practical
work intended to show candidates how strain
measurements are carried out.
lndex to Advertisers in this issue
Bofors Electronics 80
Entran 100
Fylde Electronic Laboratories 94
Graham & White lnstruments 78
'Stra in', August 1989
nella distribuzione delle deformazioni in trefoli spiroidale
semplici sottoposti ad uno sforzo di trazione assiale analisi
sperimentale", XIV ConvegnoAIAS, Catania (Italy ),
(1986), (in ltalian)
18. Cappa P. "An experimental analysis of the strain fields
on steel wire ropes subjected to tensile loads", SEM
Spring Conference, Houston (U.S.A), 14-19 June 1987,
563-568. To be also published in Experimental Mechanics.
19. Cappa P., G.Ghisa "An experimental study oflubricant
effect in strain fields on damaged steel strand subjected to
tensile load", International Conference on Advanced
Experimental Mechanics, Tianjin (China), 16-20 May
1988.
20. Molinari G. "Ricerca sperimentale sulla distributzione
delle deformazioni nei fili si un trefelo spiroidale semplice
so getto a trazione durante la rottura di uno di essi",
Elevatori, 6, (1980), 179-188, (in ltalian).
21. Cappa P. "An experimental dynamic analysis of the
strain fie l d on steel strands subjected t o tensile load",
IMEKO XI and ISA/88, Houston (U.S.A.), 16-21 October
1988.
22. Utting W.S. Jones N. "Wire tensions and bending
moments in axially Ioaded seven wire strand", Strain, 23,
(1987), l 09-116.
23. Utting W.S., Jones N. "Axial-torsional interactions and
wire deformation in 19-wire spirai strand", J ournal of
Strain Analysis, 23, 2, (1988), 79-86.
The lnstitute of Physics
will hold a meeting on
Applicatlons of Non-Linear Stress Analysls
11 October 1989
at
lnstitute of Physics
47 Belgrave Square
London SW1 X 8XQ
Precision Varionics 82
Techni Measure 108
Tinsley Strain Measurement inside fTont cover
Welwyn Strain Measurement outside back cover
99