1

Measurement Systems
Reza Katebi
Email: r.katebi@eee.strath.ac.uk
GH705
Ext: 4297
Every physical thing exist in some measure of quality and/or quantity
Measurement is the science of finding this quantity
Measurement systems exists almost in all man made systems, aircraft,
car, radio, mobile phone, etc
What is measurement?
To estimate the size/amount of things
To understand systems, processes and phenomena
To monitor devices and industrial processes
To control process and systems
To verify laws of nature
To establish standards
To design and build systems
To.
Why measure?
2
How do we measure
Measurand
Standard
Result Compare
Standard
Measurand
Comparison Device
Hierarchy of Standards
Dimension
Unit
Definitions
Primary Standards
Secondary Standards
Working Standards
Methods of Comparisons
Direct; Measuring a length with a tape
Indirect: Measurement is inferred based on known facts and
observations
Mass of electrons
3
Measurement: is the process of determining the value of a physical quantity.
Measurement Systems: is the means to determine a measurement.
Measurement
System
True Value Measured
Value
Thermocouple
Temperature voltage
Errors
Scales
Accuracy
Noise
Measurement
System
Measurement: is the process of determining the value of a physical quantity.
Measurement Systems: is the means to determine a measurement.
Measurement
System
True Value Measured
Value
Thermocouple
Temperature voltage
Errors
Scales
Accuracy
Noise
Measurement
System
4
Elements of a Measurement System
Output
Sensor
True
Value
Signal
Conditioner
Signal
Processor
Data
Presentation
Sensor : is the element in contact with the process and change the information about
the variable into a form (value) which can be used by the other elements.
Resistance
Thermocouple
Temperature
Resistance
change
Physical
strain gauge Velocimeter
Accelerometer Thermistor
Load Cell Pressure Sensor
Chemical
Oxygen electrode CO2 sensor
Bioanal ytical
Glucose Sensor Nitrate Sesnor
Types of Sensors
5
Thermistor (Temperature Sensor)
Semiconductor
Oxide
Insulation
Lead wires
High sensitivity
Inexpensive
Nonlinear
Moderate stability
( )
0
0
0
0 0
exp
resistance at absolute zero T
T T
R R
T T
R

=


Capacitance Force Sensor
A
d
Force
0
dielectric constant
A
C R
d

=
6
Signal Conditioner: changes the sensor output into a suitable form for processing.
Examples: Amplifier, Wheatstone Bridge, Oscillator
Voltage
Sensor
True
Value
Wheatstone
Bridge
Amplifier
Signal Processor: Prepares the signal for display or onward transmission,
examples, Analogue to digital converter, averaging, nonlinear compensation
Data Presentation: Presents the measured value in a visual way, e.g. pointer, LED
display, printing, recording, transmitting
7
Signal Processing
Signal
Conditioning
Sensing
Weight Measurement Systems
Output
Load
Cell
Weight
Strain
gauge
Bridge
Amplifier
ADC
Microprocessor
DAC
1. Strain Change
2. Resistance Change
3. Small Analogue Voltage
4. Amplified Signal
5. Digital Signal
6. Adjusted Signal (nonlinearity)
7. Display
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
Display
Microprocessor
Control Systems
Controller Actuator
Process
Measurement
System
Differential
Amplifier
Motor
Taco
Feedback
potentiometer
Speed
Control
8
Ideal Instrument
Low cost.
Easy to use.
Rugged / will work in harsh environments.
Minimally disturb the phenomena being studied.
high resolution.
High temporal response (frequency response).
Wide bandwidth.
Measure quantities directly
Specification of a Measuring Device
Identifying the form of the measurement required
variable to be measured
nominal value
range of values
accuracy
speed of response of system
reliability
any environmental conditions which may affect the system
Identifying the form of the output from the measurement system
has the variable to be displayed
is the variable part of control system
is the variable to be part of a communication network
9
Selecting an appropriate device
must match input requirements(1) and consider the future output requirements(2)
range
accuracy
linearity
speed of response
reliability
maintainability
life
power
supply requirements
ruggedness
availability
cost
Select appropriate signal conditioning/signal processing
must match output requirement (2)
To be able to do this, we must be familiar with static characteristics, steady
state accuracy
and dynamic characteristics.
Instrument Specification
Instrument
Specification
Performance
Characteristics
Safety
Characteristics
Environmental
Effects
General
Information
Static Dynamic Stability Others
Accuracy,
Repeatability,
Linearity,
Sensitivity,
Hysterisis
Step response
Frequency
Response
Start-up drift
Long termDrift
Operational Life
Mounting Position
Input Impedance
Output
Impedance
Output Noise
Temperature
Humidity
Pressure
Vibration
Power
Supply
Shock
Operation
Documents
Safety
Maintenance
Quality
10
Disturbances
A Measurement system is subjected to other inputs apart from
the actually measured quantity
Examples
Interference by electricity supply line, motion, etc.
Mechanical interferences like vibration minimized by isolating the
device.
Electrical interferences minimized by shielding the system,
Designing the instrument such that undesirable inputs are
compensated, i.e. feedback
Identifying the undesirable inputs and making corrections.
Transducer
Transducer is the first element to perceive the measured variable.
Transducers convert physical variable into a signal.
The sensing element is usually known as a Transducer.
It absorbs some energy from the system and convert it into some
other form.
Passive transducers: These DO NOT require external energy.
Example: Thermocouples, piezoelectric sensors.
Active transducers: Those which require external energy for their
operation.
Examples: Strain gauges, laser sensors
11
Signals
Static Signals: Measurements dont change with time. Eg;
Measurement of weight from a spring balance after it settles,
measurement of length using a vernier calipers, etc.
Examples: Length, and weight of an object
Dynamic Signals: Speed of an accelerating vehicle, vibration
amplitude, etc.
Periodic Signals: Eg.planet orbits, Oscillation of a simple pendulum,
Rotating wheel
Digital and Analogue Signals
Analogue Signals
Infinite values possible
Difficult. D/A conversions required.
Susceptible to noise.
Accuracy may decrease during transmission.
Digital Signals
Output can take only a finite number of values
Interfacing with a computer easy
System more tolerant to noise.
Accuracy is preserved.
12
Principles of Measurements
The balance is achieved by adding known weights
Deflection made zero by applying an effect opposite to that
produced by the measured quantity, Eg: Platform balance,
wheatstones bridge
Accuracy depends on the known effect that is given.
Slow and need skill.
If accuracy is the foremost criterion, this is preferred.
The deflection of the spring is related to the weight
The measurand produces an opposing physical effect
which can be observed. Eg: Spring balance, Thermometer,
etc.
Accuracy depends on calibration.
Convenient to use.
Preferred for large scale use
Calibration
The process of determining the relation between a measuring instrument
and a standard.
Example: Take a spring balance. Add known weights. Note down the
readings for each weight. This is calibration.
The above can be represented as a curve i.e a Calibration Curve.
Measurement
System
Known Input
Observed Output
Static Calibration: input and output are time invariant
Static Characteristics
Dynamic Calibration: input and output are time variant
Dynamic Characteristics
13
Static Characteristics
Static sensitivity: is the slope of
the calibration curve, which may
be linear or non-linear. Sensitivity
i/p
o/p
Linear
Approximation
i/p
o/p
Zero Error: Zero error, is the
value of the output when no input
is given.
Zero Error/ Bias
i/p
o/p
Range or Span: The [Minimum,
Maximum] input limits of an instrument,
for which the calibration is valid.
Maximum input allowable is also called
Full Scale (FS)
Min
i/p
i/p
o/p
Max
o/p
Linearity: Linearity quantifies how close the
calibrated data is to a straight line. One way
of doing it is to find two parallel straight lines
enclosing most of the data . Another way of
expressing linearity is to fit the calibration
data through regression, as y = m x + c, and
providing the upper and lower bounds for m.
Measure of
linearity
i/p
o/p
14
Hysteresis: Dependence of
output to the direction of
input variation. Reasons:
Looseness, Friction, Material
characteristics, etc.
Hysteresis usually
expressed in terms of
percentage of full scale
reading
Max o/p
Hysterisis
i/p
o/p
Max i/p Hysterisis
Sensitivity drift
i/p
o/p
Initial Calibration
Next Calibration
Sensitivity drift: Sensitivity drift is the
change with time, of the slope of the
calibration curve
Threshold
i/p
o/p
Zero drift
i/p
o/p
Dead space
i/p
o/p
Threshold: Input below
which no output can be
detected. (Smallest
measurable input)
Resolution: It is the minimum input
required to detect a change in the
output
Zero drift: the calibration curve may
change with time. This feature is called
drift. Zero drift is the change with time, of
the zero error or bias.
Dead Space: Dead Space
is the range of input values
over which there is no
change in output value
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Static Characteristics
Repeatability: Repeatability is the variation in measurements obtained
when one person measures the same quantity with the same
measuring equipment. If the measuring device yields the same
output values to the same input values, it is said to have
repeatability.
Static characteristics of sensors
Some Examples follow
What is meant by the range of an instrument?
I be input, O be output
Input range: I
min
to I
max
(also LRL to URL)
Output range: O
min
to O
max
Is the SPAN of an instrument different to its RANGE?
The span (and zero) of an instrument is set by the user. The URL and LRL
(giving the range) are set by the manufacturer.
Input span: I
max
- I
min
Output span: O
max
- O
min
Sometimes we refer to the span as the full scale deflection (f.s.d. or FS) of
the instrument. This is an important piece of notation as many errors are
quantified in terms of the f.s.d.
16
Linear or Nonlinear?
We define linear as follows:
A variable y given by y = a x, for some constant or function or system a, is
linear in x, if when
y
1
= a x
1
and y
2
= a x
2
then y = a(x
1
+ x
2
) = ax
1
+ ax
2
= y
1
+ y
2
Linear or Nonlinear : examples?
) ( ) ( t h k t q =
Example 1: In a liquid level system, the flow out, q(t), is proportional to the square
root of the level, h(t). K represents a constant dependent on the geometry.
Example 2: The ideal gas law:
P(t)V(t)/T(t) = constant = k
where P, V and T indicate pressure volume and temperature respectively.
Example 3: The resistance output of a thermistor varies with temperature:
R(t) = Ae b/T(t)
Nonlinear valve characteristic?
M
u
u
c
u
c
(t)
Actuator
output
u(t)
Controller
output
d
17
Sensors nonlinear characteristic
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Voltage fromlevel sensor
(Volts)
Level in tank (cm)
Linear approximation
Experimental results
operating
region
What is meant by the LINEARITY of an instrument?
The (input,output) pairs must lie on a straight line. O = K I + a
The gradient is given by K = (O
max
- O
min
) / (I
max
-I
min
)
The y-axis intercept is given by O
min
- KI
min
How do you calculate the nonlinearity?
Assume a nonlinearity function N(I)
This defines the nonlinearity at each input point as the error from the ideal straight line:
nonlinearity = actual value - ideal straight line value
N(I) = O(I) - (K I +a)
The above can be checked on a point-by-point basis. However, for some instruments,
the nonlinear relationship between input and output is known.
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Nonlinearity as a percentage of f.s.d
Max N(I) as a % of f.s.d = max N(I)/f.s.d * 100 =
max N(I)/ ( O
max
-O
min
) * 100
B
H
0 P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
Introduce a hysteresis function H(I)
which defines the nonlinearity at each
input point as the error fromthe ideal
straight line:
H(I) =output when increasing the input output when decreasing the input
H(I) =O(I) - O(I)
We can define the max nonlinearity as a percentage of f.s.d. (full scale deflection) or span:
Hysteresis as a percentage of f.s.d
We can define the max hysteresis as a percentage of f.s.d. (full scale
deflection) or span
Max H(I) as a percentage of f.s.d
= max H(I)/f.s.d * 100 = max H(I)/ ( O
max
-O
min
) * 100
What do we mean by resolution?
We define the resolution of an instrument as the largest change of
the input signal that will not produce a change in the output signal.
Warning: Do not be deceived when using measurement equipment that a result to
6 decimal places may be more accurate than a standard piece of equipment
which gives a result to 2 decimal places. The first, although having greater
resolution, may not be as accurate.
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What do we mean by tolerance?
Significant
Figures
x10
n tolerance band
Resistor coding
The tolerance is the permissible range of variation, or the
maximum error that we would be allowed.
Example: Fixed value resistors.
Sensitivity
The above expression can often be simplified to the ratio of the change in the
output y to a corresponding change in the input, u.
Sensitivities are often quoted as, for example, V/
o
C.
dI
dO
S =
I
O
S

=
The static sensitivity of the instrument is the rate of change of the output w.r.t. to the
input
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Sources of Errors
Construction error
These are inherent in the manufacture and arise from causes such as component tolerances.
Approximation error
This may occur when taking a linear representation for a nonlinear system.
Operating error
These can occur when taking readings from systems.
Environmental effects
For example, a change in temperature can affect pressure readings.
Ageing errors
Components may deteriorate over time.
Often these errors can be classed as:
random errors are those that can vary between successive readings. By taking repeated
readings these errors can sometimes be successfully averaged out.
Systematic errors are errors which do not vary from one reading to another due to
approximation or construction errors.
Precision and Accuracy
Precision is free from random errors.
Accuracy is precision and calibration for systematic errors.
Out layers
Low Acc
Low Prec
Low Acc
High Prec
High Acc
High Prec
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Estimation of Random Errors
Random errors are probabilistic. Hence Probabilistic approaches
should be used.
Gaussian or Normal distribution is a commonly used probability
distribution function.
The function is constructed by taking several samples (ideally
infinite) of a certain measurement and constructing a frequency
distribution function.
Errors
Measurement error is the difference between the measured value and the
true value.
Two Types:
Systematic Errors: These errors have identifiable source and can be
compensated by calibration.
Zero Error, Zero Drift, Sensitivity Drift,etc.
For example, a backlash in a screw gauge leads to a zero error.
Systematic errors will be the same for all inputs (in the measurement range)
One can re-calibrate the equipment to quantify systematic errors.
Random Errors: These errors do not have an identifiable source and hence
cannot be corrected for.
Measurement environment, like temperature fluctuations, Humidity, wind,
vibrations, background acoustic and electromagnetic noise, etc.
Since this error arises from a multitude of sources, it is impossible to quantify.
However, since all interfering inputs contribute equally to random errors, it is
amenable to statistical treatment.
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Error and Accuracy
Consider a voltmeter which has a full scale (FS) of 100 V. It takes a reading of 29.9 V when the true
value is 30 V. We can express the error in three forms.
(i) As an absolute error, that is, in terms of the measurement units absolute error
absolute error = 29.9 V - 30 V = -0.1 V
E = O I
(ii) As a relative error that is a percentage of the measured value
relative error = ((29.9-30)/29.9) x 100 = -0.33%
(iii)As a relative error that is a percentage of the FS of the measuring device
percentage error of FS = ((29.9-30)/100) x 100 = -0.1%
The accuracy is determined using the deviation from the true value of a measurement. It is often
expressed as an inaccuracy. That is a device whose accuracy is listed as 5% is actually 95%
accurate.
. Manufacturers attach a percentage accuracy to the specification of a measuring
instrument. We can then use the percentage readings to calculate how accurate our
answer is.
Example: A manufacturers specification sheet lists the percentage accuracy for a 0-1 m
level sensor as 1% of FS. What would be the possible range of true values for
readings of 0.9 m and 0.25 m.
Solution The accuracy is 1% of FS = 1% of 1 m = 0.01 m
(a) When the measured value, y, is 0.9 m, the accuracy listed permits an uncertainty of
0.01 m, that is the output may lie 0.89 < y < 0.91 m.
(b) When y = 0.25, the same percentage accuracy applies and 0.24 < y < 0.26 m.
Example: A pressure gauge is quoted as having a combined error of 0.5% of any value
indicated. What is the accuracy for a reading of 120kPa?
Solution: Accuracy of reading 0f 120kPa is 0.5% of 120kPa = 6kPa: 120 6 kPa.
Example: An ammeter with a range of 0-5V gives the following calibration data. What is
the accuracy as a percentage of FS?
Reading (V) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Deviation (V) 0 0.02 0.05 0.01 0 -0.05
Solution: All errors lie within 0.05V. As a percentage of FS this is = 1%.
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System errors
K
transducer amplifier recorder
K K
1 2
3 u
y y y
1 2
3


The transfer functions K
1
, K
2
and K
3
can assume a spread of values and should be written as K
1

K
1
. Hence the output of the first transfer function should be

y
1
y
1
= (K
1
K
1
) u y
2
y
2
=(K
2
K
2
)(y
1
y
1
) =(K
2
K
2
) (K
1
K
1
) u

y3 y3 =(K3 K3)(K2 K2) (K1 K1) u

y
3
y
3
= (K
3
K
2
K
1
K
2
K
1
K
3
K
3
K
1
K
2
K
3
K
2
K
1
)u

= K
3
K
2
K
1
(1
K
3
K3

K
2
K2

K
1
K1
) u

y
3
=K
3
K
2
K
1

1 +-
y
3
y
3
= 1
K
3
K
3

K
2
K
2

K
1
K
1


Hence the fractional uncertainty is the sum of the errors in each element of the measuring system.
This represents the worst possible accuracy.

Consider the measurement system
representing a data recording system.
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Example:
Let K1 have an accuracy of 2%, K2 1% and K3 0.5%. What is the overall accuracy?
The overall accuracy is given by the sum of the errors:
Accuracy = (2 + 1 + 0.5) % = 3.5%
Error reduction techniques
Compensating nonlinear element: Example: Flow valve
Isolation: Place instrument in situation to ensure minimal interference. Temperature /pressure
controlled environment. Minimise vibration effects.
Opposing environmental inputs: Two strain gauges experience the same temperature effects.
Differential system: strain gauges placed to experience compression and tension forces.
High Gain Negative Feedback
Used to compensate for nonlinearities or unknown variations in system parameters.

Instrument
G K
H
High-gain
amplifier
Feedback instrumentation
+
-
Input
force
Fi
Output
Voltage,
Vo
+
Transfer function of measurement system:
1
o i
KG
V F
KGH
=
+
If the gain ,K, is large : KGH >> 1 then V
o
~ 1/H * F
i
(independent of gains in forward path).
Let gain G be modified to G+G
( )
1 ( )
o i
K G G
V F
K G G H
+
=
+ +
If K(G+G)H >> 1 then this again reduces to V
o
~ 1/H * F
i
The effects of changes in process description due to modifying inputs or nonlinear effects can, to
some extent, be reduced.
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Dynamic Response
The dynamic response of sensors concerns the transient response of an instrument to an input
signal.
Typical system responses
0
0
Time
Slowly rising response to steady level
0
0
Time
Fast response, but large
oscillations, taking time to decay
0
0
Time
Fast response, not such a large
peak, oscillations decay quickly
0
0
Time
Output does not exceed final value, no
oscillations, response not too slow
The transient and steady-state response
0
0
y(t)
t
Transient
Region
Steady-state
Region
0
0
y(t)
t
Transient
Region
Steady-state
Region
26
First Order System
First order models:

dy
dt
+ y(t) = Ku(t)
u(t) and y(t) the input and output signals and two parameters, K and .
K : the system gain and : the time constant

Laplace transform of first order differential equation
L{
dy
dt
+ y(t)} = L{Ku(t)} (sY(s) y
o
) + Y(s) = K U(s)

(s + 1)Y(s) = K U(s) + y
o
Y(s) =
K
s + 1
U(s) +

s + 1
y
o



G (s)
Y(s) U(s)
G (s) =
K
s + 1
.

Finding K and t from system plots
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20
Output signal
Time(minutes)
0.63*Kro
Kro
:timeconstant
x
Calculation of system gain, K: Read off the
steady state value of yss from the graph.
Given the intput step size ro, use the
equation yss=Kro to work out the system
gain, K.
Calculation of time constant, t: Calculate
the value of yt (63% of the change in output).
Mark the value on the vertical axis. From the
vertical (y-axis) track across to the output
curve. Descend to the time axis, to determine
the time taken for the output to have altered
by 63% of its change in value.
27
Time Delay
Very often in control we meet what is known as the first-order-lag-plus-
deadtime model. This is shown in diagram form as:

K
s +1


d
sT
e

U(s)
Y(s)
First order lag
Deadtime
1 +

s
Ke
d
sT
U(s) Y(s)
First order lag
plus deadtime
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Systemoutput
Time(minutes) Deadtime
Original response
Delayed response
Second Order System
2
2 2
n
2
n
2 2
n
1 2
+ +y(t) =Ku(t)
K
y=
s 2
n
n
d y dy
dt dt
u
s

+ +
u(t) and y(t) represent the input and
output signals
Three parameters:.
K: the system gain,
z : the damping constant
W
n:
the natural frequency
t
s
output
time
t
r
28
Second Order Responses
0 t
Y
0 t
Y
0 t
Y
0 t
Y
Overdamped:
output has no overshoot,
the response is slow and
sluggish, takes a longer
time to reach the steady
state level

1
= 4.0
Critically damped:
output has no overshoot
and rises quickly to steady
state level

1
= 1.0
Underdamped:
output is less oscillatory,
but still overshoots the
steady state level, to a
lesser

1
= 0.4
Underdamped:
output has large overshoot
on steady state level,
output is oscillatory
(though not unstable)

1
= 0.2
Output step response Description of output
response
Damping value
Overshoot
System overshoot
The overshoot is an indication of the largest error between the reference
input and the output.
percent overshoot = O.S. (%) =
peak value - final value
final value
x 100 percent

For overdamped systems no overshoot
O.S (%) =
0.97-0.75
0.75
x 100 = 29.33 %

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0.3
0.6
0.75
0.9
1.2
Time (secs)
SystemOutput
Overshoot
Final value
Peak value=0.97

In general:
O.S.(%) = 100 exp (
-

1 -
2
)

29
Settling Time
Settling-time
This is the time required for the system to rise and settle within a given percentage
of its final value.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0.4
0.95
0.8
1
1.2
1.6
1.05
Time(secs)
Systemoutput
settlingtime
point at which
responsestays
within5% bound
on final value
ts
upper andlower 5% bounds

For the 2% and 5% bound, we find:

Settling time
bound
Settling time
2% (X=0.02)
t
s(2%)
~
4

n



5% (X=0.05)
t
s(5%)
~
3

n




Rise Time
The rise time is the time required for the system to change from, say,
10 percent to 90 percent of its final value.
5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
Time (secs)
System output
t
r
(10%,90%): rise time
30
Repeatability
This is the ability of the device to give the same output for the same input under the same
conditions, for a number of occasions. A lack of repeatability is caused by random
fluctuations with time in the environmental inputs. Random fluctuations are modelled
by a probability density function , p.d.f.
What is a p.d.f, p(x)?
The most common p.d.f. is the NORMAL or GAUSSIAN p.d.f.

=
2
2
2
) (
exp
2
1
) (
x x
x p
x : mean of values (centre of distribution)
: standard deviation (spread of distribution)
The Area under curve between x
1
and x
2
, calculated by
dx x p
x
x

2
1
) (
, represents the probability that a reading , x, lies between x
1
and x
2
.
x
p(x)
x1 x2
Spread of a distribution
x
p(x)
2 3 2 3
683 . 0 ) (
,
= =

dx x p p
955 . 0 ) (
2
2
2 , 2
= =




dx x p p
997 . 0 ) (
3
3
3 , 3
= =




dx x p p
Repeatability test
Presume a set of N readings taken.
Mean given by:

=
=
=
N k
k
k
O
N
O
1
1
Standard deviation:

=

=
=
N k
k k o
O O
N
1
2
) (
1
Can plot a histogram of results and compare with the Gaussian p.d.f.
31
Example: Error Bands
The manufacturer often provides a band, such that for any input I, the output will be O h.
h
h
I
O
h
O
p(O)
h
1/(2h)
Ox
p(O) = 1/(2h) O
ideal
h O O
ideal
+h
1.O >O
ideal
+h
2.O <O
ideal
- h
Note that the probability of the output O lying between h and +h is unity.
An Approximation for the +/- h p.d.f to the Normal one is to let the standard deviation be h.
Some Data Reduction Concepts and Definitions
Data range: the maximum value minus the minimum value.
Sample Mean = (data values) / Number of data points
Sample Variance = (data value sample mean)
2
/ (number of data points)
Example
Given the following values:
31, 27, 37, 33, 36
Mean = (31+27+37+33+36) / 5 = 32.8
Variance =
[ (31-32.8)
2+(
27-32.8)
2+(
37-32.8)
2+(
33-32.8)
2+
36-32.8)
2
] / 5
= 12.96
32
Standard Deviation
Variance is hard to visualize since it is the square of the units of the variable of
interest .
It is more common to present the square root of the variance, the standard
deviation.
Std. Dev. = (variance)
1/2
or (variance)
From the example on the previous slide, the standard deviation is
(12.96)
1/2
= 3.6.
Outliers data values lying outside the reasonable range of a
variable. They may be real data or attributable to errors.
Histogram frequency count of data, i.e., the number of data
points within a specified range.
How to Construct a Histogram
1. Find the minimum and maximum value in the data set.
2. Choose a number of subintervals or cells of equal length that cover the range between
the minimum and the maximum without overlapping. These are called class intervals.
3. Count the number of observations in the data that belong to each class interval. The
count in each class is the class frequency.
4. Determine the relative frequency of each class by dividing the class frequency by the
total number of observations in the data.
Example
Given the following data;
15,19,18,15,16,12,19,15,18,16
1. Minimum = 12; maximum = 19.
2. Lets choose 4 equal intervals between 10 and 21, each interval consisting of three values
(inclusive);
Interval 1: 10-12
Interval 2: 13-15
Interval 3: 16-18
Interval 4: 19-21
33
Histogram Example
Lets count the number of observations of the data that fall into each interval.
Interval
Count Data Points
1
2
3
4
1
3
4
2
{12}
{15, 15, 15}
{18, 16, 18, 16}
{19, 19}
Histogram
1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
5
C
o
u
n
t
Class Interval
34
Sets of Data
Load45 Load90 Load135 Load180
35 15 4 0.5
18 26 18 2
41 10 16 6
42 11 19 7
20 24 16 1
38 15 12 4
45 16 4 1.5
34 13 14 1
26 3 7 5
91 14 11 3
40 1 5 14
19 26 6 8
18 18 13 2
3 31 11 10
34 50 8 2
22 3 15 18
40 27 1 2
35 36 5 3
18 17 19 7.5
14 12 13 1
7 7 18 1
13 16 13 4
41 2 4 6
24 12 1 1
13 9 12 0.5
34 2 1
11 3
9 5
7
Summary Statistics of large Population
Layered Reports
Specimen: Total
298 10 29.80 5.27 100.0% 100.0%
163 10 16.30 2.21 100.0% 100.0%
115 10 11.50 2.92 100.0% 100.0%
73 10 7.30 2.21 100.0% 100.0%
Load45
load90
load135
load180
Sum N Mean
Std.
Deviation
% of Total
Sum
% of Total
N

35
Data for Histograms
Load45
1 10.0 10.0 10.0
1 10.0 10.0 20.0
1 10.0 10.0 30.0
1 10.0 10.0 40.0
2 20.0 20.0 60.0
1 10.0 10.0 70.0
1 10.0 10.0 80.0
1 10.0 10.0 90.0
1 10.0 10.0 100.0
10 100.0 100.0
20
25
26
27
31
32
33
36
37
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Load45 Histogram
Load45
37.5 35.0 32.5 30.0 27.5 25.0 22.5 20.0
Load45
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
.5
0.0
Std. Dev = 5.27
Mean = 29.8
N = 10.00
An estimate of the
frequency distribution.
This frequency
distribution
appears normal or
Gaussian.
36
Load90 Histogram
load90
20.0 18.0 16.0 14.0 12.0
load90
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Std. Dev = 2.21
Mean = 16.3
N = 10.00
This frequency
distribution also
appears normal
or Gaussian.
Load135 Histogram
load135
18.0 16.0 14.0 12.0 10.0
load135
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Std. Dev = 2.92
Mean = 11.5
N = 10.00
This frequency distribution
appears log-normal with the
majority of the data
concentrated on the left side
of the distribution. This curve
is skewed right.
37
Load180 Histogram
load180
12.0 10.0 8.0 6.0
load180
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
5
4
3
2
1
0
Std. Dev = 2.21
Mean = 7.3
N = 10.00
This frequency distribution
appears log-normal also..
Signal Conditioning and Signal processing
The term signal conditioning is used for the components that convert
the signal from the sensor to a signal which is more appropriate for
further processing or display or control.
Signal output is usually a d.c. voltage, d.c.current or variable frequency
a.c. voltage.
Example: Bridge circuits where change in resistance can be converted
to change in voltage.
Signal processing refers to improving the quality of the signal or
providing further calculation on the conditioned signal.
Example: Filtering, use of digital algorithms applied to signal
38
Current transmitters
Electronic transmitters and signalling equipment introduced 20 years ago. Pneumatics
changed to electronic. A current transmission signal rejects some interference signals more
effectively than a voltage transmission systemtherefore changesin process variable were
measured as changes in current passed to control room operator could act on this and
change another current to activate an actuator.
Varying signalling standards. e.g. 10-50 mA standard, 1-5 mA standard or 4-20 mA standard.
1975: ISA's standards Practices Committee 50 (SP50) endorsed the4-20mA standard.
Further development includes the introduction of smart or intelligent transmitters.
Computer calculations: instrument can account for accuracy/temperature compensation etc.
Remote diagnosis of faults (signals within transmitter can be monitored)
Remote re-ranging: control roomcan reset the span and zero of instrument
Remote identtification: For Maintenance purposes
Digital Communications: digital signal superimposed on 4-20mA carrier.
Local indication of signal: Often analogue digital readout of process variable at sight.
Digital Signal Processing
Test
Experiment
Process
Sensor Signal
Conditioning
Temperature
Pressure
Flow
Valves
Setpoints
Digital Input
Status
Trigger
Multiplexing
and A-D
Conversion
Digital Output
Indicators
Controls
Analog output
Conditioning
D-A
Conversion
Operator
Interface
Data
Reduction
& Analysis
Control
Algorithms
Permanent
Data
Storage
C
O
M
P
U
T
E
R
39
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Hence V
OUT
is a weighted sum of V
3
, , V
0
with weights proportional to the
conductances G3, , G0.
If X3:0 is a binary number we want conductances in the ratio 8:4:2:1.
Very fast: gate slew rate 3 V/ns.
We can scale the resistors to give any output impedance we want.
You do not have to use a binary weighting
By using other conductance ratios we can choose arbitrary output voltages
for up to five of the sixteen
possible values of X3:0. May need additional resistors from VOUT to the
power supplies.
How to convert a binary number into a voltage proportional to its value?
Adding an op-amp:
The voltage at the junction of all the resistors is now held constant by the feedback
Hence current drawn from V3 is independent of the other voltages V2, , V0
Hence any gate non-linearity has no effect more accurate, Lower output
impedance, Much slower: op-amp slew rate 1 V/s.
Hard to make accurate resistors covering a wide range of values in an integrated
circuit.
Weighted-resistor DAC is no good for converters with many bits.
40
Resolution and word length
In an A-D converter we require the following
V
A
is analogue input
V
FS
is the reference or full-scale voltage
V
OMAX
is the maximumvoltage that can beoutput by the A-D converter
b
o
, ..., b
n-1
the digital outputs, b
o
representing the LSB.

The analogue input
V
A
V
FS
(
b
n-1
2
+
b
n-2
2
2 +
b
n-3
2
3 +... +
b
o
2
n )

The word length determines the resolution of the element,that is, the smallest change in V
A
which
will result in a change in the digital output.
Resolution =Minimumchange in V
A
=V
LSB
=
V
FS
2
n (=
V
OMAX
2
n-1 )
MaximumV
A
=V
OMAX
=V
FS
(1-
1
2
n) )
Note: V
OMAX
V
FS
but V
OMAX
V
FS
as resolution.

V
FS
=2* V
MSB


Example
Example:
Given a 4-bit converter with a fullscale range of 0-10V. Calculate the following
1. The voltage resolution
2. The value of V
FS
.
3. The analogue voltage that would produce the output 1000
4. The value of V
OMAX
.
Solution:
1. Voltage resolution: V
LSB
=
V
FS
2
n =
10
2
4 =
10
16
Volts =0.625 Volts
2. V
FS
=10 V

3. 1000 :=
V
A
V
FS
(
b
n-1
2
+
b
n-2
2
2 +
b
n-3
2
3 +... +
b
o
2
n ) =10 (
1
2
+
0
2
2 +
0
2
3 +
0
2
4 ) =0.5 Volts

Note V
FS
=2* V
MSB
.
4. V
OMAX
=V
FS
(1-
1
2
n) ) =10 *( 1-
1
16
) =10* (1- 0.0625) =0.9375 Volts.

41
Quantisation error
b. Quantisation error: The difference between the exact value of analogue
signal and the value represented by the binary output. In the diagram, the
closest representation to the straight line is a stair case waveform. The
largest error will be half a LSB ( provided the staircase output is follows a
linear track)
Quantisation error =
V
LSB
2


000
001
010
011
100
Output voltage
t

The following example illustrates the percentage error due to the quantisation of the
digital signal.

Example
An 8-bit A-D converter has a quantisation error of bit. The output voltage range
is 0-25 volts. Determine the resolution and the quantisation error in volts as a
percentage of FS.

Resolution : 1/2
8
=0.003906
Resolution in volts:
V
FS
2
8

=0.003906*25=0.097656Volts
Quantisation error =bit =0.5 * 0.097656 =0.048828V

Percentage accuracy: =
0.048828
25
* 100 =0.1953%.
c. Conversion time: time taken for a complete measurement by A-D converter
d. Linearity: Maximumdeviation frombest straight line drawn through
staircase output waveform. The design depends on the degree of
sophistication of the D/A circuitry, and hence the cost.
e. Offset: The output of a D/A converter when appropriate code(0000) binary
is applied to the input. Often there is an external control for adjusting offset.

42
SAMPLING
Many process systems use digital controllers to calculate the correct controller output signals.
The input to these controllers is often a continuous physical variable, such as flow or pressure
or temperature. To enable the digital control systemto act on these signals, the analogue input
signals are sampled and converted to digital form. This is shown in the diagrambelow.

T
Process
AnalogueSignal
sampling time
Controller
Continuous Digital
Sampled signal


Continuous, discrete and digital signals
43
Aliasing
A featurethat can causeproblems dueto incorrectly sampled systems is known as aliasing. The
effect of aliasing can beclearly seen by thefollowing diagram:

time
seconds
50 Hz samples
60 Hz signal Magnitude 10 Hz signal


Theoutput signal is a60Hz analoguesignal. Dueto sampling at alow frequency, the60Hz signal
will appear as a10Hz signal to our controller. This signal is only produced dueto thesampling
effects. Notethat
fs : sampling rate(Hz)
fo : frequency of original signal (Hz)
fa =fs fo : frequency of aliased signal (Hz)
Aliasing
The Sampling Theorem states that: to prevent aliasing, the sampling frequency must
always be more than twice the highest occurring frequency.

In the example above, 50Hz was not greater than 2*60Hz and therefore we saw the
problems of aliasing appearing. Typically you would sample at 4-10 times the
highest occurring frequency.

Therefore, the consequences of aliasing on a digital control systemcan be
substantial. Noise components with a frequency much higher that the control system
bandwidth normally have a small effect because the systemwill not respond at high
frequencies. However, if the frequency of that noise is aliased down to the vicinity of
the systembandwidth, the systemwill respond causing noise to appear in the
system's output.

In practice, an anti-aliasing filter is inserted in the output channel with a frequency
cut-off
s
/2. Therefore the noise will be attenuated. However, too low a breakpoint
may reduce the control system's bandwidth.

44
A/D Converter
Each value of X corresponds to a range of values of VIN.
The voltage at which VIN switches from one value of X to
the next is called a threshold voltage.
The task of an A/D converter is to discover which of the
voltage ranges VIN belongs to. To do this, the converter
must compare VIN with the threshold voltages.
Tutorial sheets: Static Characteristics
Q1 (fromBentley2.1)
Theemf at athermocouplejunctionis645V at thesteampoint, 3375at thezincpoint (419.58oC and9149
o
C at thesilver point (
961.93
o
C). Giventhat thee.m.f. temperaturerelationshipisof theform
E(T) =a1 T +a2 T
2
+a3 T
3
( T in
o
C) finda1, a2 anda3.
Thiscanbedoneby handasaset of simultaneousequations. It isquicker to set upaMATLAB procedure. Show thestepsandfindthe
result.
Q2 (fromBentley2.2)
TheresistanceR() of athermistor at temperature K isgivenbyR() = exp( / )
Provethat thereisnot alinear relationshipbetweenR and.
Giventhat theresistanceat theicepoint ( 273.15K) is9.00k andtheresistanceat thesteampoint is0.50k, findtheresistanceat 25
o
C.
Q3 (fromBentley2.3)
A displacement sensor hasaninput rangeof 0.0to3.0cmandastandardsupplyvoltageof Vs=0.5Volts. Usingthecalibrationresultsin
thetable, estimate
(a) theend-point straight lineapproximation (b)themaximumnonlinearity asapercentageof f.s.d.
Displacement (cm) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Output voltage(mV) 0.0 16.5 32.0 44.0 51.5 55.5 58.0
Q4 (fromBentley2.4)
A liquidlevel sensor hasaninput rangeof 0to15cm. Usethecalibrationresultsgiveninthetabletoestimatethemaximumhysteresisas
apercentageof f.s.d. UseMATLAB. Outlinesteps.

Level h(cm) 0.0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.5 12.0 13.5 15.0
o/pvoltsh
increasing(mV)
0.00 0.35 1.42 2.40 3.43 4.35 5.61 6.50 7.77 8.85 10.2
o/pvoltsh
decreasing(mV)
0.14 1.25 2.32 3.55 4.43 5.70 6.78 7.80 8.87 9.65 10.2
Q5 (fromBentley2.5)
A PRT isusedto interpolatebetweenthetriplepoint of water (0
o
C), theboilingpoint of water ( 100
o
C) andthefreezingpoint of zinc(
419.6
o
C). Thecorrespondingresistancevaluesare100.0, 138.5, and253.7. Thealgebraicformof theinterpolationequationis
RT =Ro ( 1+ T +T
2
)
whereRT , resistanceat T
o
C, R
o
, resistanceat 0
o
C, , areconstants.
Findthenumerical formof theequation.

Answers
1. [ 5.840230.0063630.000002647], 2. =0.18. R(25
o
C) =3643.,3.O=19.3I, 25.9%,4.13.2%,5. 3.9e-3, -5.8e-7
45
Flash A/D Converter
For an n-bit converter we have
2
n
1 threshold voltages.
Use 2
n
1 comparators:
Resistor chain used to generate threshold
voltages.
Priority encoder logic must determine the
highest Gn input that equals 1.
12-bit converter needs 4095 comparators
on a single chip!
Successive Approximation Converter
Make successive guesses and use a comparator to tell
whether your guess is too high or too low.
Each guess determines one bit of the answer and cuts the
number of remaining possibilities in half:
Use a DAC to generate the threshold voltages and a state
machine to create the sequence of guesses.
46
Successive Approximation ADC
State Diagram:
A DAC input of n must generate the
threshold between n1 and n.
When the final column of states is reached,
DONE goes high and the answer is X2:0.
Note that it is possible to number the 15
states so that DONE is the MSB
and X2:0 are the 3 LSB.
Need for Sample/Hold
If the input voltage changes during conversion, the result is biased towards its initial value because
the most significant bits are determined first.
Increasing voltages will tend to be converted to values ending in 111. Decreasing voltages will
tend to be converted to values ending in 000. Consequences: reduced precision, uncertain
sample instant.
47
A/D conversion with sample/hold
Input switch is opened during the conversion so VADC remains constant.
Choice of C is a compromise:
Big C keeps constant voltage despite leakage currents since dV/dt = Ileakage/C
Small C allows faster acquisition time for any given input current since dV/dt = Iin/C.
Sample/Hold Circuit
When switch is open:
Leakage currents through open switch and op-amp
input will cause output voltage to drift up or down.
Choose capacitor large enough that this drift amounts
to less than 0.5 LSB during the time for a conversion
Converters with high resolution or long conversion
times need larger capacitors
When switch closes:
Charge rate of capacitor is limited by the maximum
op-amp output current. This determines the
acquisition time: to acquire the signal to within LSB.
It is typically of the same order as the conversion time.
Value of C is a compromise: big C gives slow acquisition,
small C gives too much drift.
48
by Radu Rusan and Dale Vanclieaf, Humber College
DataAcquisition/ Direct Control/ Monitoring
Data Logging
OR
SATELLITE PSTN RADIO
TERRESTRIAL
MICROWAVE
CorporateLevel
Supervisory
Level
Local Control
Level
INTEGRATED
INFORMATION SY STEM
Management Reports
Work Scheduling
LAN, WAN
Administration
Finance
GI S
Customer
Services
LAN / WAN
LEASED
LINES
Decision Making
AlarmResponse
DatabaseManagement
Plant Supervision
Emergency Management
Management System
DataStorage
Supervisory Control and Monitoring
SENSORS
ACTUATORS
DIRECT
PHY SICAL
CONNECTION
FIELDBUS
4-20 mA
Operational Level
PHY SICAL PROCESSES
SCADA/PLCs
DCS
FIELDBUS, for example,
MODBUS
49
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)
SCADA is a technology that enables a user to collect data from one or more distant
facilities and/or send control instructions to those facilities. Using SCADA, it is not
necessary for a user to attend or visit remote locations in the normal system operation.
A SCADA system (hardware and software) should implement one or more of the
following functions.
Alarm functionthe capability of a supervisory system to perform a predefined action
in response to an alarm condition.
Analog functionthe capability of a supervisory system to accept, display, and
record analog quantities sensed by transducers or external devices.
Control functionthe capability of a supervisory system to selectively perform
manual or automatic operation (singularly or in selected groups) of external devices.
Control may be either analog or digital.
Indication (status) functionthe capability of a supervisory system to accept, record,
or display the status of a device.
Accumulator functionthe capability of a supervisory system to accept and total
digital pulses and make them available for display or recording.
Sequence of events functionthe capability of a supervisory system to recognize
each predefined event, associate a time of occurrence with each event, and present
the event data in the order of occurrence of the events.
Elements of a SCADA System
A SCADA system has three main elements: Master station call (Master Terminal Unit (MTU)) ,
Communication system , Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)
50
Master Station
The master station is mainly a computer system and therefore consists of:
A primary computer
A backup computer (optional)
A user interface
Local console
Monitor(s)
Keyboard and cursor or other operator input devices (touch
screen, trackball)
Mass storage media
Printer(s)
Local RTU
Analog recorders
Digital display
Mapboard
RTU function
Communication interfaces
Other remote computers RTU
Remote console or loggers
Communication System
Typical communication system elements are:
MODEMs (MOdulate-DEModulate), which use transmission lines for
communication (telephone lines, optical cables, power transmission lines, or radio
for very long distances)
LAN (Local Area Network) for shorter distances (typically within a facility)
Remote Terminal Station
An RTU usually contains:
A communication interface that provides links to:
Master station(s)
Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs)
Digital input modulescontacts from breakers, switches, and relays
Digital output modulesmainly coils for relays or other devices
Analog input modulestransducers
Analog output modulescontrollers, recorders, and meters
Hardware able to perform control processes and to process data (for
example, a computer, PLC, and CPU)
A local user interface (local console)
Self diagnostic tests
Database maintenance
51
Master Station to RTUs
From the master station, control commands, set points,
control software, parameters for controls, and alarms are sent
to the RTUs.
RTUs to Master Station
The RTUs send the master station digital data representing
the status of devices and alarm conditions, analog data, and
results of the self diagnostic tests.
In most cases, time stamping of the data is done at the
master station as well as at the RTUs, so time
synchronization is needed.
Systems that allow only collection of data from RTUs are
called telemetry systems. With SCADA, it is possible not only
to monitor what is occurring at a remote location, but also to
change the status of the remote location; this is performed by
the supervisory control part of a SCADA system.
Typical HMI/SCADA Applications
A SCADA application implies, in addition to a graphical interface, an important
degree of supervisory control and data acquisition activity for a process that
is distributed on one or more remote locationslocations that may
represent:
Important equipment (machines) or distinct processes inside a facility,
such as:
Power generating stations
Chemical plants
Automotive production lines
Sites (components) of systems that are by their nature distributed over
long distances:
Hydroelectric power generating stations
Power transmission systems with their switchgear stations
Oil production facilities and gas, oil, and chemical pipelines systems
A railway system to monitor and control railway traffic
Where Not to Use SCADA
If a system, process, or piece of equipment can fail and cause injury to humans
or damage to itself or the environment, it should be provided with a
protective system against such failure. Protective systems override the
normal control systems; their operation is usually automatically initiated, but
in some cases can also be manually initiated.
52
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)
Until the 1970s, industrial logical control (sequencing) was realized with
electromechanical relays and pneumatic coupling.
Starting in 1970, the PLC became more common in industrial applications, initially
as a simple replacement for relay sequencing applications.
Today, PLCs are the major choice in industrial control applications and are available
with increasingly complex functions.
(PLCs) are microcomputers developed to handle industrial control applications.
Boolean logic and the relay type instructions were the first to be implemented in
PLCs.
The initial specifications required the PLC to be:
Easily programmed and reprogrammed, preferably directly in the plant
Smaller than its relay equivalent
Cost competitive with the solid-state and relay control panels in use at that time
Easily maintained and repaired
The Allen Bradley Corporation introduced the first microprocessor-based PLC in
1977, using an Intel 8080 microprocessor with circuitry to handle bit logic
instructions at high speed.
PLC Architecture
53
CPU
The CPU is the heart of the PLC.
It controls the execution of all PLC operations. It executes the operating
system, manages memory, monitors inputs, evaluates the user logic,
turns on the appropriate outputs, and handles communication and
interactions with the other components of the system.
The CPU contains the same type of microprocessor found in a personal
computer. The difference is that the program used with the
microprocessor is written to accommodate ladder logic instead of other
programming languages.
The PLC cyclically executes a sequence of operations; this cycle is
called a scan. Note that the PLCs have elaborate memory checking
routines to ensure that the memory has not been corrupted. Memory
checking and self diagnostics are undertaken for safety reasons.
Memory
Functionally, the RAM memory is split into different areas with
specific functions. While the memory organization (called also the
memory map) varies from one PLC manufacturer to another, three
of these memory areas are present in any PLC
an input data table,
an output data table,
and a memory area, where the user program is stored.
These areas are playing a central role in the PLC operation cycle. It
is important to mention that because the RAM memory is volatile in
a PLC, a lithium battery takes over when the PLC is shut off, and
therefore the information resident in the PLC (program and data
tables) can be kept for years without powering on the PLC.
54
Input Modules
Input modules are special interfaces that transform process information into
digital values. The most frequently used input modules are the discrete (digital)
input modules and analog input modules.
Discrete input modules allow the user to convert two state process signals (for
example, switch positions) into a signal compatible with the CPU requirements
(usually into a 0 to 5 V signal). This 0 to 5 V signal is seen as a bit in the input
data table.
The discrete input modules differ in the type of voltage (AC or DC), as well as
the voltage level (120 V, 24 V, etc.) and in the number of terminals (input
signals) per module.
Analog input modules are actually analog-to-digital converters that allow the
user to convert the analog signal to a numeric value. Modules for current and
voltage analog signals are offered for all existing ranges of analog signals.
Output Modules
Output modules are special interfaces that transform a PLC digital value into a
useful electrical signal. There are discrete and analog output modules.
Discrete output modules convert the logical values from the output data table into
a useful voltage signal as needed for the different field devicesAC or DC
voltage, as well as different voltage values (120 V, 24 V, etc.).
Analog output modules are essentially digital-to-analog converters that convert
numeric values from the PLC memory to one of the standard ranges for analog
signals.
Remote I/O Modules
In some cases, where the process is spread over a wide area, it is desirable to
position I/O modules away from the PLCs and closer to the field inputs and
outputs. This may reduce wiring needs and the risk of electromagnetic
interference. These modules are provided with communication interfaces and are
called remote I/O modules. Typical wiring of these modules is twisted wire or
optical fiber.
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Power Supply
The PLC power supply converts the supply voltage, usually 115 V or 240
V AC, into low-level DC voltages needed for operation of the CPU and
different types of modules installed in the rack. Sometimes, the power
supply will provide a DC voltage output to power digital inputs, but
normally the output devices controlled by the PLC will be powered from
another power supply. The power supply is frequently a separate
module, or may be incorporated in the rack structure. Each rack must
have its own power supply.
Scan
A scan is the operation algorithm implemented to allow the PLC to
perform logical control. The main steps:
1. Read the inputstransfer the input signal status from the
input modules to the input data table.
2. The CPU executes the programmed logic, using the values
from the input data table and those existing in the output data table
from the previous scan. In the execution process, the output data table
is changed to reflect the result of the executed logic, but no output
modules change their status.
3. The outputs update takes place after the programmed logic
operation is completed; the output data table information is transferred
to the output modules.
4. A fourth important step in a scan is the self diagnostic testing
to ensure that all PLC functions are problem free.
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Communication Interfaces
Communication interfaces provide the hardware and protocol base for
transferring information from the PLC to other computers, another PLC, or
intelligent electronic devices.
Usually, a communication port (interface) is available on the CPU module for
programming proposes (uploading logic programs) and online monitoring. In
most cases, at least for the older PLCs and today mainly for micro-PLCs, this
programming port is a serial port. The CPU may include other communication
ports in addition to this port, or they can be purchased as communication
modules. Networks of PLCs and computers are a frequent solution in many
manufacturing plants. In most cases, the PLC makers have their own
proprietary communication networks developed in the last 20 years, but there
is a clear trend toward developing universal standards for future integration of
different PLCs and other intelligent hardware on the same communication
bus.
PLC Communication
Sensor Level
PLCs made automation flexible and affordable. They completely changed
the manufacturing process. In addition to providing control, PLCs also
produce data. Data in many situations can be at least as valuable as the
product. If data is collected and used, quality, productivity, and up time can
be improved.
In any manufacturing application, information flow is essential. Data is
collected manually, in many cases from the plant floor, and may be
inaccurate and not in real time. The information must be written by an
operator, gathered by a foreman, entered by a data processing operator,
printed in a report, and distributed. Much of the data collected manually
already exists in PLCs; with the development of PLCs, communication
flexibility, and modern SCADA software, it is easy to integrate the data from
a PLC into the plants information system.
It is therefore not surprising that demand for communication in
manufacturing is constantly increasing. Most PLC users find it essential to
have flexible and open communications defined by some universally
accepted standards, and there has been substantial progress in developing
such standards. But these standards are not yet a widely accepted solution.
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Communications at sensor level represent a new trend to replace
conventional cables with a single digital connection. This simplifies
the wiring volume, but requires intelligent sensors (that is, sensors
able to send digital information). Each sensor needs an interface to
the bus. Different communication protocols are in development, and
international efforts for development of a standard to ensure
interconnectivity of different devices are well under way.
Local Area Networks (LAN)
To communicate between PLC systems and computers within a plant,
the trend is to use Ethernet as a medium. Ethernet is the most widely
used local area network for office and industrial applications. The
Ethernet concept is flexible and open. It does not require significant
capital and is very reliable, because it does not have active parts such
as servers or network control computers that can break down and
affect communication. Ethernet has a bus topology with branch
connections. Each device decides independently when to access the
medium and establish peer-to-peer communication. Ethernet is also
very fast, allowing up to 10 Mbits/s.
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Real Time
System
(RTS)
A computer-controlled mechanism in
which there are strict timing constraints
on the computers actions.
Examples: Cars, Chemical reactor, Home
bread maker, Washing Machine, Mobile
Phone, etc
A RTS consists of four parts:
Physical process: That which is controlled
by the computer for some actions.
Sensors: Converts state of physical
process into information (analogue or
digital).
Computer: Based on information from
sensors, deduces state of physical process
and issues commands to control the
process.
Actuators: In response to commands
issued computer, modifies the physical
process.
Example:
Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS): System that controls braking in a
car, preventing wheel lock.
Normally, surface of wheels move at same speed as road. Braking
force can cause one or more wheels to slip or lock. If ABS detects
locking at a wheel it will reduce braking pressure to
stop locking.
Physical process.: Tire/wheel, brakes and brake
hydraulic system, car, road, Driver
Sensors.: Detect speed that wheels are spinning,
force driver exerts on brake pedal, pressure of
brake fluid, etc.
Computer : Special embedded microprocessor,
Fewer components needed than general-purpose
microprocessor and made to withstand vibration
and temperature extremes.
No operator, No computer terminal , Reads wheel speed
and other data) at regular intervals, dIf a wheel is locking,
adjusts pressure of brake fluid.
Actuators: Brake-pressure valve, Dashboard light.