Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Grinding Wheel
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 9.1 Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel, showing its structure and grain
wear and fracture patterns.
Bond fracture
Microcracks
Attritious wear
Wheel surface
Porosity
Bond
Grain
Grain
fracture
Grinding
wheel
Workpiece
Common glass 350-500 Titanium nitride 2000
Flint, quartz 800-1100 Titanium carbide 1800-3200
Zirconium oxide 1000 Silicon carbide 2100-3000
Hardened steels 700-1300 Boron carbide 2800
Tungsten carbide 1800-2400 Cubic boron nitride 4000-5000
Aluminum oxide 2000-3000 Diamond 7000-8000
TABLE 9.1 Knoop hardness range for
various materials and abrasives.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Grinding Wheel Types
FIGURE 9.2 Some common types of grinding wheels
made with conventional abrasives (aluminum oxide and
silicon carbide). Note that each wheel has a specic
grinding face; grinding on other surfaces is improper and
unsafe.
(a) Type 1straight (b) Type 2cylinder
(c) Type 6straight cup (d) Type 11flaring cup
(e) Type 27depressed center
(g) Mounted
Grinding face
Grinding face
Grinding faces
Grinding faces
Grinding face
Grinding face
(f) Type 28depressed center
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Superabrasive Wheels
FIGURE 9.3 Examples of superabrasive wheel congurations. The rim consists of superabrasives and the
wheel itself (core) is generally made of metal or composites. Note that the basic numbering of wheel types
(such as 1, 2, and 11) is the same as that shown in Fig. 9.2. The bonding materials for the superabrasives are:
(a), (d), and (e) resinoid, metal, or vitried; (b) metal; (c) vitried; and (f) resinoid.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Type
1A1
1A1RSS
2A2
11A2
DW DWSE
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Grinding Wheel Marking System
FIGURE 9.4 Standard marking system for aluminum-oxide and silicon-carbide bonded abrasives.
Prefix Grade Structure Bond
type
Manufacturer!s
record
Abrasive
type
Abrasive
grain size
51 A 36 L 5 V 23
Manufacturer!s symbol
(indicating exact
type of abrasive)
(use optional)
Manufacturer!s
private marking
(to identify wheel)
(use optional)
Example:
Medium
30
36
46
54
60
Fine

70
80
90
100
120
150
180
Very
fine
220
240
280
320
400
500
600
Coarse
8
10
12
14
16
20
24
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
etc.
(Use optional)
Dense
Open
B Resinoid
BF Resinoid reinforced
E Shellac
O Oxychloride
R Rubber
RF Rubber reinforced
S Silicate
V Vitrified
A Aluminium oxide
C Silicon carbide
Soft
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Medium Hard
Grade scale
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Diamond and cBN Marking System
FIGURE 9.5 Standard marking system for diamond and cubic-boron-nitride bonded abrasives.
Manufacturer!s
symbol
(to indicate type
of diamond)
A letter or numeral
or combination
(used here will indicate
a variation from
standard bond)
B Cubic boron
nitride
D Diamond
20
24
30
36
46
54
60
80
90
100
120
150
180
220
240
280
320
400
500
600
800
1000
B Resinoid
M Metal
V Vitrified
1/16
1/8
1/4
25 (low)
50
75
100 (high)
Prefix Abrasive
type
Grit size Grade Diamond
concentration
Bond Bond
modification
Diamond
depth (in.)
M D 100 P 100 B 1/8
A (soft)
Z (hard)
to
Example:
Absence of depth
symbol indicates
solid diamond
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Abrasive Grains
FIGURE 9.6 The grinding surface of an
abrasive wheel (A46-J8V), showing grains,
porosity, wear ats on grains (see also Fig.
9.7b), and metal chips from the workpiece
adhering to the grains. Note the random
distribution and shape of the abrasive grains.
FIGURE 9.7 (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive
grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. Source: After
M.E. Merchant. (b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an
abrasive grain. Note the negative rake angle, the small shear angle,
and the wear at on the grain.
(a) (b)
Grain
V Chip
Wear flat
Workpiece
v

Chip

Workpiece
Abrasive grain

10 m
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Grinding Variables
FIGURE 9.8 Basic variables in surface grinding.
In actual grinding operations, the wheel depth
of cut, d, and contact length, l, are much smaller
than the wheel diameter, D. The dimension t is
called the grain depth of cut.
V
Grinding wheel
Grains
Workpiece
t
d
v
l
D
Chip length, external grinding
Chip length, internal grinding
Chip length, surface grinding
l =

Dd
1+(D/D
w
)
l =

Dd
1(D/D
w
)
t =

4v
VCr

d
D
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Grinding Parameters
FIGURE 9.9 Chip formation and plowing
(plastic deformation without chip removal) of
the workpiece surface by an abrasive grain.
Workpiece
G
r
o
o
v
e
Ridges
Chip
TABLE 9.2 Typical ranges of speeds and feeds for abrasive processes.
Process Variable Conventional Grinding Creep-Feed Grinding Bung Polishing
Wheel speed (m/min) 1500-3000 1500-3000 1800-3600 1500-2400
Work speed (m/min) 10-60 0.1-1 - -
Feed (mm/pass) 0.01-0.05 1-6 - -
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Specic Energy in Grinding
Specic Energy
Workpiece Material Hardness W-s/mm
3
hp-min/in
3
Aluminum 150 HB 7-27 2.5-10
Cast iron (class 40) 215 HB 12-60 4.5-22
Low-carbon steel (1020) 110 HB 14-68 5-25
Titanium alloy 300 HB 16-55 6-20
Tool steel (T15) 67 HRC 18-82 6.5-30
TABLE 9.3 Approximate Specic-Energy Requirements for Surface Grinding.
Temperature rise:
Temperature rise ! D
1/4
d
3/4

V
v

1/2
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Residual Stresses
FIGURE 9.10 Residual stresses developed on the workpiece surface in grinding tungsten: (a) effect of wheel speed and
(b) effect of type of grinding uid. Tensile residual stresses on a surface are detrimental to the fatigue life of ground
components. The variables in grinding can be controlled to minimize residual stresses, a process known as low-stress
grinding. Source: After N. Zlatin.
mm
0 0.05 0.10 0.15
0
80
60
40
20
220
240
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
T
e
n
s
i
o
n
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
p
s
i

x

1
0
3
)
400
200
0
2200
M
P
a
0 0.002 0.004 0.006
Depth below surface (in.)
4000 ft/min (20 m/s)
3000 (15)
2000 (10)
(a)
mm
0 0.05 0.10 0.15
40
20
0
220
240
260
280
2100
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
T
e
n
s
i
o
n
0 0.002 0.004 0.006
Depth below surface (in.)
200
0
2200
2400
2600
2800
M
P
a
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
p
s
i

x

1
0
3
)
(b)
Soluble oil (1:20)
Highly sulfurized oil
5% KNO
2
solution
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Dressing
FIGURE 9.11 (a) Methods of grinding wheel
dressing. (b) Shaping the grinding face of a wheel
by dressing it with computer-controlled shaping
features. Note that the diamond dressing tool is
normal to the wheel surface at point of contact.
Source: OKUMA America Corporation.
(a)
Diamond
dressing tool
Grinding
face
Grinding wheel
(b)
Single-point
dressing diamond
for dressing forms
up to 608 on both
sides of the grinding
wheel
Precision
radius dresser
for single- and
twin-track
bearing
production
Rotary dressing
unit for dressing
hard grinding
wheels or for
high-volume
production
Silicon carbide
or diamond dressing
wheel for dressing
either diamond or
cBN grinding
wheels
Dressing tool
Grinding wheel
Formed diamond
roll dressing for
high-volume
production
Dressing tool
Fixed-angle
swivelling dresser
to dress forms
up to 908 on both
sides of the grinding
wheel
60
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Surface Grinding
FIGURE 9.12 Schematic illustrations of surface-grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding with a horizontal-spindle
surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder, producing a groove in the workpiece. (c)
Vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder (also known as the Blanchard-type grinder).
(a) (b)
Horizontal-spindle surface
grinder: Traverse grinding
Workpiece
Wheel
Horizontal-spindle surface
grinder: Plunge grinding
Workpiece
Wheel
(c)
Wheel
Rotary table
Workpieces
Work table
FIGURE 9.12 Schematic illustration of a
horizontal-spindle surface grinder.
Wheel guard
Wheel head
Column
Bed
Workpiece
Saddle
Worktable
Feed
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Thread and Internal Grinding
FIGURE 9.14 Threads produced by (a)
traverse and (b) plunge grinding.
(a) (b)
Grinding wheel
FIGURE 9.15 Schematic illustrations of internal-grinding operations.
(a) Traverse grinding (b) Plunge grinding (c) Profile grinding
Workpiece
Wheel
Wheel
Workpiece
Wheel
Workpiece
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Centerless Grinding
FIGURE 9.16 (a-c) Schematic illustrations of
centerless-grinding operations. (d) A computer-
numerical-control centerless grinding machine.
Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
(d)
Through-feed grinding Plunge grinding
Internal centerless grinding
Workpiece
(revolves clockwise)
Regulating
wheel
Pressure
roll
Grinder shaft
Support roll
Grinding
wheel
Feed
Work-rest blade
Regulating wheel
!
Grinding
wheel
Regulating
wheel
Workpiece
End
stop
(a) (b)
(c)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Creep-Feed Grinding
FIGURE 9.17 (a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel depth of
cut. (b) A groove produced on a at surface in one pass by creep-feed grinding using a shaped wheel.
Groove depth can be on the order of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped
wheel. Source: Courtesy of Blohm, Inc. and Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
d = 16 mm
Low work speed, v
(a) (b) (c)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Finishing Operations
FIGURE 9.18 Schematic illustration of the structure of a
coated abrasive. Sandpaper, developed in the 16th century,
and emery cloth are common examples of coated
abrasives.
Abrasive grains
Size coat
Make coat
Backing
FIGURE 9.19 Schematic illustration of a honing tool to
improve the surface nish of bored or ground holes.
Spindle Stone
Nonabrading
bronze guide
FIGURE 9.20 Schematic illustration of the supernishing
process for a cylindrical part: (a) cylindrical microhoning;
(b) centerless microhoning.
(a) (b)
Workpiece
Oscillation
(traverse if
necessary)
Stone
Rolls
Motor
Stone
Workpiece
Holder
Rotation
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Lapping
FIGURE 9.21 (a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production
lapping on at surfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.
(a) (b) (c)
Workpiece
Lap
Before
After
Abrasive
Workpiece
Lower lap
Upper lap
Machine pan
Workholding
plate
Workpieces Guide rail
Lap position and
pressure control
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Chemical-Mechanical Polishing
FIGURE 9.22 Schematic illustration of the chemical-mechanical polishing process. This process is
widely used in the manufacture of silicon wafers and integrated circuits, where it is known as
chemical-mechanical planarization. Additional carriers and more disks per carrier also are possible.
Workpiece
carrier
Workpiece (disk)
Workpiece carrier
Abrasive slurry
Polishing pad
Polishing table
(a) Side view (a) Top view
Polishing
table
Workpiece
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Polishing Using Magnetic Fields
FIGURE 9.23 Schematic illustration of the use of magnetic elds to polish balls and rollers: (a) magnetic
oat polishing of ceramic balls and (b) magnetic-eld-assisted polishing of rollers. Source: After R.
Komanduri, M. Doc, and M. Fox.
(a) (b)
Drive shaft
Guide ring
Float
Permanent magnets

Ceramic balls
(workpiece)

Magnetic fluid
and abrasive
grains

N N N N N N S S S S S S
Magnetic fluid
S-pole N-pole Workpiece
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Ultrasonic Machining
FIGURE 9.24 (a) Schematic illustration of the ultrasonic-machining process; material is removed through
microchipping and erosion. (b) and (c) Typical examples of cavities produced by ultrasonic machining. Note
the dimensions of cut and the types of workpiece materials.
(a) (b) (c)
Glass
Holes 0.4 mm (0.016 in.)
diameter
1.2 mm
(0.048 in.)
Glass-graphite
epoxy composite
Slots 0.64 3 1.5 mm
(0.025 3 0.060 in.)
50 mm (2 in.)
diameter
Power
supply
Transducer
Tool
Abrasive
slurry
Workpiece
Contact time:
Contact force:
t
o

5r
c
o

c
o
v

1/5
F
ave
=
2mv
t
o
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Advanced
Machining
Processes
Process Characteristics Process Parameters and Typical
Material Removal Rate or Cut-
ting Speed
Chemical machining
(CM)
Shallow removal (up to 12 mm) on large at or
curved surfaces; blanking of thin sheets; low tool-
ing and equipment cost; suitable for low produc-
tion runs.
0.025-0.1 mm/min
Electrochemical
machining (ECM)
Complex shapes with deep cavities; highest rate
of material removal; expensive tooling and equip-
ment; high power consumption; medium to high
production quantity.
V: 5-25 dc; A: 2.5-12 mm/min,
depending on current density.
Electrochemical grinding
(ECG)
Cutting o and sharpening hard materials, such
as tungsten-carbide tools; also used as a honing
process; higher material removal rate than grind-
ing.
A: 1-3 A/mm
2
; typically 1500
mm
3
/min per 1000 A.
Electrical-discharge
machining (EDM)
Shaping and cutting complex parts made of hard
materials; some surface damage may result; also
used for grinding and cutting; versatile; expensive
tooling and equipment.
V: 50-380; A: 0.1-500; typically
300 mm
3
/min.
Wire EDM Contour cutting of at or curved surfaces; expen-
sive equipment.
Varies with workpiece material
and its thickness.
Laser-beam machining
(LBM)
Cutting and hole making on thin materials; heat-
aected zone; does not require a vacuum; expen-
sive equipment; consumes much energy; extreme
caution required in use.
0.50-7.5 m/min.
Electron-beam
machining (EBM)
Cutting and hole making on thin materials; very
small holes and slots; heat-aected zone; requires
a vacuum; expensive equipment.
1-2 mm
3
/min
Water-jet machining
(WJM)
Cutting all types of nonmetallic materials to 25
mm (1 in.) and greater in thickness; suitable for
contour cutting of exible materials; no thermal
damage; environmentally safe process.
Varies considerably with work-
piece material.
Abrasive water-jet
machining (AWJM)
Single or multilayer cutting of metallic and non-
metallic materials.
Up to 7.5 m/min.
Abrasive-jet machining
(AJM)
Cutting, slotting, deburring, ash removal, etch-
ing, and cleaning of metallic and nonmetallic ma-
terials; tends to round o sharp edges; some haz-
ard because of airborne particulates.
Varies considerably with work-
piece material.
TABLE 9.4 General
characteristics of advanced
machining processes.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Chemical Milling
FIGURE 9.25 (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the stiffness-to-
weight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical milling of aluminum-
alloy plates. These panels are chemically milled after the plates have rst been formed into shape, such as
by roll forming or stretch forming. Source: ASM International.
(a)
Chemically
machined area
4 mm
(before
machining)
2 mm
(after
machining)
Section
(b)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Chemical Machining
FIGURE 9.26 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that no forces are involved in
this process. (b) Stages in producing a proled cavity by chemical machining.
3rd
Undercut
Workpiece
(b) (a)
2nd 1st
Steps
Depth
Material removed
Edge of maskant
Heating
Agitator
Cooling
coils
Maskant
Tank
Chemical
reagent
Workpiece
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Roughness and Tolerance Capabilities
FIGURE 9.27 Surface roughness and dimensional tolerance capabilities of various machining processes. Note the wide range within
each process. (See also Fig. 8.26.) Source: Machining Data Handbook, 3rd ed., 1980. Used by permission of Metcut Research
Associates, Inc.
2000
1000
500
250
125
63
32
16
8 2
4 1
0.5
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(a)
(a)
25 6.3
50 12.5 3.12
1.60
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.1 0.025
0.05 0.012
2500 1250 500 250 125 50 25 12.5 5 2.5 1.25
Tolerance, mm x 10
-3
100 50 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05
0.001 in.
ELECTRICAL
MECHANICAL
THERMAL
CHEMICAL
CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
Surface Roughness, R
a
(m)
in.
Surface grinding
Turning
Electropolishing
Photochemical machining
Chemical machining
Plasma-beam machining
Laser-beam machining
Electrical-discharge machining (roughing)
Electrical-discharge machining (finishing)
Electrical-discharge grinding
Electron-beam machining
Shaped tube electrolytic machining
Electrochemical polishing
Electrochemical milling (side wall)
Electrochemical milling (frontal)
Electrochemical grinding
Electrochemical deburring
Ultrasonic machining
Low-stress grinding
Abrasive-flow machining
Note: (a) Depends on state of starting surface.
(b) Titanium alloys are generally rougher than nickel alloys.
(c) High current density areas.
(d) Low current density areas.
Average application (normally anticipated values)
Less frequent application (unusual or precision conditions)
Rare (special operating conditions)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Chemical Blanking
FIGURE 9.28 Typical parts made by chemical blanking; note the ne detail. Source:
Courtesy of Buckabee-Mears St. Paul.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Electrochemical Machining
FIGURE 9.29 Schematic illustration of the
electrochemical-machining process. This process is the
reverse of electroplating, described in Section 4.5.1.
DC
power
supply
Insulating
coating
Pump for
circulating
electrolyte
Tool
Tank
Workpiece
(-)
(+)
Electrolyte
FIGURE 9.30 Typical parts made by electrochemical
machining. (a) Turbine blade made of a nickel alloy, 360
HB; the part on the right is the shaped electrode. Source:
ASM International. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-steel roller-
bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.
(a)
Copper electrode
Electrode
carrier
Ram
Electrolyte
Forging
Machined
workpiece
Feed
Insulating
layer
Telescoping cover
75 mm
65 mm
140 mm
(b)
14 holes
112 mm
86 mm
(c)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Electrochemical Grinding
FIGURE 9.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical grinding process. (b) Thin slot produced on
a round nickel-alloy tube by this process.
(a) (b)
Inconel
1
in (3.1 mm)
1
64
in. (0.4 mm)
0.020 in.
(0.5 mm)
Insulating
abrasive
particles
Electrolyte from pump
Electrical connection
Electrode (grinding wheel)
Spindle
Insulating
bushing
DC
power
supply
Work
table
(1)
(2)
Workpiece
8
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Electrical Discharge Machining
FIGURE 9.32 Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge-machining process.
(+)
(-)
Rectifier
Current
control
Power supply
Servo
control
Movable
electrode
Dielectric fluid
Workpiece
Tank
Spark
Melted
workpiece
Worn electrode
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
EDM Examples
FIGURE 9.33 (a) Examples of shapes produced by the electrical-discharge
machining process, using shaped electrodes. The two round parts in the
rear are a set of dies for extruding the aluminum piece shown in front; see
also Section 6.4. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd. (b) A spiral cavity
produced using a shaped rotating electrode. Source: American Machinist. (c)
Holes in a fuel-injection nozzle produced by electrical-discharge machining.
(b) (a)
Electrode
(c)
1.5 mm dia.
8 holes,
0.17 mm
Workpiece
FIGURE 9.34 Stepped cavities
produced with a square electrode
by EDM. In this operation, the
workpiece moves in the two
principal horizontal directions, and
its motion is synchronized with the
downward movement of the
electrode to produce these cavities.
Also shown is a round electrode
capable of producing round or
elliptical cavities. Source: Courtesy of
AGIE USA Ltd.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Wire EDM
FIGURE 9.35 Schematic illustration of the wire EDM process. As much as 50 hours of machining can be
performed with one reel of wire, which is then recycled.
Workpiece
Wire
guides
Dielectric
supply
Wire
Reel
Spark gap
Slot (kerf)
Wire
diameter
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Laser Machining
FIGURE 9.36 (a) Schematic illustration of the
laser-beam machining process. (b) Cutting sheet
metal with a laser beam. Source: (b) Courtesy of
Ron-Sinat, Inc.
(b)
Power
supply
Flash lamp
Lens
Workpiece
Partially
reflective end
Laser crystal
Reflective end
(a)
Application Laser Type
Cutting
Metals PCO
2
; CWCO
2
; Nd:YAG; ruby
Plastics CWCO
2
Ceramics PCO
2
Drilling
Metals PCO
2
; Nd:YAG; Nd:glass; ruby
Plastics Excimer
Marking
Metals PCO
2
; Nd:YAG
Plastics Excimer
Ceramics Excimer
Surface treatment (metals) CWCO
2
Welding (metals) PCO
2
; CWCO
2
; Nd:YAG; Nd:glass; ruby
Note: P=pulsed; CW=continuous wave.
TABLE 9.5 General applications of lasers in
manufacturing.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Electron-Beam Machining
FIGURE 9.37 Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process. Unlike LBM, this
process requires a vacuum, and hence workpiece size is limited by the chamber size.
High voltage cable (30 kV, DC)
Electron stream
Anode
Valve
Workpiece
Work table
Vacuum chamber
Cathode grid
Magnetic lens
Deflection coils
High
vacuum
pump
Optical
viewing
system
Viewing
port
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Water-Jet Machining
FIGURE 9.38 (a) Schematic
illustration of water-jet machining. (b)
A computer-controlled water-jet
cutting machine. (c) Examples of
various nonmetallic parts machined
by the water-jet cutting process.
Source: Courtesy of OMAX
Corporation.
(a)
(c) (b)
Control panel y-axis
control
x-axis
control
Abrasive-jet
head
Collection
tank
Mixer and filter
Sapphire nozzle
Fluid supply
Hydraulic
unit
Intensifier
Pump
Accumulator
Controls
Valve
Workpiece
Jet
Drain
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Abrasive-Jet Machining
FIGURE 9.39 (a) Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process. (b) Examples of parts
produced by abrasive-jet machining; the parts are 50 mm (2 in.) thick and are made of 304 stainless
steel. Source: Courtesy of OMAX Corporation.
(b)
(a)
Gas
supply
Pressure
regulator
Vibrator
Filters
Powder
supply
and mixer
Foot control
valve
Hand
holder
Workpiece
Nozzle
Hood
Exhaust
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Design Considerations
FIGURE 9.40 Design guidelines for internal features, especially as applied to holes. (a) Guidelines for grinding the
internal surfaces of holes. These guidelines generally hold for honing as well. (b) The use of a backing plate for
producing high-quality through-holes by ultrasonic machining. Source: After J. Bralla.
(b)
Undercut 3 mm
(1/8 in) wide
or greater
Through
hole
(a)
Sharp corner
Poor
Radius 0.25 mm
(0.010 in)
or greater
Good
Best
Breakaway
chipping
Backup plate
Coolant hole
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Economic Considerations
2000 16 32 63 125 250 500 1000
0
100
200
300
400
0.50 10 5 0.4
m
M
a
c
h
i
n
i
n
g

c
o
s
t

(
%
)
Surface
finish, Ra (in.)
A
s
-
c
a
s
t
,
s
a
w
e
d
,

e
t
c
.
S
e
m
i
f
i
n
i
s
h
t
u
r
n
F
i
n
i
s
h

t
u
r
n
Rough turn
G
r
i
n
d
H
o
n
e
1
FIGURE 9.41 Increase in the cost of machining and nishing operations as a function of the surface nish required.
Note the rapid increase associated with nishing operations.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Case Study: Stent Manufacture
Guide wire
0.356 mm
(0.014 in.) max
Proximal and distal markers
indicate position of stent on radiograph
Variable Thickness Strut (VTS
TM
)
3-3-3 Pattern
Catheter and balloon
used for stent expansion
2.5 mm4.0 mm
(0.0100.16 in.)
8 m
m
38 mm (0.3151.50 in.)
FIGURE 9.42 The Guidant MULTI-LINK TETRA
TM

coronary stent system.
a
b
Notes:
a. 0.12 mm (0.0049 in.)
section thickness to provide
radiopacity
b. 0.091 mm (0.0036 in.)
thickness for flexibility
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 9.43 Detail of
the 3-3-3 MULTI-LINK
TETRA
TM
pattern.
FIGURE 9.44 Evolution of the stent surface. (a)
MULTI-LINK TETRA
TM
after lasing. Note that a metal
slug is still attached. (b) After removal of slug. (c) After
electropolishing.