CONTROL VALVES AND TUNING

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Control Valves and Tuning

Table of Contents

Control Valves AND TUNING........................................................................................................1

Control Valves AND TUNING........................................................................................................2
RELATIONSHIP OF MAJOR COMPONENTS.........................................................................2
Control Valve Bodies................................................................................................................2
Control-Valve Actuators...........................................................................................................2
Discussion of Flow Characteristics and Valve Selection..........................................................2
QUICK-OPENING..............................................................................................................2
LINEAR FLOW...................................................................................................................2
EQUAL-PERCENTAGE.....................................................................................................3
CRITICAL PRESSURE DROP...........................................................................................3
SIZING BY CALCULATION.............................................................................................3
AERODYNAMIC NOISE PREDICTION..........................................................................4
LIQUID SERVICE..................................................................................................................4
CAVITATION......................................................................................................................4
FLASHING..........................................................................................................................5
TUNING CONTROL LOOPS.....................................................................................................6
TUNING CONSTANTS..........................................................................................................6
PROPORTIONAL BAND (K).............................................................................................6
GAIN (K) CALCULATION................................................................................................6
INTEGRAL or RESET (T1)................................................................................................6
DERIVATIVE (T2)..............................................................................................................6
TUNING..................................................................................................................................7
ADJUST PROPORTIONAL BAND....................................................................................7
ADJUST RESET (INTEGRAL) ACTION..........................................................................7
ADJUST DERIVATIVE ACTION (RATE).........................................................................7
FLOW CHARACTERISTICS.................................................................................................8
TUNING CONTROLLERS.........................................................................................................9
GENERAL RULES FOR COMMON LOOPS........................................................................9
FLOW..................................................................................................................................9
LEVEL.................................................................................................................................9
LIQUID PRESSURE.........................................................................................................10
GAS PRESSURE...............................................................................................................10
TEMPERATURE, VAPOR PRESSURE, AND COMPOSITION....................................10
CLASSICAL CONTROLLER TUNING METHOD........................................................11
CASCADE AND OTHER INTERACTING CONTROL LOOPS....................................11
DEFAULT CONTROLLER TUNING PARAMETERS........................................................11
CONTROL LOOP SCAN RATES.....................................................................................12
PID ALGORITHM DEFAULT TUNING CONSTANTS..................................................13

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CONTROL VALVES AND TUNING

Selecting the proper control valve for each application involves many factors. The valve body
design, actuator, style, and plug characteristic are critical items for selection. Proper valve sizing
is necessary for accurate, efficient, economical process control.

In areas where personnel will be affected, noise prediction and control becomes a significant
factor.

RELATIONSHIP OF MAJOR COMPONENTS

CONTROL VALVE BODIES
The rate of fluid flow varies as the position of the valve plug is changed by force from the
actuator. Therefore, the valve body must permit actuator thrust transmission, resist chemical and
physical effects of the process, and provide the appropriate end connections to mate with the
adjacent piping; it must do all of this without external leakage. Most valve body designs are of the
globe style, but other configurations such as ball and butterfly styles are available. Final selection
depends upon detailed review of the engineering application.

CONTROL-VALVE ACTUATORS
Pneumatically operated control-valve actuators are the most popular type in use, but electric,
hydraulic, and manual actuators are also widely used. The spring and diaphragm pneumatic
actuator is commonly specified, due to its dependability and its simplicity of design. Pneumatically
operated piston actuators provide integral positioner capability and high stem-force output for
demanding service conditions.

DISCUSSION OF FLOW CHARACTERISTICS AND VALVE SELECTION

The flow characteristic of a control valve is the relationship between the flow rate through the
valve and the valve travel as the travel is varied from 0 to 100 percent. "Inherent flow
characteristic" refers to the characteristic observed during flow with a constant pressure drop
across the valve. "Installed flow characteristic" refers to the characteristic obtained in service
when the pressure drop varies with flow and other changes in the system.

QUICK-OPENING
The quick-opening flow characteristic provides for maximum change in flow rate at low valve
travel with a fairly linear relationship. Additional increases in valve travel give sharply reduced
changes in flow rate. When the valve plug nears the wide-open position, the change in flow rate
approaches zero. In a control valve, the quick-opening valve plug is used primarily for on-off
service; however, it is also suitable for many applications where a linear valve plug would
normally be specified.

LINEAR FLOW

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The linear flow-characteristic curve shows that the flow rate is directly proportional to the valve
travel. This proportional relationship produces a characteristic with a constant slope so that with
constant pressure drop (∆P), the valve gain will be the same at all flows. (Valve gain is the ratio of
an incremental change in flow rate to an incremental change in valve plug position. Gain is a func-
tion of valve size and configuration, system operating conditions and valve plug characteristic.)
The linear-valve plug is commonly specified for liquid level control and for certain flow control
applications requiring constant gain.

EQUAL-PERCENTAGE
In the equal-percentage flow characteristic, equal increments of valve travel produce equal
percentage changes in the existing flow. The change in flow rate is always proportional to the
flow rate just before the change in position is made for a valve plug, disc, or ball position. When
the valve plug, disc, or ball is near its seat and the flow is small, the change in flow rate will be
small; with a large flow, the change in flow rate will be large. Valves with an equal-percentage
flow characteristic are generally used for pressure control applications. They are also used for
other applications where a large percentage of the total system pressure drop is normally absorbed
by the system itself, with only a relatively small percentage by the control valve. Valves with an
equal-percentage characteristic should also be considered where highly varying pressure drop
conditions could be expected.

The modified parabolic-flow characteristic curve falls between the linear and the equal-percentage
curve.

Note: Where detailed process knowledge is lacking, as a rule of thumb, use equal-percentage
characteristics at 70 percent opening.

CRITICAL PRESSURE DROP

Critical flow limitation is a significant problem when sizing valves for gaseous service. Critical
flow is a choked flow condition caused by increasing gas velocity at the vena contracta. The vena
contracta is the point of minimum cross-sectional area of the flow stream which occurs just
downstream of the actual physical restriction. When the velocity at the vena contracta reaches
sonic velocity, additional increases in pressure drop, ∆P, (by reducing downstream pressure)
produces no increase in flow.

SIZING BY CALCULATION
The gas sizing equations can be used to determine the flow of gas or vapor through any style of
valve. Absolute units of temperature and pressure must be used in the equation. When the critical
pressure drop ratio, ∆P/P, causes the sine angle to be 90 degrees, the equation will predict the
value of the critical flow. For service conditions that would result in an angle of greater than 90
degrees, the equation must be limited to 90 degrees, as no further increase in pressure drop will
cause an increase in flow; critical flow has been reached.

Most commonly, the gas and vapor sizing equations are used to determine the proper valve size
for a given set of service conditions. The first step is to calculate the required Cg by using the
sizing equation. The second step is to select a valve from the manufacturer's catalog. The valve
selected should have a Cg, which equals or exceeds the calculated value. The assumed C, value
for the Cg calculation must match the C, value for the valve selected from the catalog.

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Accurate valve sizing for gases requires the use of dual coefficients, Cg and C1. A single
coefficient is not sufficient to describe both the capacity and the recovery characteristics of the
valve.

The mass flow form of the sizing equation is the most general form and can be used for both ideal
and non-ideal vapor applications. Applying the equation requires knowledge of one additional
condition not included in previous equations, that being the inlet gas density (d).

Other valve configurations, such as ball and butterfly valves, can be sized in a similar manner
using the unique C, and Cg values derived by the manufacturers.

AERODYNAMIC NOISE PREDICTION

Aerodynamic noise, the most common type of control valve noise, is the result of Reynolds
stresses and shear forces that are the results of turbulent flow. Noise from turbulent flow is more
common in valves handling compressible gases than in those controlling liquids.

Noise-prediction techniques outlined below may be used to determine control-valve noise levels.
Predicted noise levels can then be used to select the necessary degree of noise control for each
application.

Graphical solution of the following equation provides a very expeditious and accurate technique
for predicting ambient noise levels resulting from the flow of compressible fluids through globe
valves.

LIQUID SERVICE
The procedure used to size control valves for liquid service should consider the possibility of
cavitation and flashing since they can limit the capacity and produce physical damage to the valve.
This method introduces a critical pressure ratio factor, r, which not only broadens the scope of
valve-sizing techniques but also increases the sizing accuracy. When used in equations, it will help
to determine more accurately the maximum allowable pressure drop for sizing purposes. In order
to understand the problems more thoroughly, a brief discussion of the cavitation and flashing
processes is presented in the following.

CAVITATION
In a control valve, the fluid stream is accelerated as it flows through the restricted area of the
orifice, reaching maximum velocity at the vena contracta. Simultaneously, as the velocity
increases, an interchange of energy between the velocity and pressure heads forces a reduction in
the pressure.

If the velocity increases sufficiently, the pressure at the vena contracta will be reduced to the
vapor pressure of the liquid. At this point, voids or cavities, the first stage in cavitation, appear in
the fluid stream. Downstream from the vena contracta, the fluid stream undergoes a deceleration
process resulting in a reversal of the energy interchange, which raises the pressure above the
liquid vapor pressure.

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The vapor cavities cannot exist at the increased pressure and are forced to collapse or implode.
These implosions, the final stage in the cavitation process, produce noise, vibration and physical
damage. In order to avoid cavitation completely, the pressure at the vena contracta must remain
above the vapor pressure of the liquid.

FLASHING
If the pressure at the vena contracta remains low, the fluid will remain in the vapor state because
the downstream pressure is equal to or less than the vapor pressure of the liquid.

After the first vapor cavities are formed, the increase in flow rate will no longer be proportional to
an increase in the square root of the body differential pressure. When sufficient vapor has been
formed, the flow will become completely choked. As long as the inlet pressure (P1) remains
constant, an increase in pressure drop (∆P) will not cause the flow to increase.

The first stages of cavitation and flashing are identical; that is, vapor forms as the vena contracta
pressure is reduced to the vapor pressure of the liquid

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TUNING CONTROL LOOPS

TUNING CONSTANTS
PROPORTIONAL BAND (K)
• If Proportional Band is 100%, each percent of change at the input to the controller will
produce the same percent of change at the controller's output.
• If a Proportional Band is less than 100%, each percent change of input signal to the
controller will produce a greater percent of change at the controller's output.
• If a Proportional Band is larger than 100%, each percent change in input signal to the
controller will produce a smaller percent of change at the controller's output.
• The Proportional Band that is selected for a particular operating situation determines how
much corrective signal the controller can produce for each percent of change in the
variable controlled by the controller.
• The controller's output signal determines the amount of movement that will be produced
at the control valve.

GAIN (K) CALCULATION

Ratio of entire span of measurement to percent span being used as Proportional Band.

GAIN = 100% (the entire span of measurement)

% of span being used as a proportional band

Assume 50% proportional band, PB = PROPORTIONAL BAND

GAIN = 100% (span)

50% (PB)
GAIN = 2 Honeywell uses letter “K" to represent GAIN, therefore K = 2.

INTEGRAL OR RESET (T1)

• Integral action repeats the proportional controllers initial corrective signal until there is no
difference between the PV and Setpoint.
• Integral ( T1 ) is expressed in "Minutes per Repeat"

DERIVATIVE (T2)
• Changes the output of a controller in proportion to the "RATE" or "SPEED" at which the
controlled variable is moving towards or away from the setpoint.
• Derivative action is expressed in minutes.
• Represents the time that the proportional plus derivative will take to reach a certain level
of output, in advance of the time proportional action alone would produce the same
output.

i.e: When derivative is applied to a two mode controller ( PI ), to make it a three mode controller
( PID ), it's action consists of decreasing the number of repeats per minute required to drive the
error back to setpoint.

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TUNING
ADJUST PROPORTIONAL BAND
Always tune proportional band with very little reset action. That is, for instance with a speed
control loop, always set the reset (integral) adjustment at, say twenty or thirty seconds or more
before adjusting the proportional band.

Then, adjust the proportional band to a smaller value (higher gain) until cycling or instability
begins.

EXAMPLE: Start with 40% proportional band (a gain of 2.5); then halve the proportional band
to 20% (a gain of 5); then halve the proportional band to 10% (a gain of 10); etc.

When cycling just begins, increase the proportional band by 50 percent. That is, from 10% to
15%; from 18% to 24%; etc. Cycling should stop. The proportional band adjustment should now
be properly set and should be left at this value.

ADJUST RESET (INTEGRAL) ACTION

This is done by reducing the time value (in seconds). Say the reset is at twenty seconds. Then
reduce the reset to ten seconds; then reduce the reset to five seconds; then reduce the reset to two
seconds; etc. When cycling or instability begins, increase the reset adjustment by 50%.

Example: If cycling is observed at two seconds, increase the reset to three seconds. If cycling is
observed at 8 seconds, increase the reset to 12 seconds, etc. The reset action should now be
properly adjusted and should be left at this value.

ADJUST DERIVATIVE ACTION (RATE)

If a derivative adjustment is felt necessary, adjust the derivative action by beginning at a setting of
one second, then two, then three, until improvement is observed and seems to be optimal.
Normally, derivative action is not needed and does not help the situation.

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FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
Very fast. P + I Controllers.
Most lags are in the control Low gain, fast reset, high PB
system. Derivative hurts.
FLOW Non Linear (square) Linear valves for differential pressure
measurement common. measurement.
Noisy. Equal percentage valves for linear
measurement.
Valve is the major dynamic element.
Fast. P + I controllers.
PRESSURE Most lags are in the control Gain near 1, fast reset rate.
(Liquid) system. Derivative of no value.
Linear. Noisy Linear valve.
Single capacity. Self acting or high gain proportional
No dead time. controllers.
PRESSURE Linear, no noise. Reset seldom necessary.
(Gas) Simple process. Derivative unnecessary.
Valve characteristic relatively unimportant
Dynamics vary. Three response controllers.
PRESSURE Dead time possible. Settings vary.
(Vapor) Slow compared to other pressure valves.
processes. Equal percentage
Linear, no noise.
Single capacity Precise control:
No dead time. High gain controllers.
LEVEL Linear. Averaging control:
Infrequent noise. Low gain, specialized controllers.
Valve characteristic unimportant.
Multiple capacity system. Three response controllers.
Dead time possible (especially in Settings vary but gain usually above 1.
heat exchangers).
TEMPERATURE Derivative of limited value if dead time is
large.
Non linear.
No Noise. Equal percentage valves.
Measurement dynamics are important.
Dynamics vary. P + I Controller.
Dead time usually present. Low gain, variable reset rate.
Usually linear. Derivative sometimes useful.
COMPOSITION Sometimes noisy due to poor On line analyzers fast. often noisy, pH
mixing. nonlinear.
Sampling systems complicate both
measurement and control. add dead time.
Linear valves.

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TUNING CONTROLLERS
Since there are a very large number of combinations of the two or sometimes three, "knobs"
provided for controller tuning, many methods have been developed over the years to aid in their
proper adjustment. A few require upsetting the process to some extent, often an unacceptable
practice in real life. These notes are intended to provide a few simple rules to use in tuning
controllers which will minimize upsets and still get the job done.

THE CONTROLLER MUST BE ADJUSTED TO BALANCE THE PROCESS.

If the process is fast to respond (i.e. a flow loop), then the controller must be tuned fast too.
Fast or slow for a controller refers to integral (or reset).
NOT PROPORTIONAL BAND (or gain).

Do not confuse these actions or grief will be your constant companion during your controller
tuning efforts. If the process is slow (i.e. temperature control of a tray part way up a distillation
column), then the controller must be tuned slow TO MATCH THE PROCESS. If you do not have
a feel for the process characteristics or cannot find someone to enlighten you, leave controller
tuning to someone else who can get the needed information.

GENERAL RULES FOR COMMON LOOPS

FLOW
Usually, at least half of the control loops in a plant are flow loops. Set integral (I) at 0.1 minutes.
Adjust the proportional band so that the measurement is not too noisy, usually about 300%
although an occasional poor meter run installation may require as much as 1000%. A loop where
a valve positioner has been used will require a proportional band setting two to three times larger
than for a loop without a positioner. Slow moving or sticky control valves may require 0.2 or 0.3
minutes but are rare exceptions. If these settings do not work, inspect the valve and orifice
installation to find the, problem. Fix the problem. Do not adjust the controller to some ridiculous
setting such as a 10 minute reset time. Use the controller in manual or a hand valve if you think a
10 minute reset time is necessary.

IMPORTANT NOTE: No controller will work when the valve is almost closed or almost wide
open. Don't attempt tuning under these conditions. Have the operator open or close a bypass (if
one exists) or wait until process conditions change enough to get the valve back within its
operating range (from 5 to 95% of travel as extreme limits with 10 to 90% as a safer range).
Never use derivative action in a flow loop.

LEVEL
The next most common loop after flow is level. DO NOT EVER USE A SHORT INTEGRAL
VALUE IN A LEVEL LOOP. If you do, you will find the loop will always cycle, often with a
period (time from the peak of one cycle to the peak of the next) of 10 to 15 minutes. The shorter
the integral time, the longer the period. Set the integral at 10 minutes. This will satisfy 80 to 90%
of the level applications in a plant, if the vessel time constant (volume/flow) is 1 to 2 minutes, then
a shorter integral time can be used but remember that a large value is safer. If the vessel is large
and the controlling flow is a trickle, then a greater value of integral must be used.

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If close control of level is important, set the proportional band to as small a value as possible
(20-50%) without causing cycling. Use a larger proportional band (perhaps 100%) if smooth flow
control to a downstream unit is more important than tight level control. Never use derivative
action in a level loop.

Level loops will usually show a limit cycle when the level controller sets a valve, which is not
equipped with a positioner. A limit cycle looks like a saw blade, sometimes with flat bottoms
and/or tops

Limit cycle will show about 5% change. There is absolutely nothing you can do to tune out such a
limit cycle. Changes in tuning will shorten or lengthen the period but only a positioner or level
cascaded to a flow controller will eliminate the problem. When the flow is used to control the
level going to tankage, cycling is usually unimportant. If it is the reflux or feed to a distillation
tower, then such a limit cycle may be unacceptable. Please note that a valve cycling almost closed
or fully open will also produce a limit cycle, usually of the flat bottom type (when almost closed)
or of the flat top type when almost fully open.

LIQUID PRESSURE
Tune the same, as flow loops. Noise should not be as severe as for flow and proportional bands
will usually be smaller.

GAS PRESSURE
Tune the same as level loops using a large integral value. Proportional bands can be quite small
(under 100% and often as small as 20-30%.).

Well now that you've tuned over 90% of the loops in the typical plant, on to the more difficult
control tuning applications. These are temperature, vapor pressure, and composition. Included are
the temperatures used to infer composition for so many distillation columns.

TEMPERATURE, VAPOR PRESSURE, AND COMPOSITION

There are several ways to tune these more difficult loops. The first is to use starting settings of
100% proportional band, a 5 or 10 minute integral time, and no derivative. Switch the controller
to automatic when the measurement is close to the desired set point. If a cycle develops, measure
the time from peak to peak (high to high or low to low). This is the period of the control loop.
Divide by two. If the starting integral value is less than one half of the period, the integral time is
too short and is causing the cycle. Increase the integral time. If each peak is higher than the one
before, increase the proportional band (double, triple etc.) until the cycles damp out. The period
will get shorter as the integral time is increased. When the period is about twice the integral time
and the cycles are dampening out, you're pretty well finished. If the measurement is not noisy, set
the derivative at one quarter of the integral time. Readjust the proportional band if required to get
a damped oscillation after an upset (wait for a bump or ask the operator to make a small set point
change in a safe direction).

If the shortcut method described above is unsuccessful or you want to be a bit more methodical,
follow the procedure given below. It will always work and will leave no doubt as to the
characteristics of the control loop.

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CLASSICAL CONTROLLER TUNING METHOD

When the process is reasonably stable and no plant upsets are expected, switch the controller to
manual. Then set D, (derivative or rate on some controllers) to minimum (if provided on the
controller) and I, (integral or reset on some controllers) to maximum.

Select a set point equal to the measurement and adjust the proportional band to 100% (or gain at
1.0) to start. Change the output a small amount and transfer the controller to automatic. Note the
starting valve position.

If oscillations do not develop, repeat step 2 reducing the proportional band, perhaps to half the
value tried before. Continue to reduce the proportional band until oscillations start. If oscillations
of increasing amplitude develop on the first try, return to manual and set the valve at the original
position noted in step 2. Double the proportional band and try again until uniform, or very nearly
so, oscillations develop. Measure the period (defined as the time for one complete cycle to occur).

For a P+I Controller: Set I = to the period x 0.82. Double the proportional band. The period will
increase by about 43%. Readjust the proportional band if more or less damping is desired. Set I =
to the period x O.S. Set D = to the period x 0.12. Double the proportional band. The period will
decrease by about 15%. Readjust the proportional band if more or less damping is desired.

Remember, safe values are a large I and a small D. These instructions are for controllers adjusted
in terms of minutes per repeat. Some manufacturers use an inverse relationship so large becomes
small and vice versa.

If the measurement is noisy (Ph loops in particular), derivative cannot usually be used; never
under any circumstances set the derivative greater than the integral.

CASCADE AND OTHER INTERACTING CONTROL LOOPS

Tune the secondary loop first using the local set point mode. Reduce the integral as much as
possible. Transfer to remote set point and tune the primary loop. Never use a primary controller
integral value less than four times the integral value used for the secondary controller. The same
rules hold true for interacting loops such as pressure and pressure compensated temperature used
for a distillation tower. Tune the pressure loop (representing the fastest loop in this case) with a
minimum integral value, then use an integral time at least four times as great for the temperature
controller. To test for interaction when two -loops cycle together at the same period, place one
loop in manual. If the cycle stops, interaction is probably the problem. Rearrange the loops or use
the technique outlined above to minimize cycling.

DEFAULT CONTROLLER TUNING PARAMETERS

For the start-up of any plant, there are default tuning parameters that can be entered into each
controller. These are start-up values only, and each controller will still require additional tuning.
This tuning may occur several times on individual controllers, depending on plant start-up
conditions. In fact, it can be some time (the plant has to stabilize) before all controllers have their

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final (normal operations) tunings. There are no values shown for Derivative action for start-up
conditions, as it has not been shown to be required for those conditions. Derivative values should
be added in the final tunings of the applicable controllers. The following is a list of typical start-up
tunings:

PROCESS GAIN PB REPEATS/MIN MINS/REPEAT

K T1

FLOW .5 200 12 .083 or 5 Sec.

PRESSURE 1 100 1 1 Min.

(Liquid)

PRESSURE 2 50 .5 2 Min.
(Gas)

LEVEL 1 100 .2 5 Min.

TEMPERATURE 1.3 75 .3 3.5 Min.

ANALYZERS 1.3 75 .2 5 Min.

CONTROLLER INPUT/OUTPUT INDICATION

Output to valves viewed by the operator shall indicate close as 0% and open as 100%. When a
control valve is tripped on abnormal condition (Low-low level, etc.), the PID controller shall be
configured to switch to manual output mode and the controller output to the fail-safe condition
value. In case of sensing element failure, a "Bad PV" alarm will be generated and if it is a control
point, controller shall switch to manual output mode.

Controller output to field devices shall be -6.9% to 106.9% to compensate for calibration offsets
in the field device. Master controller output in cascade loops shall be 0% to 100%.

CONTROL LOOP SCAN RATES

The control loops shall be configured to achieve the functionality and philosophy of the P&IDs.
Following are the basic types of control loops:
- Analog Indication Only Loop;
- Single Control Loop;
- Cascade Control Loop; - Complex Control Loop; - Discrete 1/0 Loops within APM
(Advanced Process Manager), and - Discrete 1/0 Loops within LM.

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The controllers (APM) base scan rate will be 0.5 seconds. Some fast loops (according to EPC
contractor) will run at 0.25 seconds.

PID ALGORITHM DEFAULT TUNING CONSTANTS

The PID algorithms will be configured with the following default values unless otherwise
specified by the EPC contractor. It is understand that these are initial values, final loop tuning will
be done during plant operation:

PID Gain (K) Integral

Derivative
(min. - T1) (min.- T2)
Flow 0.5 0.08 0.0
Pressure (Liquid) 1.0 1.0 0.0
Pressure (Gas) 2.0 2.0 0.0
Level 1.0 5.0 0.0
Temperature 1.3 3.0 0.0

Berry’s Commissioning Handbook