English Teaching Handbook Bontila

Reflecting pretexts and exercises
Ruxanda Bontil
2002
CONTENTS
1. Towards Teacher Proficiency.!
2. "ang#age $ethods and Techni%#es...........................................................................!
The Direct Method
The Audio-Lingual Method
Suggestopedia
The Community Language Learning Method
The Communicative Approach
Communicative Syllabi towards a Communicative Methodology
!. Class $anage&ent........................................................................................................'
Classroom Observation: Class Management
e!lection as "#ercise
(. "esson Planning..........................................................................................................10
Layout
"#ample
). Teaching *oca+#lary.................................................................................................12
Classroom Observation: Le#is
,. Teaching -ra&&ar....................................................................................................1(
Classroom Observation: $rammar
.. Teaching Pron#nciation..............................................................................................1,
Classroom Observation: %honology
/. Teaching Reading........................................................................................................1/
Classroom Observation: eading
'. Teaching "istening......................................................................................................21
Classroom Observation : Listening
10. Teaching writing..........................................................................................................2(
Classroom Observation: &riting
11. Teaching Spea0ing......................................................................................................2/
Classroom Observation: Spea'ing
12. Teaching "iterary S0ills.............................................................................................!2
1!. Correction....................................................................................................................!!
Classroom Observation: "rror Correction
1(. Testing..........................................................................................................................!)
1). $aterials E1al#ation Criteria....................................................................................!,
1,. -lossary of So&e Co&&on $odes of Teaching and "earning...............................!.
1.. 2i+liography.................................................................................................................!/
2
() TOWARDS TEACHER PROFICIENCY
*t+s good to remember that the more success!ul "nglish teacher is li'ely to be better endowed than
many o! his colleagues with:
- energy
- acting talent
- artistic imagination and s'ill
- patience and 'indness
- organising ability
- powers o! re!lection and sel!-criticism, etc)
ST*LL, the indispensable constituents which will always ma'e a success!ul teacher are connected with
three crucially important components o! the !oreign language teacher behaviour:
() 'nowledge o! language use
-) 'nowledge o! language analysis
.) 'nowledge o! language teaching.
To these three, an overarching concept should be added: reflectie !ractice.
Reflection as Exercise
*! there are /ualities which distinguish the outstanding teacher !rom the competent one 0congruence,
pri1ing, empathy2, to what e#tent can these /ualities be trained or developed3
2. "AN#$A#E %ETHODS AND TECHNI&$ES
THE DIRECT %ETHOD
() $OALS: to communicate in target language 0TL24 to thin' in TL)
-) OL"S: Teacher 0T2 directs class activities4 T 5 Ss are partners)
.) T"AC6*7$ 8 L"A7*7$ %OC"SS: Ss associate meaning 5 the TL through realia, pictures,
pantomime) Ss spea' as i! in real situations) $rammar is taught inductively)
9) *7T"ACT*O7: Teacher-directed 5 Student-directed
:) D"AL*7$ &*T6 ;""L*7$S: no principles that relate to the area)
<) =*"& O; LA7$>A$" A7D C>LT>": Language is primarily spo'en) Ss study everyday
speech in the TL) Aspects o! !oreign culture are taught)-
?) LA7$>A$" A"AS 5 S@*LLS T6" A%%OAC6 "M%6AS*A"S: =ocabulary over $rammar)
Oral Communication over eading and &riting) %ronunciation is primordial)
B) OL" O; Ss+ 7AT*=" LA7$>A$": Not #sed.
C) M"A7S O; "=AL>AT*O7: Through actual use as in oral interviews) They may also be assigned
written paragraphs)
(D) "S%O7S" TO Ss+ "OS: Sel!-correction encouraged)
!
L"T $O *D"AS
() Choose a particular situation 0such as at the ban', at the railway station, or at the doctor+s2
or a particular topic and write a short passage or a dialogue on the theme you have chosen) 7ow thin'
about how you will convey its meaning to a class)
-) Select a grammar point !rom the passage) %lan how you will get students to practice the
grammar point) &hat e#amples can you provide them with so that they can induce the rule
themselves3
%O7D" A7D 6E%OT6"S*S"
.) "M*7*SC" about your past learning e#periences and say how o!ten this method was used
by your teacher and how success!ul it proved)
9) Are there techni/ues o! the Direct Method which you would consider adopting3 &hich
ones3
:) &hat do you thin' Stevic' 0(CB-2 might have meant when he said FMa'ing in!ormed
choices is, a!ter all, what teaching is all about)G
THE A$DIO'"IN#$A" %ETHOD
() $OALS: to use TL communicatively4 to over learn TL by !orming new habits in TL) and
overcoming old habits o! native language 07L2)
-) OL"S: T is a good model !or imitation li'e an orchestra leader, directing and controlling4 Ss are
imitators o! T+s model or tapes she supplies o! model spea'ers)
. T"AC6*7$8L"A7*7$ %OC"SS: =ocabulary and structures are presented through dialogues
learned through imitation and practice 0e#cessive drilling2) $rammar is taught inductively) Cultural
in!ormation is conte#tuali1ed) Oral wor' precedes reading and writing)
9) *7T"ACT*O7: T -Ss4 T-initiated S-S interaction 0drilling4 role-playing2
:) D"AL*7$ &*T6 ;""L*7$S: no principles that relate to the area)
<) =*"& O; LA7$>A$" A7D C>LT>": generated by descriptive linguistics 0Language seen as a
system2) $radation o! level o! comple#ity) Culture is seen as everyday behaviour o! TL spea'ers)
?) LA7$>A$" A"AS A7D S@*LLS T6" A%%OAC6 "M%6AS*A"S: Ac/uisition o! the
patterns o! the language through structure practice) The oral s'ills are overemphasi1ed 0order:
listening, spea'ing, reading, writing2) %ronunciation is taught !rom the beginning)
B) OL" O; Ss+ 7AT*=" LA7$>A$": TL used e#clusively) 7L is considered a source o!
inter!erence 0T e#pected to underta'e Contrastive Analysis 0CA2 studies so as to prevent negative
trans!er2
C) M"A7S O; "=AL>AT*O7: through discrete-point tests 0one point o! the language at a time2)
(D) "S%O7S" TO Ss+ "OS: through anticipation and restriction o! taught areas)
(
L"T $O *D"AS:
() Consider the !ollowing dialogue) &hat structure is it trying to teach3
%A>L: Lou+s going to go to college ne#t summer)
H"TTE: &hat is he going to study3
%A>L: 6e+s going to study architecture) 6e+s going to be an architect)
H"TTE: &here is he going to study3
%A>L: 6e+s going to study at "dinburgh >niversity)
%repare a series o! drills 0bac'ward build-up, repetition, chain, single-slot substitution,
multiple-slot substitution, trans!ormation, and I-A2 designed to give beginning level ";L students
some practice with this structure)
-) %repare your own dialogue to introduce your Ss to the Fbe going toG structure)
9) Are there techni/ues o! the A>D*O-L*7$>AL Method which you would consider
adopting3 &hich ones3
S$##ESTOPEDIA
O*$*7ATO: -eorgi "o3ano1
%>%OS": to help Ss eliminate the !eeling that they cannot be success!ul and, thus, to help them
overcome the barriers to learning)
() $OALS: to accelerate learning !or everyday communication by des#ggesting the psychological
barriers learners bring along to the language situation)
-) OL"S: T is the authority Ss must wholly trust and respect) *n!antili1ation is the conse/uence o!
this unconditional relationship)
.) T"AC6*7$8 L"A7*7$ %OC"SS: *t ta'es place in a rela#ing atmosphere 0music, com!ortable
chairs, pleasant lighting2) %eripheral learning ensured 0posters display2) Ss adopt new identities)
Lengthy dialogues in TL are practiced at varying speed rhythms so as not to stress Ss 0translation
provided2) Learning activities: dramati1ations, games, songs, and I 5 A)
9) *7T"ACT*O7: T is the initiator o! all relationships 0T - class, T - S, S-S2)
:) D"AL*7$ &*T6 ;""L*7$S: Huilding up student-con!idence) 7ew identities are considered
carriers o! sel!-con!idence and security)
<) =*"& O; LA7$>A$" A7D C>LT>": The two-plane process o! communication is considered
0linguistic and non-linguistic2) Culture is seen as everyday li!e o! native spea'ers) ;ine arts become
instrumental)
?) LA7$>A$" A"AS A7D S@*LLS T6" A%%OAC6 "M%6AS*A"S: =ocabulary is very
important) $rammar is e#plicitly but minimally taught) Spea'ing communicatively becomes the main
concern) eading and writing are subse/uent)
B) OL" O; Ss+ 7AT*=" LA7$>A$": !or clari!ying meaning whenever necessary)
)
C) M"A7S O; "=AL>AT*O7: conducted on Ss+ in-class per!ormance and not through !ormal tests)
(D) "S%O7S" TO Ss+ "OS: Correction is postponed until it is harmless)
JL"T $O *D"AS
() Thin' o! ways o! ensuring an environment designed to reduce psychological barriers in a
school classroom you are !amiliar with)
-) Choose a thematic dialogue, select some music, and plan a visuali1ation e#ercise)
.) Ma'e a list o! !ive grammatical points about the TL that you would want to display on
posters to encourage beginning Ss+ peripheral learning)
9) Are there techni/ues o! S>$$"STO%"D*A which you would consider adopting3 &hich
ones3

CO%%$NITY "AN#$A#E "EARNIN# %ETHOD
The method was inspired !rom CO>7S"L*7$-L"A7*7$ A%%OAC6, developed by Charles 4)
C#rran 0a priest2)
AT*O7AL": %remises o! discussions: 0(2 Ss are Fwhole personsG) 0-2 Ts must be Flanguage
counselorsGK a Fs'ill!ul understander o! the struggle Ss !ace as they attempt to internali1e another
languageG)
%*7C*%L"S behind learning: 0(2 Flearning is personsGK both T and Ss must ma'e a
commitment o! trust to one another and the learning process) 0-2 FLearning is dynamic and creativeG K
learning is a living and developmental process)
() $OALS: to use TL communicatively while becoming responsively aware o! their own learning in a
nonde!ensive, nonthreatening atmosphere)
-) OALS: TK Counselor in as much s8he supports Ss master TL) S initially a FclientG and !inally an
independent learner)
.) T"AC6*7$ 8 L"A7*7$ %OC"SS: Ss are helped to generate language 0T provides TL
translations in chun's2 which will later become te#t !or !urther e#plorations) 0e)g) e#amination o! a
grammar point, pronunciation wor', etc)2
9) *7T"ACT*O7: T K !acilitatorS-S4 T K director S-S 5 T-S centered 0both e/ually important
in decision-ma'ing2)
:) D""L*7$ &*T6 ;""L*7$S: T shows Ss he understands how they !eel which will help them
overcome negative !eelings that might otherwise bloc' their learning)
<) =*"& O; LA7$>A$" A7D C>LT>": Language is !or communication and developing creative
thin'ing) Culture is integrated with language)
?) LA7$>A$" A"AS A7D S@*LLS T6" A%%OAC6 "M%6AS*A"S: $rammar, pronunciation,
and vocabulary are practised on the language generated by Ss) Listening and spea'ing come !irst)
B) OL" O; Ss+ 7AT*=" LA7$>A$": 7L is used !or Ss+ security 0both when generating their own
corpus o! te#ts and when e#pressing their !eelings2) TL eventually replaces 7L)
,
C) M"A7S O; "=AL>AT*O7: *ntegrative tests are better valued than discrete-point ones) Sel!-
evaluation is also encouraged)
(D) "S%O7S" TO Ss+ "OS: *n a nonthreatening way: T repeats correctly what the S has said
incorrectly)
L"T $O *D"AS
() Design a lesson plan on a transcript o! a conversation Ss may have led in omanian)
%rovide !ive separate activities you could use to teach them the TL version)
-) Are there techni/ues o! COMM>7*TE LA7$>A$" L"A7*7$ M"T6OD which you
would consider adopting3 &hich ones3

THE CO%%$NICATI(E APPROACH
AT*O7AL": 0(2 Communication means use o! !unctional language in social conte#t)
0-2 Communication also presupposes negotiating-meaning s'ill 0through the interaction between
spea'er8reader and listener8writer2
() $OALS: To ma'e Ss become communicatively co&petent 0K being able to use the language
appropriate to a given social conte#t2) To manage the process o! negotiating meaning with their
interlocutors)
-) OL"S: TK;acilitator 0(2 manager o! classroom activities 0i)e) setting situations !or
communication advisor2 0-2 Fco-communicatorG 0Littlewood, (CB(- engaging in the communicative
activity along with Ss2) Ss are both communicators and managers responsible o! their own learning)
.) T"AC6*7$8L"A7*7$ %OC"SS: Language in use through communicative activities such as
games, role-plays, problem-solving tas's 0Morrow, (CB( identi!ies three !eatures o! genuinely
communicative activities: information gap, choice, and feedback2) Authentic material is a must)
7egotiation o! meaning can best occur in small groups)
9) *7T"ACT*O7: T is initiator o! communication activities co-communicator and prompter o! S-
S communication) All types o! S-S *nteraction 0pair, triads, small groups, whole group2)
:) D"AL*7$ &*T6 ;""L*7$S: Ss are more motivated since they !eel they learn Lto do things with
words+ and they can share their opinions on a regular basis)
<) =*"& O; LA7$>A$" A7D C>LT>": Communicative competence is based on linguistic
competence 0'nowledge o! !orms and meanings2 M !unctional language M social conte#t M nonverbal
behaviour) Culture is everyday li!estyle o! native people)
?) LA7$>A$" A"AS A7D S@*LLS T6" A%%OAC6 "M%6AS*A"S: Language !unctions over
!orms 0!unctional syllabus2) $radation o! degree o! di!!iculty) Discourse is envisaged 0cohesion,
coherence2) All !our s'ills are practised in a communicative perspective 0purpose, audience2)
B) OL" O; Ss+ 7AT*=" LA7$>A$": not used) TL should be used almost e#clusively 0in
classroom management e#changes as well2 so as to ac/uire the value o! an authentic vehicle o!
communication)
C) M"A7S O; "=AL>AT*O7: Accuracy M !luency in integrative tests)
(D) "S%O7S" TO Ss+ "OS: "rrors o! !orm are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome o! the
development o! communication s'ills)
.
JL"T $O *D"AS
() &hy is communication a process3 And, what does negotiation o! meaning represent3
0Consider communicative competence in all its aspects2
-) List linguistic !orms you can use !or the function of complaining) &hich would you teach to
beginners8 intermediates8 advanced students and how3
.) Design a communicative game or problem-solving tas' or role-play in which the timetable is
used to give your Ss practice in requesting information.
9) "M*7*SC" about your past learning e#periences and say how o!ten this method was used
:) Are there techni/ues o! T6" COMM>7*CAT*=" A%%OAC6 which you would consider
adopting3 &hich ones3
<) &hat do you thin' is the correct ratio o! both accuracy and fluency !or all levels and all Ss3
CO%%$NICATI(E SY""A)I TOWARDS A CO%%$NICATI(E %ETHODO"O#Y
() A structural sylla*us introduces grammatical items and phrases under !unctional headings)
-) A functi+nal sylla*us introduces grammatical items and phrases under !unctional headings)
.) A tas,'*ase- sylla*us consists o! a se/uence o! activities or tas's introducing language structures
and !unctions)
To replace language Llearning+ by language Lac/uisition+ is more commonsensical since Flearning+ is a
rather subconscious process which cannot be directly controlled or shaped)
"anguage "earning an- Teaching The+ries
() 2eha1io#ris& 0S'inner2: stimulus - response - rein!orcement the Audio-Lingual Method.
.) Cogniti1is& 5$entalis&6 07) Choms'y, (C:C2: competence and per!ormance the
Communicative Approach.
.) 4c%#isition and "earning 0S) @rashen2: the !ormer based on a subconscious process resulting in
the 'nowledge o! a language4 the latter results only in F'nowing about+ the language)
9) Tas07+ased "earning 0Allwright, (C?D2: Solving communicative problems in the TL by necessity
will ensure language learning)
:) 8#&anistic 4pproaches: Community Language Learning; uggestopedia; ilent !ay; "otal
#hysical $esponse.
/
.. C"ASS %ANA#E%ENT
LOC@ST"%: the class grouping where all the students are wor'ing with the teacher, where all the
students are Lloc'ed into+ the same rhythm and pace, the same activity)
%A*&O@: the class grouping where activities are carried out in twos)
$O>%&O@: the class organi1ation where activities are carried out in groups)
C"4SSROO$ O2SER*4T9ON: C"4SS $4N4-E$ENT
() Did the teacher maintain good eye contact3 0always8sometimes8not enough8never2
-) Did the teacher change position appropriately with action3
.) Did the students wor' well together3
9) The teacher rearranged the seating when necessary)
:) The instructions were clear)
<) The teacher chec'ed that the students had understood the instructions)
?) The teacher did not obscure the blac'board)
B) The teacher+s voice was clearly audible at all times) Speech was not slow8!ast8unclear)
C) The students were clearly audible to each other)
(D) The teacher was aware o! students+ learning di!!iculties and responded in a supportive way)
(() The students too' away use!ul and clearly illustrated language copied !rom the blac'board or in the
!orm o! a handout)
() Thin' bac' o! your own learning situation and state advantages and disadvantages o! each type o!
interaction)
-) Draw a list o! e#pected problems and possible solutions with group wor')
.) e!lect on your own e#perience o! learning a language success!ully) Share with your !riend your
memories on:
0a2 how much o! your success in learning "nglish you would attribute to !ormal teaching, and how
much to your own independent e!!ort or e#perience)
0b2 Certain strategies or techni/ues you used, which you !eel contributed to your success)
&hich o! the things you have mentioned do you thin' are teachable and which are not3 &ere you
taught any yoursel!3 *! not, how did you ac/uire them3
9) One way o! avoiding disruptive behaviour 0though not all2 is by ma'ing sure all your students o!
whatever age 'now Lwhere you stand+) Somehow you and they have to agree upon a Lcode o!
conduct+) &rite such a code you would li'e observed by your students)
:) Mention three possible causes !or discipline problems)
<) Thin' o! ways o! teacher+s discouraging use o! mother tongue in groupwor' and pairwor')
?) 6ere are some tips !or monitoring group wor') %lease !ill in the missing parts)
0a2 Stand bac'
0b2 Iuic'ly chec'
0c2 Don+t interrupt, unless: NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN)
0d2 Spread your attention)
0e2 Don+t correct, unless: NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN)
0!2 He easily accessible
0g2 Oolly them, i! necessary
0h2 Ta'e notes
0i2 *! you need to !eed in ideas, it is better to NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN)
B) Thin' o! common techni/ues o! constituting groups4 mention varying roles the teacher must play
during one and the same class)
'
C) Organi1ing the class 0e#plaining the tas'4 seating arrangements4 getting the timing right2 is very
important !or the success o! the group wor') Devise a scenario o! a lesson in which you use group
and pair wor') %ay attention to how clearly you state obPectives, and organi1e activities) Mention
level, age, and number)
(D) ;inally, don+t be a!raid o! students using their mother tongue) A lot depends on your attitude,
although it+s worth remembering that i! you are doing group wor' as an alternative to whole-class
wor' then even i! only two people are using "nglish simultaneously you have doubled the amount
o! student tal' !or that timeQ
/. "ESSON P"ANNIN#
"4;O<T
() 7ame o! 0student2 teacher
-) Date:
.) Level o! students:
9) 7umber o! students
:) Time:
<) Topic o! lesson8te#tboo':
?) Timetable !it: within the respective unit o! teaching
B) Aims: overall and speci!ic
C) Assumptions: with re!erence to previous 'nowledge
(D) Anticipated problems: with re!erence to common cases o! inter!erence in pronunciation,
vocabulary, grammar, etc)
(() Aids: materials to be used
%OC"D>": STA$" ACT*=*T*"S
0A2 %"SO7AL*SAT*O7
0H2 $>*D" TO M"A7*7$
0C2 6*$6L*$6T T6" ;OM
0D2 *7*T*AL %ACT*C"
0"2 S"CO7DAE %ACT*C"
0;2 $>*D"D C"AT*=*TE
0$2 ASS*$7M"7T
N2: Class &anage&ent 0types o! interaction2 and ti&ing have to be mentioned ne#t to each
stage activity)
LESSON PLAN
() Level: >pper intermediate
-) 7umber o! students: .9
.) Time: :D min)
9) Topic: The !unction o! #ersuasion !rom a video lesson on Communicative Language "eaching
:) Timetable !it: part o! a series o! lessons introducing !unctional language
<) Aims:
To ma'e students aware o! the importance o! negotiating meaning in interpersonal e#changes)
To empower students to manage their interactions
To practice the !unction o! persuasion on a given topic
To elicit meaning!ul response to stimulus
To ma'e students advance and de!end an argument by using connectives correctly and
unhesitatingly)
10
?) Assumptions: Students must be !amiliar with discourse mar'ers initiating, incrementing and
concluding e#changes4 must have some appetite !or negotiating meaning in advancing and
de!ending an argument4 must have a good grasp o! language)
B) Anticipated problems: >se o! mother tongue in wor'group4 some cultural inter!erence e)g)
body8sign language)
C) Aids: %osters4 map4 cued-cards4 w8b)
Activity Timing Class
organisation
%urpose
A)
Orientation
Discussion
Set up general situation
.-:
min
plenary To create the basis o!
discussion
To introduce the !unction
o! %"S>AS*O7 !or ma'ing a
case
To ma'e students aware o!
the importance o! negotiating
meaning
H)
$uide to meaning
Set up particular situation
S%"A@*7$
.-:
min
plenary
To practice the !unction o!
persuasion on a given topic
To rein!orce the idea o!
!amily as strong community
To build on 'nown
vocabulary
C)
6ighlight structure
S%"A@*7$8"AD*7$
.-:
min
plenary To draw attention to
linguistic structure: discourse
mar'ers 0initiating, incrementing,
concluding2
D)
*nitial %ractice S%"A@*7$ .-:
min
T-S
plenary
To elicit meaning!ul
response to stimulus
")
Trans!erring concepts $iving
*nstructions "AD*7$ M
S%"A@*7$
(D min ole-play in
groups o! 9
0individual
cards2
To give students an
opportunity to wor' on
negotiating meaning when
advancing and de!ending an
argument
;)
;eed-bac' Session
S%"A@*7$
(D min plenary
To ma'e students report
bac' on their choice
$)
6OM" ASS*$7M"7T
&*T*7$
(D min To ma'e students !urther
practice the linguistic !unction o!
persuasion
11
0. Teaching (OCA)$"ARY
A*MS:
0(2 to empower Students)
0-2 to ma'e Ss distinguish between passi1e=recepti1e > acti1e= prod#cti1e vocabulary)
0.2 to encourage Ss read widely outside the classroom)
092 to encourage Ss to invest in a good monolingual dictionary)
@7O&L"D$" 42O<T =OCAH>LAE
() De!inition: The potentially in!inite number o! words in a language)
()( word 8 morpheme 8 derivatives
-) Classi!ication: 0A2 active8use4 0H2 passive8recognition
-)( Core vocabulary: -,DDD-.,DDD words R BDS o! a te#t)
@7O&L"D$" O; E"T
() Students+ needs)
()( Comprehension% understand 8 store 8 recognise)
()- #roduction% retrieve 8 use them in conte#tually ade/uate situations
-) To deal with a cline 8 continuum o! approaches:
.) Staging and grading learning and teaching.
.)( Spo'en !orm !irst)
.)- *ntroduce new words in conte#t)
.). evise)
9) &ays o! teaching meaning
9)( +stensie 0realia4 visual representation4 demonstration4 mime)2
/.1 translati+n
9). e2!lanati+n 0de!inition4 e#amples4 semantic !ields)2
:) Approaches to teaching vocabulary
:)( syste3'+riente-
:)- t+!ic'+riente-
:). strategic'+riente- 4 c+!ing strategies.
:).)( using conte#tual clues 0!ormal and semantic2
:).)- using 'nowledge o! related !orms
:).). analysing internal structure
:).)9 using 'nowledge o! cognates
:)9 -isc+urse'+riente-
<) &ays o! !acilitating learning
<)( review: interaction with visual aids4 physical response to commands4 games4 vocabulary
noteboo's4 group activities)
<)- review: and e#tension: reading4 oral composition4 writing e#ercises 0e g) dictionary use4 a!!i#es4
collocation4 style8register awareness4 scales8semantic clusters2
?) Criteria !or selecting what words to teach:
&.' frequency
?)- range% T o! conte#ts
&.( familiarity
&.) usefulness% Students+ needs)
12
C"4SSROO$ O2SER*4T9ON: "E?9S
The !ollowing are a number o! areas you could consider when observing a class)
They will not all be relevant)
"esson o+@ecti1es
() 6ow !ar does the lesson appear to have speci!ic le#ical obPectives3
-) *! it does have le#ical obPectives, how would you e#press them3
Reading="istening 4cti1ities
() 6ow does the teacher prepare !or anticipated le#ical di!!iculties3
-) During Lwhile+ and Lpost+ listening8reading phases, what le#ical issues arise and how does the
teacher handle these 3
.) &hat techni/ues does the teacher use to e#plain8clari!y8e#tend le#is 0e)g) e#planation,
de!inition, synonym, paraphrase, e#ample, etc)23
St#dentsA role
() &hat instances are there o! students+ misuse o! le#is3
-) 6ow are these handled by the teacher8students3
.) &hat systems o! storing le#is do students appear to be operating3 Do these systems appear to
be teacher guided8student initiated3
9) *s there evidence o! use o! re!erence materials 0dictionaries, etc)23 &hat is used3 6ow is it
used3 Does this use seem to be teacher guided8student initiated3
Post7lesson reflection
&as the approach to le#is di!!erent !rom the way you normally deal with it with your own learners3 *!
so, what were the di!!erences3
Reflection as Exercise:
() Try to identi!y learners+ problems in coping with vocabulary in te#t)
-) eview the arguments !or and against teaching vocabulary in8with: Semantic sets8bilingual
word lists, conte#t8sense relations and collocations)
.) Loo' at Lesson 5) Te#tboo' 54Y46. Comment on the way vocabulary is taught) e!er to
Teacher+s Hoo' and see how it helps)
Choose the most important words, which you would !ocus on as active vocabulary and decide
how you would teach them)
9) Discuss the guiding principles any teacher and teaching materials should submit to when
dealing with vocabulary wor')
Organi1ation o! vocabulary around topics
Distinction between vocabulary !or Lproductive+ use and vocabulary !or Lreceptive+
recognition)
;ocus on !orm8spelling, meaning and pronunciation
$uessing8in!erring meaning !rom conte#t
1!
>se o! tas's o! graded di!!iculty 0e)g) matching words with their de!initions, &ord
charts, etc)2
Systemic attention to word !ormation
evision and chec'ing activities
"ncouragement o! students+ sel! study s'ills
Distinction between !ormal and in!ormal language registers)
:) ;ormulate the basic criteria !or an e!!icient policy concerning vocabulary learning and
teaching)
<) $uess at what a multi-layered wor' on new vocabulary might mean and !ind e#amples
!rom the te#tboo's in use)
?) Design the vocabulary wor' session o! a current language class on a topic you select !rom
any language course boo') Age, level, number o! students to be mentioned)
B) Approve or disapprove o! the idea that practice o! vocabulary !or active use, at the lower
level, is more integrated in the communicative activities meant to develop s'ills)
C) Comment upon the decision o! te#tboo' writers to include word lists at the bac' o!
Student+s Hoo's :-B 0#ath*ay to +nglish Series,
(D) Ma'e a list o! the most widely used le#ical activities !or testing students+ verbal power)
7. Teaching #RA%%AR
A*MS: 0(2 to communicate e!!iciently 0-2 to empower the student by !reeing him !rom a
dependency on conte#t and the limitations o! a purely le#ical categori1ation o! reality
@7O&L"D$" OB $AMMA
() De!inition: 0David Crystal2 0(2 K a systemic description o! language 0-2 K the way words and their
component parts combine to !orm sentences 0.2 K a device !or generating a !inite speci!ication o!
the sentences o! a language)
-) 6istory o! $rammar
-)( %rescriptive: "raditional -rammar
-)- Descriptive: tructural and -enerative -rammar
-). ules o! $rammar vs) ules o! >sage
@7O&L"D$" O; TE4C89N- -R4$$4R
A*M: to ensure that Ss are communicatively e!!icient with the grammar they have at their level)
() $rammar as means not end)
()( ;rom meaning to form 0rather than vice-versa2 re!lected in notional-!unctional syllabuses and
classroom practice)
()- "rrors accepted as natural
-) $rammatical component o! efficient communication consists o!:
-)( .ormal .luency% 0A2 Cnowledge o! how !orms combine to ma'e up the structures o! the
language
0H2 S0ill to combine these !orms unhesitatingly)
-)- .unctional .luency% 0A2 Cnowledge o! relationships between !orms and meanings
0H2 S0ill to choose and use an appropriate !orm unhesitatingly)
.) Methods available to us:
.)( Analysis
.)- Controlled practice
.). "#posure
9) "*o routes to the acquisition of the grammar of a second language% 0A2 Bor&al analysis M 0H2
Expos#re R %ractice M ;luency 0!ormal M !unctional2
1(
:) "*o *ays leading to the understanding of -rammar:
:)( 9nd#ction: !rom particular to general truth
:)- Ded#ction: !rom general truth to particular situations
:). 9nd#ction-ded#ctionE Ded#ction7ind#ction.
C"4SSROO$ O2SER*4T9ON: -R4$$4R
() *! the teacher presents a new grammatical item: 6ow was the meaning got across to the
students3 6ow much e#plicit attention to !orm was there3 &as the approach inductive or deductive3
-) &as there a progression !rom controlled to !ree practice3 &hat types o! activities were used3
6ow much variety was there3
.) 6ow much interaction was there between students3 6ow early in the lesson did it !irst occur3
9) &hat evidence was there by the end o! the lesson that the students had learned something3
:) Any other interesting !eatures3
() Thin' o! ways to ma'e grammar practice activities less o! a chore and more o! an enPoyable
challenge)
-) Lessons based on the %%% Approach !it within the category o! Llogical line+ lessons) So, what is your
opinion on the ratio o! #resentation and elf-directed discovery approaches in the language
class3
.) Most lessons involving wor' on grammar are built !rom three basic components: 0(2 Clari!ication
and !ocus, 0-2 Restricted use activities and 0.2 4uthentic use) Thin' o! e#ample activities
and tools and techni/ues enabling the 4RC perspective on the grammar class)
9) Language ac/uisition research 0@rashen, "llis2 and recent methodological studies 0Lewis2
ac'nowledge the place o! thin'ing about and tal'ing about language in the language process)
Does this cohere with what type o! approach3
:) &hat approach do you appreciate the tradition o! grammar teaching in omanian "LT used to align
with3
<) >ncover the principles underlying the Llayered+ ac/uisition o! new language or the Lspiral+ approach)
?) ;ind e#amples, !rom the te#tboo' in use, o! concept /uestions used to help students Lobserve+ or
Lnotice+ a new grammar point or chec' whether the concept is internali1ed 0consciousness-
raising /uestions2)
B) Language ;ocus bo#es in the series #ath*ay to +nglish o!!er support with language-e#perimenting
activities) Discuss the use!ulness o! such prompts in the economy o! a language class)
C) Devise a grammar scenario !or introducing !uture per!ect 0level: intermediate4 grade: B4 7o: -:2)
(D) Discuss the e!!iciency o! such language-e#perimenting activities such as multiple choice, gap
!illing, error correction, rephrasing)
1)
?) Teaching PRON$NCIATION
Aims: 0(2 to encode and decode messages correctly)
0-2 to give variety, li!e to repetition)
/no*ledge a*+ut #ronunciation
() Sciences dealing with %ronunciation
'.' Hasic elements o! %ronunciation
()()( word stress: variable: main8secondary8unstressed
()()- sounds: how sounds are !ormed: "nglish Sound System vs) omanian Sound System
()(). phonemic alphabet
()()9 word lin'ing
()(): sentence stress8 voice range8 intonation patterns
()():)( two basic intonation tunes: !all8rise
()():)- !unctions o! intonation: accentual8syntactic8attitudinal)
()()< !luency
()()<)( static elements in %ronunciation: sounds8word-stress8word-lin'ing
()()<)- e#pressive !orms: sentence-stress8voice range8intonation pattern
()? )%) 0received pronunciation2
()B Tone patterns8 groups)
()B)( three tones: !alling)8rising8!all-rise
/no*ledge of +L"
() &ays o! preventing %ronunciation mista'es
)( drilling e#ercises !or $ecognition
'.0 drilling e#ercises !or #roduction
8.. C+rrect stu-ents9 3ista,es:
8./ E2!+se stu-ents t+ authentic language:
-) %roblems with "nglish %ronunciation
0.' Consonant Clusters: sounds disappear or change
0.0 =owel clusters
0.( 6omophones
C"4SSROO$ O2SER*4T9ON: P8ONO"O-;
() List the maPor non-native !eatures o! pronunciation that you hear:
()( 7ote who ma'es the maPor non-natives !eatures o! pronunciation: all students4 some4 a !ew)
()- Listen to one student and see i! he8she consistently ma'es the same errors)
-) Can you identi!y a !attern +f4rati+nale f+r c+rrecti+n o! non-native pronunciation3
.) List the correction methods the teacher uses)
9) &hat is the source o! language produced in the classroom: teacher S4 student S4 other S)
:) *s the language produced 0by teachers, students, other2GnaturallyG produced 0eg) vis-U-vis wea'
!orms, elision, rhythm, speed, etc)23
<) Can you identi!y any listening comprehension problems that relate to phonological !eatures 0e)g)
wea' !orms23 6ow does the teacher resolve any problems3
() %ronunciation s'ills overlap with rhetorical s'ills 0posture, loudness, pace, eye contact,
compensation strategies, and use o! !eedbac'2) 6ow much practice is given to the latter ones in the
"nglish class3 eminiscence your own learning e#perience)
-) *t is considered that many apparent pronunciation problems, e)g) in stress and intonation, are
really processing problems created by arti!icial or too di!!icult tas's) Agree or disagree in well-
articulated discourse)
1,
.) %honological awareness 0especially o! wea' !orms etc)2 is important !or listening as well as
spea'ing) Thin' o! ways to e!!iciently train students in this strategy)
9) Approve or disapprove o! the idea that intonation is always a matter o! tendencies not rules)
:) Add to the list o! compensation strategies: rephrasing4 repetition and redundancy4 slower8louder
speech4 spelling out4 miming4 use o! visuals4 0translation24 chec'ing with listeners4NNN )
<) The !ollowing correction8!eedbac' !eatures are in-built dimensions o! the language class
learning8teaching activities: positive 0what to do2 not error-based4 built into tas' design4 !rom other
learners, not Pust !rom teacher4 global be!ore detailed) Thin' bac' o! your learning e#perience and
tic' o!! those !eatures you are most accustomed with)
?) &hat should be the criteria !or te#t choice !or teaching8learning materials to be used when
teaching pronunciation3
B) Helow is a dialogue without punctuation) Decide upon two possible scenarios:
- &hat is the situation3
- &ho are the people3
- 6ow do they !eel3 &hat is their attitude3
- 6ow will they spea'3
%ractise spea'ing the dialogue with di!!erent stress and intonation patterns !or the two situations)
4 &here were you last night
2 &hy
4 &ell * rang at ten o+cloc' and you weren+t in
2 7o * went to the cinema)
4 Oh really &ho with
2 Oust an old !riend !rom university
4 Oh
C) Consider this piece o! writing:
*+ve live derl i!e that+s !ull
*+ve travel dee chan devery byway
Hut morm uch more than this
*+d idit my way)
&hat helped you ma'e sense o! it4 i! any3
(D) Along with theatre techni/ues to spur creative language learning, Pa11 chanting represents an
instance o! spontaneous communication which appeals to students+ emotional and imaginative
potentials, 6ere is an e#ample o! a Pa11 chanting based on I5A pattern:
6ow do you li'e your co!!ee3
Hlac'Q Hlac'Q
6ow do you li'e your tea3
&ith lemon, please)
6ow do you li'e your stea'3
Medium rare)
6ow do you li'e your eggs3
* don+t careQ
Sunny-side up3
* don+t careQ
%oached on toast3
* don+t careQ
Over-easy3
* don+t care
So!t-boiled3 6ard-boiled3Q
* don+t careQ
6ow about an omelet3
* don+t careQ
Come on, tell meQ
This isn+t !air)
* told you the truth)
* really don+t careQ 0Ma1or 2ecisions2
&hat are the advantages o! using such Pa11 chanting in the language class3

1.
B) Teaching READIN#
3!e are not trying to put something in his head,
but instead *e are trying to get him to take it in himself.4
56uttall,
Aims: 0(2 to help learners to independence in their private reading)
0-2 to achieve functional literacy i)e) to show our learners that being literate is part o! day-to-
day li!e in a personal and social sense)
@7O&L"D$" OB "AD*7$
() De!inition: 0a2 the process by which an actual reader and writer engage in a discourse in a conte#t
where the onus is on the reader to appro#imate to the intended meanings o! the writer) 0b2 what the
reader does in order to integrate the te#t into their real world and ma'e sense o! it within their own
'nowledge, interests and needs)
-) Applying L( higher-order strategies 'nowledge to the new language involves admitting and
encouraging ris'-ta'ing strategies as "AD*7$ *S COMM>7*CAT*O7)
.) C7M#$+8+6976 K what the reader does in order to integrate the te#t into their real world and
ma'e sense o! it within their own 'nowledge, interests and needs)
.) The TO%-DO&7 model o! eading trying to show the psycholinguistic processes involved in
reading and the comple# relationships between eader and Te#t as a bac'ward and !orward process
that may re/uire many reversals and revisions be!ore the !inal message is e#tracted and committed
to the long-term memory)
writer
te#t
initial te#t interim te#t 0tas' environment: reader+s
purpose2
graphological processing
linguistic processing0reader+s short-term memory2
semantic processing
dra!t te#t !inal te#t
'nowledge o! topic and world
'nowledge o! te#t plans
'nowledge o! writer
Stanovich0(CBD2 proposes an interactie'c+3!ensat+ry model: readers process te#ts by utili1ing
in!ormation provided simultaneously !rom several di!!erent sources and that they can compensate !or
de!iciencies at one level by drawing on 'nowledge at other 0either higher or lower2 levels0i)e)
phonological, le#ical, syntactic, semantic and discoursal 'nowledge2)
@7O&L"D$" 42O<T T"AC6*7$ "AD*7$
() The nature o! Reading Diffic#lties
()( 2ecoding stage: greater or less depending on the degree o! correspondence between L( and L-)
()- +ncoding stage% relate to: te#t, topic, purpose)
1/
-) &hat can be taught3
-)( S@*LLS: lower-order approaches i)e) enable readers to use the strategies)
-)- STAT"$*"S: higher-order approaches: give the reader independence)
"#amples o! S'ills and Strategies: &ord-attac'8 use o! grammatical conte#t8 understanding
signi!icance o! cohesion devicesconte#t-deduction strategy4
Distinguishing main ideas !rom supporting detail, identi!ying topic sentences s'imming
.) 6ow can eading be taught3
7H) As eading is communication the eading lesson must be very active and !ull o! discussion and
cooperation through a *ide variety and grading of%
.)( te#ts 0authentic whenever possible2
.)- topics
.)- tas's
9) Training8helping Ss with #rediction K giving a Lspringboard+ to their understanding 0in point o!
content, direction o! story, mood, vocabulary, grammar2
:) Comprehension and %rediction *deas
<) Iualities o! the reading class: interactive, stimulating, challenging, providing a sense o! security we
all need be!ore we will ta'e ris's)
Some Truisms:
A person learns to read by reading
Teaching eading S'ills can mean teaching deliberate attac' strategies)
eading is much more than decoding a te#t, !iguring out a message) *t is interacting with a te#t,
synthesi1ing ideas, drawing conclusions, !orming new ideas)
%rocess S'ills List
7bserving% recogni1ing, identi!ying, listening, isolating, and discriminating)
#redicting: anticipating, choosing, supplying, broadening, !ocusing, Pudging, assessing, and surveying)
Classifying: listing, sorting, distinguishing, naming, labelling, arranging, organi1ing)
9nferring: applying, associating, connecting, lin'ing, matching, weighing, discarding, rearranging)
Analy:ing% /uestioning, considering, in/uiring, pondering, e#ploring, parsing, reassembling, and
critici1ing)
Communicating: demonstrating, !ollowing directions, e#plaining, pronouncing, discussing)
9nterpretation: decoding, relating, drawing conclusions, generali1ing, speci!ying, organi1ing,
cataloguing)
C"4SSROO$ O2SER*4T9ON: RE4D9N-
() &hat do you thin' were the obPectives o! the reading lesson i)e) what reading
sub-s'ills were being developed8practised3
-) 6ow was the reading lesson set up3 &hich o! the !ollowing types o! activity were
present and what did they consist o!3
a2 pre-reading tas'0s2
b2 while-reading tas'0s2
c2 post-listening tas'0s2
.) 6ow did the teacher deal with any learner di!!iculties in understanding the te#t3
0e)g) give e#planation, tell them to use dictionaries, etc)2
9) Do you thin' all the learners achieved what they were re/uired to do with the te#t3
*! so, why3 *! not, why not3
1'
:) &hat in your opinion, were
a2 the good !eatures o! the lesson3
b2 the wea' !eatures o! the lesson3
Post7lesson reflection
&as this reading lesson di!!erent !rom the way you approach reading in your own classes3
*! so, what were the di!!erences3
() Ma'e a list o! prediction ideas that may give students a Lspringboard+ to their understanding o! a
te#t)
-) State the main di!!erence between the !ollowing strategies o! ensuring comprehension:
Ordering a se/uence o! pictures vs) reordering events
Mapping it out vs) completing a document
Matching vs) summari1ing
.) Throughout most teaching materials reading is viewed as a process involving three stages)
Mention the stages and the corresponding reading strategies to be employed)
9) 6ow do you e#plain the two-!old role o! the reading s'ill 0integrating and integrated2 in the
process o! teaching3
:) Devise your own list o! criteria !or selecting te#t-types !or both intensive and e#tensive reading)
<) Loo' at >nit ( Lesson - !rom #erspectives on +nglish to !ind an illustration o! how students are
e#pected to access te#tual meaning, Starting !rom literal meaning 0e#)**)-4 "#)***)(a4 e#)***)(b4
e#)***)(c4 e#)***)(d2 through type o! te#t 0e#)***)-a2 to te#t assessment8 evaluation 0e#)***)-b4
e#)*=)(4 e#)*=)-a4 e#)*=)-b4 e#)*=)-c4 e#)*=)-d4 e#)*=)., students are put in charge o! their own
building sense out o! the te#t) e!lect upon your own training !or becoming the competent
readers you are) Any di!!erences8similarities3
?) $o through the series #ath*ay to +nglish 0:-B2 and devise a list with e#ercises dealing with
direct re!erence or understanding literal meaning o! the te#t)
B) $o through the series #ath*ay to +nglish 5;-'0, and devise a list with e#ercises dealing with
indirect re!erence8 meta-content in!ormation !rom a te#t)
C) Choose a lesson !rom any te#tboo' in use and devise a possible scenario !or giving students
practice in intensive reading) Mention level, age, and number o! students)
(D) Mention all the boo's y+u have read this month)
20
;. Teaching "ISTENIN#
@nowledge on how we reach understanding
() The Lmap+ below s'etches the relationship between the various in!ormation sources that we may
need to re!er to in order to understand a spo'en or written te#t)
bac'ground 'nowledge schematic
- !actual kno*ledge
- sociocultural
procedural 'nowledge
- how 'nowledge is used in discourse

'nowledge o! situation
- physical setting, participants, etc )
conte<t
'nowledge o! co-te#t
- what has been8will be said 0written2

'nowledge o! the language system
- semantic
- syntactic systemic
- phonological kno*ledge
;ig)( !rom Anne Anderson and Tony Lynch, Listening, O>%, (CBB
-) There are two distinct modes o! listening% integrate- 0i)e) where the listener can become the
spea'er- in conversation2 and is+late- 0i)e) where the listener cannot respond to the spea'er2
.)( LTop-down+ processing 0;ig)(2 corresponds to encoding 0prediction2
.)- LHottom-up+ processing 0;ig)-2 corresponds to decoding 0comprehension2
listener+s long term memory
!inal te#t
semantic8pragmatic analysis 0meaning2
spea'er+s intention and re/uired response
linguistic analysis
0le#ical, grammatical and prosodic structure o! the te#t2
auditory analysis
0sounds, word boundaries2
drop-out noise
spea'er+s output te#t
;ig)- LHottom-up+ %rocessing
21
C
O
M
%
"
6
"
7
S
*
O
7
7H Anderson 5 Lynch 0(CBB2 contrast the 2otto&7<p view o! Llistener as taperecorder+ with Top7
Down view o! Llistener as active model builder+: the listener constructs an interpretation o! a message
by utili1ing both +otto&7#p and top7down 'nowledge)
9) Types o! aural te#ts:
Aural Te#ts
monologues dialogues
planned unplanned interpersonal transactional
un!amiliar !amiliar
:) Te#t vs) 7on-Te#t: 6alliday 5 6asan 0(C?<2 consider that te<t is de!ined in terms o! the linguistic
elements which serve to bind the te#ts together i)e) cohesive devices) &iddowson 0(C?B, (C?C2
challenges the !act that coherence o! a te#t is created by cohesion by arguing that we can create our
own coherence by recogni1ing the !unction that each utterance !ul!ils within a given conte#t or
situation)
e)g) "dmonson0(CB(2 proves that the e#ample o! non-te#t =an DiP' gives0L&e will have guests !or
lunch)+ LCalderon was a great writer)+2 is, in !act, a per!ectly coherent te#t)
Conclusion: Success!ul listening involves the integration o! in!ormation encoded in the message itsel!
with broader 'nowledge o! the world vi1) success!ul listeners use both bottom-up and top-down
strategies in reconstructing messages)
@nowledge about Teaching "istening
Aim: to train Ss to #nderstand and respond %#ic0ly to: 0(2 the sort o! language they are li'ely to
encounter in normal use40-2 the sort o! situations they are li'ely to !ind themselves in) 0both verbal
behaviour and non-verbal behaviour should be encouraged2
() A chec'list o! listening sub-s'ills
()( 4nticipation 0develop appropriate e#pectations4 adPust listening strategy to listening purpose4 scan
!or Lactivated+ in!ormation2
()- Recognition 0phonemic contrasts4 word stress pattern4 'ey morpheme4 stress as indicator o!
in!ormation !ocus4 intonation as cue to in!ormation structure4 0'nown2 vocabulary4 grammatical word
class4 syntactic structure4 ideas4 re!erence mar'ers4 variation between !orm and meaning4 main
discourse mar'ers4 !illers4 attitude !rom intonation or word-choice2 L&hat did you say3+
(). 9nference 0word meaning !rom conte#t4 !unction o! utterances4 situations !rom conte#t4 purpose o!
discourse4 connection between events in the discourse4 relationship between topic and sub-topics4
attitude !rom conte#t4 meaning o! non-verbal parts o! the message such as gesture2 G&hat did you
mean when you said3G
()9 Constr#ction 0build up a coherent picture on the basis o!: Anticipation, ecognition, *n!erence4
distinguish literal !rom implied meaning4 !ollow the main Lthread+ o! the discourse4 predict ne#t Lmove+
or eventual outcome !rom ongoing discourse2 G&hy are you telling me this3G
-) "nabling s'ills and enacting s'ills in listening !rom ost, Listening in Language Learning,
Longman, (CCD
&hat the listening s'ill consists o!: 0A2 E&phasi3ing perception: ecogni1ing prominence within
utterances4 0H2 E&phasi3ing interpretation: !ormulating propositional sense !or a spea'er+s
utterance4 !ormulating a conceptual !ramewor' that lin's utterances together4 interpreting plausible
intention0s2 o! the spea'er in ma'ing the utterance4 0C2 Enacting s0ills: utili1ing representation o!
discourse to ma'e appropriate response)
22
.) Types o! listening tas's
9) Criteria !or evaluating activities and e#ercises:
9)( Content validity: Does the activity practice listening or something else3
9)- Listening comprehension or memory3
9). %urpose!ulness and trans!erability: Does the activity re!lect a purpose !or listening and
appro#imates authentic real-li!e listening3
9)9 Testing or teaching3
9): Authenticity: To what degree does the input resemble natural discourse3
:) ;our clusters o! !actors which can a!!ect the di!!iculty o! oral language tas's as discussed by Hrown
5 Eule 0(CB.2: 0(2 related to the spea'er 0-2 related to the listener 0.2 related to the content 092 related
to the support
C"4SSROO$ O2SER*4T9ON: PRESENT4T9ON OB "4N-<4-E *94
"9STEN9N-=RE4D9N-
() %urpose o! presentation
-) ;eatures o! presentation
.) Activities
9) Type o! interaction
:) ole o! teacher
<) Degree o! control
?) Correction
B) Length and pace o! lesson
C) Success o! lesson V were students using language correctly by the end3
1. The Ldictogloss+ approach encourages learners to use both bottom-up and top-down listening
strategies) The 9 stages to go through are: 0a2 preparation4 0b2 dictation4 0c2 reconstruction4 0d2
analysis and correction) 6ypothesi1e about advantages and disadvantages o! such an approach)
Mainly thin' about the importance o! integrating bac'ground, Linside the head+ 'nowledge with the
clues pic'ed up during the dictation)
2. Hrown and Eule re!erred to 9 clusters o! !actors, which can become sources o! di!!iculty o! oral
language tas's) Ta'e them in turn and hypothesi1e about how they can hinder comprehension)
!. e!lect upon your e#perience o! listeners to news broadcasts, !or instance) 6ow can this help you
improve the listening class3
(. 6ow !ar do you agree with the !ollowing statements3
0a2 Listening is an active process)
0b2 Classroom listening practice can be used to develop the listeners+ general linguistic resources)
0c2 Authentic listening te#ts are essential)
0d2 Learners should be e#posed to as wide a range o! listening te#ts as possible !rom a variety o!
sources)
). &hich phases might you e#pect to !ind in a lesson devoted to listening practice3
,. &hat are the !eatures o! real-li!e listening and how !ar do the listening te#ts in present te#tboo's
re!lect real-li!e listening3
.. 6ow can replaying a te#t at various stages o! the lesson be rewarding !or both teacher and
students3
/. &hat about the practicalities o! a listening class3 Are they important or not3
'. Select one listening tas' !rom any te#tboo' available to you and care!ully plan the activity so as to
ma'e it most pro!itable !or your students) Detail stages and state purposes) e!er to Teacher+s boo'
!or help) Mention level, age, number o! students)
10. List the listening tas's !avoured by te#tboo' writers)
2!
8<. Teaching WRITIN#
@nowledge on written lang#age
() Fritten lang#age vs) spo0en lang#age: two di!!erent 'inds o! comple#ity
()( comple#ities at the level o! the clause le#ical density 0T o! content words2 vs) comple#ity in the
way clauses are lin'ed together)
()- deconte#tuali1ation, which ma'es it impossible to adPust the message vs) conte#tuali1ation due to
permanent !eedbac' !rom the other person)
-) De!inition o! writing G a communicative process involving the writer in decisions concerning the
e<pected reader of the te<t.
7)H) "e<tual decisions depend on the writer+s perception o! the audience)
.) Constraints in writing a te#t:
() Appropriate

-) *ntents .) Conte#t 9) %ossible :) ;easible <) %er!ormed

>tterance
Oohnson, @eith, Communicative yllabus 2esign and Methodology, (CB-
9) ;unctions in everyday li!e served by written lang#age:
9)( !or action: public signs, recipes, maps, bills, )))),)))),)))),)))),))))))
9)- !or in!ormation: newspapers, non-!iction boo's, te#tboo's, advertisements)
9).)!or entertainment: !iction, comic strips, light maga1ines, etc)
@nowledge about teaching writing
() Friting is a communicative activity where there is a reason to write and there is a reader.
-) Components o! the *riting skill%
-)( mechanical component: e)g) hand-writing4 spelling4 capitali1ation4 punctuation)
-)- grammatical component% e)g) tenses4 word order4 etc)
-). discourse component% e)g) ability to paragraph4 use o! cohesive devices4 etc)
-)9 stylistic component% e)g) choice o! appropriate vocabulary4 ability to vary sentence structure to
avoid repetition4 ability to choose language according to the type o! writing and writing)
.) %otential problems: spelling4 punctuation4 stylistic con!usion between spo'en and written language4
L( inter!erence4 Ss+ resistance to writing in general)
9) &hat the student $<ST 'now:
9)( what the audience will be
9)- what s8he wants to convey i)e) purpose o! writing
9). how to write several dra!ts coming nearer to the message intended at the semantic and grammatical
level)
2(
:) Staging the writing lesson
Lideas+ stage
Lcomposing+ stage
Lediting+ stage
<) what will a course o! writing include3
a lot o!: reading, listening, oral discourse
?) ole o! the writing teacher:
!ind interesting and relevant writing activities
decide how best to present the activities
provide su!!icient guidance and control
provide correction and suggestions !or improvement
B) Techni/ues used !or teaching writing:
pre-reading discussion
spray-charts or visual forms presenting ideas be!ore writing
first draft !ollowed by peer discussion o! the message
second draft
editing
recomposition
modelling= parallel versions !or di!!erent audiences
te<t combination 5pairs use their best relevant pieces to ma'e the whole te#t,
incubation 5set the writing tas' a wee' a!ter pre-writing activity2
*riting many different kinds of te<ts 5e)g) newspaper articles4 menus4 tourist brochures4 doctor+s
records4 poetry4 etc)2
C) #rocess-oriented approach vs) product-oriented approach
C)( !ocus is on classroom activities, which are believed to promote the development o! s'illed
language use)
C)- language at the level o! discourse)
C). writing teacher more interested in the processes writers go through in composing te#ts)
(D) obPectives M activities:
(D)( arouse Ss+ interest topic 0stimulus !or topic: learner choice o! topic2
(D)- arouse ideas8new words group8pair brainstorming
(D). help organi1e ideas outline or Pot down ideas
(D)9 get down main ideas !irst dra!t 0individual, pair or group2
(D): clari!ying message, editing !eedbac' !rom peers and teacher
(D)< optional second dra!t and !eedbac'
(D)? !inal version rewriting
(() Discourse analytic tas's
true8!alse /uestions on writer+s intention
clo1e and gap-!illing using semantic replacement criteria
given (st paragraph, learners predict -
nd
, etc)
match list o! !unctions with te#t
rhetorical trans!ormations 0e)g) given a description o! a product, learners rewrite it as an
advertisement2
modeling 0e)g) given te#t as a topic, learners write a te#t o! the same structure on a di!!erent topic2)
2)
(-) Stages o! a writing lesson
(-)( copying
(-)- controlled writing
(-). guided writing
(-)9 cued writing
(-): !ree writing: reports4 summaries4 letters4 invitations4 literary compositions),
(.) %roducing a piece o! writing)
0aimes, A) "echniques in "eaching !riting, O>%, (CB.2
C"4SSROO$ O2SER*4T9ON: FR9T9N- SC9""
() &as it a mini-s'ills lesson e)g) punctuation, letter !ormat3
-) &hat was the degree o! control3 i)e) controlled8less controlled8!reer3
.) &hat 'ind o! writing e#ercise was it3 e)g) letter writing, composition, descriptive passageN
9) &as there appropriate guidance !or the tas'3
:) 6ow was the lesson concluded3 7H: it may be set !or homewor')
<) Comment on how success!ul you !eel the lesson was) &hat !actors contributed to this3
C"4SSROO$ O2SER*4T9ON: <S9N- T8E 2O4RD
() %hysical: &as the board visible to all3
&as the layout clear3 0Did it appear overcrowded8disorgani1ed32
-) &as the new language highlighted e!!ectively3
.) &as the board wor' complete3 0e)g) no un!inished sentences2
9) Did the teacher use the board !or:
0a2 clari!ying points on the spot3
0b2 correction3 0e)g) grammar, pronunciation2
:) Could any o! the !ollowing have been appropriate3
0a2 tabulation 0e)g) substitution table2
2,
$rammar
The writer+s
process
Mechanics
%urpose
Organi1ation
Audience
Clear, ;luent,
and e!!ective
communication
o! ideas
Synta#
Content
&ord choice
0b2 display o! visuals 0!lashcards8drawings2
0c2 prompts !or practice
0d2 preparation 0e)g) giving in!ormation !or an activity2
<) &hat did the students write down and ta'e away3
&as it representative o! the salient points o! the lesson, and would the students have understood it
several days later3
?) &as the board overused or underused3
() The writer can choose any structure or le#is, which will appropriately e#press the intended
meaning to the e#pected audience) So, will you loo' at @eith Oohnson+s diagram o! an utterance
and spell out the necessary constraints to be considered when writing)
-) 6ow can you re!ormulate such a writing tas' as LDescribe your room at home+ so that the
assignment ta'e on new dimensions besides a simple e#ercise in the use o! the present tense and in
prepositions) Consider providing student writers with a conte#t in which to select appropriate
content, language, and levels o! !ormality)
.) &hen is teacher !eedbac' e#pected to happen during the writing process3
9) &hat di!!erences can you highlight between the process-approach to writing and a more traditional
approach3
:) Argue !or writing as a group wor' activity or an isolationist activity)
<) Mention advantages o! use o! brainstorming activities in the writing class)
?) Consider the te#tboo' +nglish 6e*s and >ie*s. %ut down all the writing tas's used by the authors
in order to re!ine students+ writing s'ills)
B) Detail a scenario presenting the stages o! a lesson teaching writing on a topic o! your choice !rom a
te#tboo' !amiliar to you)
C) 6ow can the teacher get the balance right between accuracy and !luency in writing3
(D) &hat do yo# understand by the need to develop the students+ communicative potential in writing3
2.
88. Teaching SPEA=IN#
@nowledge on spo0en lang#age
() *denti!ying di!!erent types o! spea'ing according to the !unctional analysis o! spea'ing per!ormed
by Hygate 0(CB?2 - see ;ig)()
"#pository: description, instruction, comparison
*n!ormation routines

"valuative: e#planation, Pusti!ication, prediction, decision
outines
Service: Pob interview
*nteraction routines
Social: dinner party
7egotiation o! meaning

7egotiations
Management o! interaction
;ig)( Characteri1ing oral interaction
-) D) 7unan+s three-dimensional grid as a planning device !or designing a syllabus !or spea'ing and
oral interaction - see ;ig)-
*n!ormation 7egotiation o!
meaning
Management
o! interaction
"#pository "valuative
narrate describe instruct
compare
e#plain Pusti!y predict
*nteraction
ervice:
Pob interview
boo'ing a
restaurant
etc)

ocial%
dinner party
co!!ee brea'
theatre /ueue
etc)
;ig)- A planning grid !or spea'ing and oral interaction
2/
.) %redictability and unpredictability: Communication involves the reduction o! uncertainty through a
process o! negotiation)
.)( Transactional encounters contain highly predictable patterns
.)- *nterpersonal encounters 0the !ocus being on the maintenance o! social relationships2 will be
unpredictable or less predictable
9) Strategies !or accomplishing the vertical e<pansion 0e#tending messages vertically, i)e)
discoursally2, according to "llis 0(CB92:
9)( *mitating another spea'er+s utterance and adding to it)
9)- Huilding on one+s own previous utterance)
9). Ou#taposing two !ormulaic utterances)
:) poken communication as neg+tiati+n o! turn-taking, topic, message, seeking clarification, and
e<pansion, repeating or summari:ing.
@nowledge about Teaching S!ea,ing
Aim: mastering the art o! spea'ing as the most important aspect o! learning a !oreign language 0i)e)
the ability to carry out a conversation in the !oreign language2
() S'ills involved in success!ul oral communication:
()( The ability to articulate phonological !eatures o! the language comprehensively4
()- Mastery o! stress, rhythm, intonation patterns4
(). Transactional and interpersonal s'ills4
()9 S'ills in ta'ing short and long spea'ing turns4
(): S'ills in the management o! interaction4
()< S'ills in negotiating meaning 0as part o! what Canale and Swain 0(CBD2 call strategic c+3!etence2
involve the ability to:
()<)( initiate ()<)- maintains ()<). interrupt ()<)9 restore ()<): repair8terminate the interaction4
()? Conversational listening s'ills4
()B S'ills in 'nowing about and negotiating purposes !or conversations4
()C >sing appropriate conversational !ormulae and !illers4
-) The di!!iculty o! spea'ing tas's: the interl+cut+r effect 0Hrown and Eule, (CB.,(CB92
.) The degree o! ascending di!!iculty o! spea'ing tas's !rom: static tas'sdynamic tas'sabstract
tas's)
All three tas' types involve learners in e#ploiting basic in!ormation-trans!erring s'ills)
N2 The ability to re!lect critically on one+s per!ormance as a language user is an important s'ill, which
should be incorporated into any language programme)
9) LTop-down+ approach to speaking - see ;ig)- on handout)
:) A nine-point scale Eardstic' !or evaluating speaking - see Carroll 5 &est, (CBC on handout)
<) Consider what is involved in real-li!e communication - in any language)
Complete the diagram below with your ideas)
&e want to communicate
"AL-L*;"
OAL
COMM>7*CAT*O7
2'
&e choose our own language &e !ocus on message
?) Consider how these !eatures o! real-li!e communication can be replicated in the classroom)
B) *nteraction activities: see %enny >r 0(CB(2
")g) *n!ormation $ap Activities: describe and draw
describe and arrange
describe and per!orm
describe and identi!y
picture se/uencing
picture di!!erences
Opinion $ap Activities: open-ended discussions
priority discussions
problem-solving tas's
picture8te#t interpretation
CLASSROOM OBSERVATION: SKILLS LESSON: SPEAKING
7H:
() *t may be an integrated s'ills lesson e)g) listening leading to spea'ing)
-) Try to ascertain i! the s'ills lesson is being used to rein!orce language that has recently been
introduced)
.) Eou may !ind it help!ul to note down the stages o! the lesson and appro#imate time length o! each
stage)
S%"A@*7$ S@*LL
0a2 &hat type o! spea'ing s'ill e)g) dialogue building, role-play, discussion, narrative building3 &hat
was the degree o! control, i)e) controlled8less controlled8!reer3
0b2 6ow was the lesson set up3
0c2 &hat instructions were given and were they clear3
0d2 &as the tas' realistic8appropriate8challenging etcN3
0e2 6ow did the teacher deal with correction e)g) did the teacher correct during the activity or at the
end3
0!2 Comment on how success!ul you !eel the lesson was3 &hat !actors contributed to this3
C"4SSROO$ O2SER*4T9ON: TE4C8ER T4"C9N- T9$E 5TTT6
Answer the /uestions by ma'ing notes o! your thoughts and with any speci!ic e#amples)
() Did the T) tal' more than necessary to e#plain a point V or not enough3
-) Did the T) tal' when the students could have been doing the tal'ing3
.) Did the T) spea' too /uic'ly8slowly3
9) &as the level o! language about right3
:) Did the language sound authentic and natural3
<) *n which activities was student tal'ing time more than TTT3
?) Did the T) create enough opportunities !or student tal'ing time3
B) &ere instructions clear3 &as what the trainee8teacher had to say interesting, in!ormative, use!ul
etc)3
C) *!8when TTT was high, was there a good reason !or this3
() *! you agree that language tas's must have a degree o! ascending di!!iculty covering such scale:
static tas' R dynamic tas'R abstract tas', and must involve learners in e#ploiting basic
in!ormation-trans!erring s'ills, then mention what other very important s'ill has to be developed in
any language programme)
!0
-) This is how Carroll and &est 0(CBC2 appreciate as highest spea'ing per!ormance:
L6andles all general speech situations, as well as those in own specialist areas, with con!idence and
competence similar to those in mother tongue) An e#ceptional level o! spea'ing) Message re/uired
is completely conveyed with total relevance and interest) Message !ully adPusted to listener+s
'nowledge o! topic and language) Spo'en te#t is coherently organi1ed with suitable use o!
se/uencing and cohesion) Total control o! !luency in interaction without undue hesitations) Style
e!!ectively matched to conte#t) Language control complete, allowing !or high-level interaction)
Complete accuracy apart !rom occasional Lslips o! tongue+) Little L( accent and appropriate use o!
idiom contribute to overall impression)+ Can you identi!y the three main criteria at the basis o! this
near-per!ect spea'er portrait3
.) eading aloud used to be a common test o! spea'ing) Contrast this with a more recent techni/ue V
problem-solving wor'ing in pairs) Tic' o!! !eatures o! each techni/ue when appropriate)
0purposive4 spontaneous4 interactive4 planned language4 message bearing4 real-world tas'2
9) The oral interview is open to several criticisms) &hat are these3
:) Can you predict three obPections to linguistic tests o! spea'ing3
<) The traditional one-to-one arrangement 0learner-assessor interaction2 has three main disadvantages)
Can you predict what these are3
?) The Lguided instructions+ techni/ue evolved !rom the Lego bric'-building tas' described by
Allwright 0(C??2) One learner is as'ed to give a set o! instructions to either another learner or an
interlocutor) There are several possibilities: Ldescribe and arrange+4 Ldescribe and draw+4
Lpath!inding+) Mention two maPor advantages o! the techni/ue)
B) Chec' any two te#tboo's available !or how the spea'ing session is organi1ed) Compare and
contrast: types o! materials, assignments, di!!iculty parameters, sociolinguistic competence
occurrences)
C) Choose one topic !rom one current te#tboo') "dit a scenario to give students practice in spea'ing
on the respective topic8language !unction) Eou can compare your scenario with the one below,
inspired by a video-lesson illustrating the communicative approach)
(D) *n Hoo' (-, +nglish 8ori:ons, authors have included in each unit an assessment !orm !or
presentations 0oral8written2 that the students can use !or themselves and !or their peers and with
which to organi1e their own learning) &hat might have been the authors+ hidden agenda in so
doing3
!1
81. Teaching "ITERARY S=I""S
@nowledge o! literature !rom both diachronic and synchronic perspective o! the history o!
civili1ation) Appropriate critical Pargon and literary theory in!ormation should supplement it) And,
what is more, the !eeling !or literature reading and discussion)
@nowledge o! 6ow to teach Literature to teenagers
() awareness o! comple#ity o! situation 0cultural awareness raising4 in!ormation trans!er4 artistic taste
re!inement4 creativity enhancement4 study s'ills improvement4 language s'ills development4 sel!-
'nowledge growth2)
-) Adaptation o! reader+s response theory belie!s to the classroom situation: i)e) te#t seen as a !le#ible
structure 0both closed and open24 reader as co-author o! the te#t)
.) $uidelines !or achieving literary s'ills:
0a2 ma'e the study o! literary te#ts stimulating, challenging, enPoyable)
0b2 ma'e students learn how to thin' and not what to thin'4 how to handle concepts o! literary theory
and not parrot ready-made interpretations4
0c2 'eep a right balance between !ocus on in!ormation and !ocus on personal response8creativity)
0d2 ma'e the literary te#t an interesting Lencounter+ in time by presenting it in the conte#t o! the culture
and civili1ation o! their time)
0e2 ma'e both the achievement and behaviour cultures 0both "nglish8American and omanian2 meet
on the arena o! the literary te#t)
0!2 Observe the spiral principle 0!rom recognition, to guided discovery, to awareness and, !inally, to
response2 !or ensuring success and satis!action in the development o! the critical mind)
9) 6ere are the teaching=assess&ent obPectives o! Lliteraturing+ as presented by the authors o! the
#ath*ay to +nglish series: At the end o! $rade (-, students should be able to:
0A2 demonstrate their presentation s0ills by planning an oral8written presentation o! the !eatures o! a
literary te#t which should be relevant to the topic, selective and clear, and which should use the
appropriate terminology and language register4
0H2 e#press their personal response, that is to e#plore and e#press their views on a literary te#t by
articulating in!ormed and independent opinions on literary te#ts o! di!!erent types and cultural
epochs4
0C2 ma'e a text analysis, i)e) to show their understanding o! the ways in which writers+choice o! !orm,
structure, and language reveals meanings, their understanding o! the cultural and historical
in!luences on literary te#ts, their awareness o! the relationships between literary te#ts)
:) Te#tboo' writers spirally wor' upon the !ollowing concepts when aiming at developing literary
s'ills: plot7+#ildingE character7+#ildingE the&eE narrati1e perspecti1eE settingE sy&+ol
disco1eryE range of lang#age5s6 and style5s6.
() Loo' at the te#t !rom ") Hronte+s !uthering 8eights in Hoo' (D, #erspectives on +nglish. Design
a scenario !or teaching students the concept o! plot uncovering) Detail: stages, purposes, s'ills,
activities, timing, types o! interaction)
-) Loo' at the te#t !rom S) ;it1gerald+s "he -reat -atsby, in Hoo' ((, 6e*s and >ie*s. Design a
scenario !or teaching students the concept o! character building) Detail: stages, purposes, s'ills,
activities, timing, types o! interaction)
.) Loo' at the te#t !rom Lewis Carroll+s Alice in !onderland, in Hoo' ((, 6e*s and >ie*s. Design a
scenario !or teaching theme discovery: Detail: stages, purposes, s'ills, activities, timing, types o!
interaction)
9) Loo' at the te#t !rom 6enry Oames+s "he #ortrait of a Lady, in Hoo' ((, 6e*s and >ie*s. Design a
scenario !or teaching narrative perspective discovery: Detail: stages, purposes, s'ills, activities,
timing, types o! interaction
:) Loo' at the te#t !rom "rnest 6emingway+s "he /illers, in Hoo' ((, 6e*s and >ie*s. Design a
scenario !or teaching language as style: Detail: stages, purposes, s'ills, activities, timing, types o!
interaction
!2
<) Loo' at the te#t !rom O) Swi!t+s -ulliver?s "ravels, in Hoo' (D, #erspectives) Design a scenario !or
teaching language as style: Detail: stages, purposes, s'ills, activities, timing, types o! interaction
8..CORRECTION
&hat is an error3
"rrors are o! two types:
5a6 !orms that are not acceptable according to the rules 0syntactic, phonological, le#ical2 o! the
target language)
5+6 !orms that are themselves acceptable but which are used in a way that is unacceptable 0e)g)
errors o! style2)
*t is worth ma'ing a distinction between errors8slips8lapses) Slips o! the tong#e are o!ten
spontaneously corrected by the spea'er4 lapses caused by tiredness, or inattention can also be
corrected by the spea'er i! attention is drawn to them)
*t has now become clear that many o! the errors o! a second8!oreign language-learner are
de1elop&ental: that is, they are a natural part o! the learning process, in the same way that the
incorrect utterances o! a child learning its native language are seen as natural part o! its linguistic
development)
&hat causes errors3
There are !our main causes o! error) Two o! these are inevitable4 the other two are to some degree
avoidable)
0a2 errors as indicators o! the present state o! 'nowledge: teacher should be prepared to accept
these errors !or what they are, and not as evidence o! a poor memory or unsuccess!ul teaching)
0b2 "rrors as a result o! overgenerali1ation or !alse analogy on the basis o! too little linguistic
evidence) *! language-learning proceeds in a se/uence 0DataR6ypothesis (R More DataR
;eedbac'R 6ypothesis-R More DataR etc)2 then correction can !unction positively, to assist
learning)
0c2 "rrors as a result o! negative trans!er 0inter!erence2 !rom the learner+s mother tongue)
Correction is not always e!!ective in this case)
0d2 "rrors as a result o! wrong hypothesis caused by poor teaching) 6ere correction is a poor
substitute !or re-teaching)
Are most !re/uent also most serious errors3
$rammatical errors 0prepositions, word order, selectional restrictions a!ter a particular verb, etc)2,
although e#tremely resistant to change, inter!ere with communication to a relatively small e#tent)
Phonological errors are a much more serious problem since they are a potential source o!
irritation to native spea'ers, while lexical errors can lead to a complete brea'down in
communication)
Teachers must ma'e decisions about whatH whenH and how to correct and ma'e remedial
intervention)
&6AT we correct will depend partly on whether we consider correction will serve any purpose, and
partly on what we consider important during a particular activity)
&6"7 goes both !or the teacher and the student0s2 who is8are e#pected to correct himsel!8each other)
Don+t mi# up !luency activities with accuracy activities, when correction is important)
7H: Teachers must !ind ways o! encouraging students to monitor and correct, when appropriate, both
their own production and 0in a spirit o! help!ulness2 that o! their !ellow-learners)
C"4SSROO$ O2SER*4T9ON: ERROR CORRECT9ON
() 7ote the type o! mista'es V e)g) %ronunciation, grammar, vocabulary
-) 6ow was the correction achieved3 V e)g) Student guided to sel!-correction, student to student
correction or teacher to student correction)
.) 7ote when the teacher corrected, e)g) on the spot or delayedN
!!
9) Did the teacher anticipate any mista'es3 ")g) pronunciation8grammar3
:) Did the teacher hear mista'es3
<) Did the teacher correct too much or too little3
?) &as the teacher right in their correction3
B) Did the teacher Pot down mista'es3
C) Comment on the overall success o! the correction ta'ing place)

1. There are di!!erent schools o! thought on how or even whether to correct during a !luency or
communicative activity) &here do you stand, with those advocating the necessity o! correction or
those dis!avouring correction altogether3
2. &hen should correction be more persistent: at lower levels or high levels, according to you3
!. Mario involucri advocates Lhot correction+ 0slip o! paper with the correction on it, immediately
handed in to the student2 in group wor') &ould you consider the method disruptive or decently
protective to the student3
(. Do you consider recording the activity, using video or sound tape, and playing it bac' to the
students a valuable source o! wor'ing on the language3
). *t is said that the greatest irritants to native spea'ers are not grammar or morphology errors 0the
!irst obsession o! classical "rror Analysis2, but what Thomson 0(CB.2 called Lpragmatic !ailures+,
which mainly occur due to native language trans!ers) %rovide at least one e#ample)
,. *t is well 'nown the native spea'ers+ tolerance towards errors) 6ow do you e#plain that there is
always a tendency !or deprecatory assessment with the non-native !oreign language teacher3
.. Choms'y 0(CB(2 re!ers to !eedbac' given to in!ants ac/uiring the 7L as positive v) negative
Levidence+) &hat was he re!erring to more e#actly3
/. The idea that learners produce !orms which, even i! corrected, are not /uite what the native would
say is developed by Levenston 0(C?B2) 6e shows that an "A that limits itsel! to reconstruction, i)e)
on putting the grammar right, is !lawed: what is le!t will still display le#ical inade/uacy, syntactic
blends, conceptual con!usion and rhetorical ineptitude) &e could say that what learners write may
well be discourse Lin "nglish+ but still !alls short o! being L"nglish discourse+) Thus the attention,
nowadays, has shi!ted !rom clear-cut error to the vaguer notion o! infelicity. So, where do you
stand among learners8teachers: those who per!orm correctly but Lin!elicitously+ or those who have
the !eeling o! the language3
!(
8/. TESTIN#
Test types:
5a6 Achievement8attainment tests are based on syllabus) Test what was learned8taught in class)
They loo' bac'wards)
5+6 %ro!iciency tests are not based on syllabus) They !ind out language level and loo' !orwards)
5c6 %lacement tests are not based on syllabus and are meant to group students o! similar
competence and per!ormance together in order to better collaborate to improve their language
s'ills)
5d6 Diagnostic tests are 0not2 based on syllabus and are meant to !ind out students+ areas o!
wea'nesses) They are loo'ing bac'wards and !orwards, since re-teaching may be necessary)
5e6 Aptitude tests !ind out i! students have aptitude !or learning a !oreign language) They are
loo'ing !orwards)
6istorical presentation o! "nglish testing:
0A2 Traditional8pre-scienti!ic, Spols'y 0(CB92
$rammatico-literary, Carroll 5 6all 0(CB:2
$arden o! "den, Morrow 0(C?C2
")g) written composition4 oral interview4 translation passage)
;eatures: non-authentic4 disembodied4 subPective
0H2 Modern8scienti!ic, Spols'y 0(CB92
%sycho-linguistic, Carroll 5 6all 0(CB:2
=ale o! tears, Morrow 0(C?C2
")g) multiple-choice4 trans!ormations4 clo1e4 dictation)
;eatures: non-authentic4 disembodied4 discrete-point4 obPective4 integrative4 obPective)
0C2 %ost-modern, Spols'y 0(BB92
Socio-communicative, Carroll 5 6all 0(CB:2
%romised Land, Morrow 0(C?C2
")g) authentic te#ts 0reading and listening24 authentic tas's 0writing and spea'ing2)
;eatures: authentic4 conte#tuali1ed4 integrative4 obPective and subPective)
Ma'ing test items more communicative:
- give students some purpose to communicate
- establish audience8reader
- create some in!ormation gap or con!lictual situation
- test enabling s'ills rather than products
- ma'e items integrative rather than discrete-point
- use conte#tuali1ed language rather than disembodied language
- ma'e them both obPective and subPective, e)g) clo1e 8C-clo1e tests
- ma'e them criterion-re!erenced rather than norm-re!erenced
7H: ma'e them both relevant to students+ needs and e#pectations and reliableQ
Since teachers need to evaluate students+ per!ormance they have to administer either ready-made tests
or their own tests)
%lease, always re!lect twice whether the tas' you give students is meant to teach them something or
Pust test their competence8per!ormance)
$OOD L>C@Q
!)
80. %ATERIA"S E(A"$ATION CRITERIA
() S#+@ect and content
()( *! it is relevant to learners+ needs)
()- *! it is interesting !or the learners)
()- *! there is enough variety o! activities)
-) 4cti1ities
-)( *! there is balance o! activities)
-)- *! there is enough comprehensible input !or the learners)
-). *! there is enough practice in varying !orms o! tas's)
-)9 *! there is a su!!icient amount o! communication output in the materials)
-): *! new vocabulary is introduced in motivating and realistic conte#ts
.) S0ills
.)( *! the materials include and practice the s'ills learners o! the respective age need)
.)- *! there is an appropriate balance o! s'ills)
.). *! the s'ills are integrated or practiced in isolation)
9) -#idance
9)( *! the teacher+s boo' contains clear guidance !or the teacher about how to present and practice the
materials)
9)- *! there are clearly-stated obPectives !or each se/uence o! the lesson)
9). *! there is additional input material to compensate !or lac' o! teacher+s own materials and time)
9)9 *! there are 'ey answers provided to more problematic issues)
:) "ang#age type
:)( *! the language used in the materials is at the right level !or students+ age8assumed competence and
is real-li!e "nglish)
:)- *! there is e#plicit re!erence to appropriateness 0the matching o! language to its social conte#t and
!unction2)
:). *! there is a cline o! approaches)
:)9 *! there is grading and recycling o! language content)
<) S#pporting &aterials
<)( *! the materials contain visuals4 recorded material4 e#amples o! authentic language4 an inde# o!
grammar items8 !unctions4 a glossary4 testing materials4 others
!,
87. #"OSSARY OF %ETHODS4 TECHNI&$ES OF TEACHIN#4 "EARNIN#
HA*7STOM*7$
A 'ind o! group activity intended to generate a lot o! ideas) "very suggestion is recorded however
unli'ely or !ar-!etched) Decisions about practicality are made later)
CALL
Computer assisted language learning)
"L*C*TAT*O78SOCAT*C T"C67*I>"
A !orm o! teaching by /uestion and answer gradually leading to the elicitation o! certain truths)
;""DHAC@ S"SS*O7
A class activity in which various individuals or groups report bac' to the class on what they have been
researching or discussing) *t may also be a session in which the teacher reports bac' to students with
an evaluation o! their wor')
O*$SA& L"A7*7$
A !orm o! learning8teaching in which di!!erent students cover di!!erent areas o! a topic4 they later pool
their 'nowledge 0e)g) by means o! seminar8class papers2)
%OO"CT
A 'ind o! Tas'-based activity which usually involves an e#tended amount o! independent wor', either
by an individual student or by a group o! students)
%EAM*D $O>%
A !orm o! group activity in which the class is divided into groups) A!ter some time, pairs o! groups are
Poined together and continue the discussion) This procedure is repeated until there is only one group,
comprising the whole class) Sometimes called a Snowball group)
OL" %LAE
A !orm o! S*M>LAT*O7 in which the participants adopt certain roles or parts)
TAS@-HAS"D 0L"A7*7$2
>sed to describe any 'ind o! learning which involves the per!ormance o! a speci!ic tas' or piece o!
wor')
&O@S6O%
A 'ind o! TAS@-HAS"D group activity which involves the completion o! a certain speci!ied tas') *t is
e#pected that all the members o! the group to contribute something to the completion o! the tas')
!.
8>. )I)"IO#RAPHY
-eneral $ethodology
6armer, O), "he #ractice of +nglish Language "eaching. Longman, (CB.
ichards, O), Approaches and Methods in Language "eaching. C>%, (CB<
Do!!, A), "each +nglish, C>%, (CBB
Littlewood, &), Communicative Language "eaching. C>%, (CB(
7unan, D), Language "eaching Methodology. %rentice-6all, (CC(
;reeman, D)L), "echniques and #rinciples in Language "eaching, O#!ord American "nglish, (CB<
-ra&&ar Teaching
6armer, O), "eaching and Learning -rammar. Longman) (CB?
>r, %), -rammar #ractice Activities. C>%) (CBB
Hatstone, ), -rammar) O>%) (CC9
$erngross, $), Creative -rammar #ractice. Longman) (CC-
"istening
>nderwood, M), "eaching Listening. Longman) (CBC
ost, M), Listening in Action. %rentice-6all) (CC(
ost, M), Listening in Language Learning. Longman) (CCD
Anderson, A), Listening. O>%) (CBB
Reading
&allace, C), $eading. O>%) (CC-
7uttall, C), "eaching $eading kills in a .oreign Language. 6einemann) (CB-
&illiams, "), $eading in the Language Classroom. M"%) (CB9
Alderson, C), $eading in a .oreign Language. Longman) (CB9
Friting
6edge, T), !riting.O>%) (CBB
&hite, ), #rocess !riting. Longman) (CBB
aines, A), "echniques in "eaching !riting. O>%) (CB.
Spea0ing
Hygate, M), peaking. O>%) (DB?
Hyrne, D), "eaching 7ral +nglish. Longman) (CB?
Littlewood, &), "eaching 7ral Communication. Hlac'well) (CC-
@lippel, ;), /eep "alking. C>%) (CB.
>r, %), 2iscussions that !ork. C>%) (CB(
*oca+#lary
&allace, M), "eaching >ocabulary. 6einemann) (CB-
$airns, ), !orking *ith !ords. C>%) (CB9
McCarthy, M), >ocabulary. O>%) (CCD
Allen, =), "echniques in "eaching >ocabulary. O>%) (CB.
!/
Classroo& 9nteraction
&right, T), $oles of "eachers and Learners. O>%) (CB?
6ad!ield, O), Classroom 2ynamics. O>%) (CCD
>nderwood, M), +ffective Class Management. C>%) (CB?
"dge, O), Mistakes and Correction. Longman) (CBC
Testing
6eaton, O), Classroom "esting. Longman) (CBD
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