Hey there. Doing Physics, good on you, I wish you the best in it.

This is a research
task that we did on Reactors, I think I got about 93%, I would have gotten another
ark had I reebered to !u in an isoto!e "or agriculture, I think #obalt$%& is
used to kill "ungus on seeds. etc. The tables a little !oor in this "orat. but I' sure
you'll work it out. Peter (aylan
()#*+,R R+,#T-R.
The nuclear reactor generates electricity in virtually the same way as a coal power plant.
Both use a fuelled heat source that changes water into steam, which turns the shaft of a
turbine, which spins the electromagnet of the generator. Both electromagnets pull
electrons through the coils of wire surrounding it, creating a current. Both power plants
also generate Alternating Current (AC, though they also produce Direct Current to supply
the electromagnet), use cooling towers to cool the steam and use a mined fuel source.
There is however a maor difference between the nuclear reactor and the coal power
plant. !hilst the coal plant actually burns coal to generate heat, the reactor uses a process
of fission.
The fuel of a fission reactor comprises of "ranium, the fissionable part of which is "#
$%&.
The "ranium fuel must undergo a process of fission to generate heat. 'n the fission
process (see diagram left) a neutron hits a "#$%& nucleus and splits it into two different
si(ed nuclei (fission fragments) and $#% neutrons The fission fragments (such as 'odine
and )trontium nuclei) are large positively charged particles travelling at high speeds, as
they slow down from friction they produce heat. The neutrons are also travelling at high
speeds, they will either generate more heat by friction and*or split another nucleus
(continue the fission process # which is more li+ely if they have already been slowed
down) or undergo scattering (bounce off a nucleus) or absorption (be absorbed by a
nucleus). Thus, the +inetic energy of the electron splits the nucleus of the isotope,
releasing the atomic energy as +inetic energy (moving electrons and fission fragments)
which slows down and creates thermal energy through friction, which heats the water
causing +inetic energy (of the moving steam) which transfers its +inetic energy to the
generators moving magnets (or electrical wires) which induces an electrical energy in the
wires which are cutting through the magnetic fields. ,nergy given off during fission can
also include radioactive gamma rays, the high fre-uency part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
A chain reaction is where the neutrons released from fission cause more fissions, thus
continuing the creation of energy. A controlled chain reaction has a set of re-uirements
including. The moderator (such as light water or heavy water) slows down the neutrons to
a speed that causes fission. The control rods (made of a heat#resisting alloy) then catch
these neutrons to stop too many fissions, they can be slid in or out depending on how
many fissions should be ta+ing place. Thus the chain reaction is +ept stable. The fuel
must also be at critical mass, where the loss of a neutron is compensated by the creation
of another via fission, if the fuel is too small, too many neutrons will be lost and not
enough gained to continue the chain reaction. The fuel must comprise of a suitable
amount of easy to /ission material (li+e "#$%&). 0ast, it needs to be the correct
temperature so as the whole facility does not overheat and destroy the reactor, a coolant is
needed (ie. water). This information was found in the ,nergy 'nformation Administration
website (www.eia.doe.gov), from the American government, it was then contrasted with
an independent science organi(ation (Thin+-uest1) and the Columbia ,lectronic
,ncyclopaedia, this comparison found it to be reliable.
/ermi demonstrated the first controlled chain reaction. 2e built a reactor called a pile,
using graphite as a moderator and Cadium control rods. The chain reaction began on the
$nd of December, 345$ at )tagg /ield, Chicago. 't was allowed to lat $6 minutes,
creating energy, neutrons and 7u#$%4.
The energy released from the fission process comes from the mass lost in the reaction
according to ,instein8s e-uivalence of mass and energy (, 9 mc:). The energy released is
that of the difference in binding energy after fission. Binding energy is the strong nuclear
force that +eeps nuclei together. The energy is e-ual to the mass lost times the speed of
light s-uared (c:). !hen "#$%& goes under fission it might turn into Barium (Ba#353) and
;rypton (;r#4$) li+e in the calculation below.

/or binding energy, that is... $%&<6.6(Av. binding energy per nucleon) 9 353<=.5 >
4$<=.=
!hich means 3=?4.&933&5 > (#3=5.&) Therefore 3=5.& @eA released. To find mass
divide by 4%3, that is 3=5.&*4%3 9 ?.34=$A@" (Atomic mass units). Therefore the mass
lost is ?.34=$A@" released as 3=5.&@eA.
I/P,#T -( .-#I+T0
'n 345& the world8s most powerful weapon was used in order to end the world8s most
deadliest war. That said, its unusual destructive force has associated anything nuclear
with death and apocalypse. The @anhattan ,ngineering District 7roect (@anhattan
7roect) was an endeavour by the Allies during the )econd !orld !ar to design and
manufacture the first Buclear !eapon. The proect was spar+ed by ,instein8s letter to the
")A (after he had been approached by )(ilard) as+ing the country to develop a Buclear
!eapon, the proect began in Culy 345$. The @anhattan 7roect had many obstacles to
overcome, including the development (using /ermi based reactors)*mining*processing of
the materials, research, development and deployment (,instein believed by boat).
,specially since intelligence lea+s and the bombs potential for disaster e<isted. That said,
the "#$%& based atomic bomb (codenamed 0ittle Boy) was dropped on 2iroshima on the
Dth of August, 345&, it +illed over 35? ???, the 7lutonium based bomb (codenamed /at
@an) was dropped a few days later on Bagasa+i on the 4th of August, +illing 6?,???.
The entire obective of the nuclear bomb is to e<plode, causing colossal damage, versus
that of the Buclear reactor, which e<ists to give a continuous supply of energy. The bomb
causes such an e<plosion by letting its chain reaction go over the critical state, where one
fission causes another two or three, thus increasing e<ponentially. This releases a massive
amount of energy in the form of heat, pressure and radiation almost instantly. The
@anhattan bombs did this by either firing one fissionable material into another, or
e<ploding them into each other. )ome modern e<plosives wor+ on a form of uncontrolled
/usion (thermonuclear).
To +eep a reactorEs chain reaction controlled, it must be a stable temperature, have
control rods to stop too many fissions, a moderator to help cause the fissions and a
critical mass. 'n contrast, the bomb (according to the /ederation of American )cientists)
needs to have a supercritical mass gained by oining to subcritical masses, it also needs a
moderator, and no impurities to slow don the chain reaction.
The e<plosives used on Capan have associated fear with Buclear weapons, and nuclear
reactors. !hether this is a valid concern or not, the @anhattan proect and its offspring
have certainly left an impact on the world8s society. )uch an impact can be seen by how
the nuclear technologies have affected society, to how the society feels about the
technologies and what the world would be li+e without them.
The @anhattan proect helped produce Feactors also, Feactors where needed to produce
certain materials, li+e 7lutonium (a product of fission reactors) and understand the fission
process. Thus the @anhattan proect was responsible for the e<plosives, reactors, and
any technology that where based on those # li+e nuclear medicine.
The nuclear weapons hold great significance on society. They where used to end the
!orld war, which, according to Codename Downfall (Allen and 7olmar) outlines that the
bomb saved millions of lives when contrasting with the invasion plan. That said, The
Decision to Use the Bomb (Alperovit(), declares that the Capanese where close to
surrendering anyway. ,ither way, by contrasting both and reading ,mperor 2irohito8s
declaration of surrender (which gave the weapon as one reason for surrendering) it can be
seen that the bomb definitely sped up the end of the war, leading to a different, war free
lifestyle for many countries. The weapons where then ever present through the cold war
(easily enough to destroy the war), instilling fear in the public and creating a new lifestyle
for many, now +nown as the @, generation, a generation who +new they could die
anytime and thus lived li+e it. The effect that this had on society was massive, and can be
seen in the te<ts related to it, li+e the film*boo+ On the Beach (apocalypse caused by
nuclear war) and 13 Days and The Missiles of October (based on the Cuban @issile
Crisis).
Buclear Feactors provide around 3DG of the worlds energy production (according to the
B,'). 7roviding clean energy according to Cames 0oveloc+ (Hai Theory) but dangerous
according to Hreenpeace. 't is obvious by the te<ts relating to nuclear power, that society
still fears it. 0i+e The Simpsons, a TA series that has involved three near fatal nuclear
accidents associates the reactor boss with the devil. Ir the China Syndrome, a film based
on a fictional meltdown. )ociety needs energy to live as it does, but is cautious towards
nuclear reactors. The reactors also produce many materials, which have helped save lives,
and help in agriculture, engineering and military transport. 't is certain that the @anhattan
proect, the initiator of the nuclear technologies, is greatly significant to society.
+(1IR-(/+(T,* I/P,#T
Buclear reactors produce far less waste than most other power plants (coal, oil, gas), but
the waste is far more dangerous. Buclear waste gives off radiation that can damage and
mutate creatures, and thus must be +ept in storage. These materials stay radioactive for
large periods of time until they transmutate.
According to the Hlossary of Buclear )cience Terms website a transmutation is where an
element changes into another element by gaining*losing part of its nucleus (protons and
neutrons). This definition was found to be reliable when contrasting it with the Cacaranda
7hysics $ Te<tboo+ (page 5D5).
The following calculation is "#$%= naturally transmutating into Thorium and an Alpha
particle.
'n Binding energy that is $%=<6.=9$%5<6.=>5<$=, that is
3=&D.593==5.5>(#$=), that is $=@eA, $=*4%3 9 ?.?%A@", that is ?.?%A@" lost.
@any elements have isotopes that transmutate naturally by losing part of its nucleus. The
particles (waves) that they give off are radiation, thus, as the waste products of reactors
give off radiation, they become less dangerous. After a certain point, the mass of the
radioactive material left reaches halfJ this is +nown as the half#life (the other half is a
stable, safe element). The half#life is the amount of time that a radioactive material ta+es
to half in mass.
The radiation comes in three forms, that of alpha ($ protons > $ neutrons at around &G
light )peed), beta (an electron at about 4?G light speed) and gamma (actual gamma
rays). Alpha can be stopped by s+in, or paper, but can still damage the body through cuts
and eating*breathing it. Beta can be stopped by a sheet of aluminium. The strength of
Hamma rays can be reduced by a thic+ shield of lead, concrete or water.
There are many wastes from a fission reactorJ many of them remain dangerous for long
periods of time.
The following table shows the waste products, radiation released and the half#life.
Table information for element half lives and radiation decay was gained by !eb,lements
T@.
2,.T+ "ranium $%= "ranium $%& 7lutonium $%4 Kenon 3%% )trontium 4? 'odine 3%3 ;rypton =6 Cobalt D?
R,D T0P+ Alpha Alpha Alpha Beta Beta Beta Beta Hamma
H,*3 *I3+ 5.& Billion Lears 6?? @illion Lears $5??? Lears &.$ Days $4.3 Lears = Days 3.$6 2ours &.$ Lears
@any of the waste products last for a very long time, some last longer than humanity has
e<isted. This is therefore a problem, as whatever is used to store the waste will need to
contain it for as long as the waste lasts. 't is very hard to build a container that lasts as
long as some waste products, and even harder to test if the container lasts long enough.
Also, gamma radiation is very hard to store, it needs to be concealed in thic+
concrete*lead coffins, and even then some will still lea+ through. Then there is the fact
that some of the wastes come as gasses (;rypton, Kenon) which can be lea+ed into the
atmosphere or a waterway.
There are also security*health*political issues. !ith security, waste can not be gained by
terrorist organi(ations as it can be used to develop radiation bombs (dirty bombs # an
e<plosive that spreads radioactive materials) or even (though incredibly unli+ely) nuclear
weapons. !ith health, the storage site can not be near a populace, as a lea+ might inure
people near by. This health issue is also the political issue, as many organi(ations do not
want the materials stored near either a populace, or animals.
There are many modern techni-ues, which reprocess and then bury it away forever. The
process of reprocessing the waste involves storing in underwater coffins, then brea+ing
the waste down with nitric acid, so that the dangerous waste can be stored separately.
This waste then can be stored via vitrification or )yncroc, or other methods, li+e burying
it in natural containers li+e at Lucca @ountain.
Aitrification (according to )eattle 7ost#'ntelligencer) is where the radioactive material is
made into stable glass, then encased in metal. The /rench government ta+es its
reprocessing further, using radioactive materials again in their reactors. According to the
"ranium 'nformation Centre8s (Australian Hovernment) website Australia invented
)yncroc ()ynthetic Foc+) where the Mradioactive wastes are incorporated in the crystal
lattices of the naturally#stable minerals in a synthetic roc+N, it is then sealed in metal, and
buried in a suitable area with a stable roc+ structure.
ANSTO (Lucas Heights)
The products from a nuclear reactor have many important uses. There is a research
reactor at 0ucas 2eights (AB)TI), it uses its reactor to split elements into useful
radioisotopes, and then retrieves them to be used in specific fields or research. AB)TI
also uses its high#speed neutrons from fissions to fire in to materials to see what the
materials atomic structure is li+e.
Beutron scattering is an e<cellent way of looin! at the atomic structure due to the
properties of the neutron. Beutrons have no charge, so they are unaffected by the electron
cloud and reach the nucleus. 't also has a magnetic moment (result from the interaction of
two charge bodies), letting it reveal magnetic structures. 't can produce interference patter
from the atomic lattice due to the wavelength being almost e-ual to the spacing between
the lattice structure. The neutron energy is similar to the vibrational energy is
solids*li-uids, letting the neutron show the vibration in detail.
Beutron scattering was made possible due advancements in nuclear 7hysics, (li+e
fission). According to the AB)TI article on magnets, this advancement has made it
possible to design and build a better magnet, the Bd
$
/e
35
B, thus ma+ing better motors and
generators. This is -uite an important achievement as many things run using magnets, and
would now run better (li+e spea+ers, DAD).
The cyclotron was developed due to the advancements in the understanding of magnetics
and charged particles. This piece if technology is used to artificially alter the atoms into
radioisotopes, ust li+e a nuclear reactor. Thus, the advancement in both sides of physics
developed very important technologies.
@edical isotopes can be used to diagnose illness, where they are used as tracers
(radioactive materials are easy to detect). They can also be used to treat illnesses by
+illing cancer cell, as rapidly dividing sells are vulnerable to such radiation. Ine such
isotope used is 'odine#3%3, this can be used to treat thyroid cancer and hyperthyroidism
(a more rapidly multiplying version of thyroid cancer).
Fadioisotopes can also be used in industry. They can be used in analysis, -uality control
and safety chec+ing. /or e<ample, ;ryton#=& is used (by 'so Aac) to chec+ for such gas
lea+ages in machinery*containers. 't is easy to find a lea+ due the isotopes radioactivity.
Fadioisotopes are ust as useful in engineering. They can be used to chec+ how certain
materials act in structures, piping and sewerage. /or e<ample, Oinc#D& can be used to
calculate how heavy metal components will behave when in wastewater left by mining.
0ucas 2eights has an important role in the nuclear applications, and an update to the
Feplacement Fesearch Feactor would certainly benefit the scientific and medical
community. 't would allow research to continue at an accelerated rate into neutron
scattering (li+e further into magnetics), silicon irradiation and radioisotopes. 2owever,
the reactor should not be able to generate electricity. )uch a reactor would cause outrage
(as seen by demonstrations against the current one. 't would also be e<pensive, re-uire
e<pertise on running it, and is a security threat. According to the "; Iffice of )cience
and Technology (reliable as it has no bias in the form of security), if a terrorist attac+
crashed a plane into such a reactor than massive amounts of radioactivity would be
released into the atmosphere, poisoning )ydney. Thus the replacement reactor should
only be used for research with no power generating capabilities.
4I4*I-5R,PH0
4--6.
@ay, Coh # The Hreenpeace Boo+ of the Buclear Age, "ictor #ollan$ %td& ' %ondon, 1()(
Alperovit(, Har # The Decision to "se the Atomic Bomb, *arper Collins, %ondon, 1((+
Trainer, Cennifer and ;a+u, @ichio # Buclear 7ower. both )ides of the )tory, #ero!e #
Mc%eod %td& Toronto, 1(),
Alcraft, Fob # !orlds !orst Buclear Disasters, *einmann %ibrary, #reat Britain, ,---
Feynoldson, /iona # Buclear 7ower, *odder .eyland, #reat Britain, ,--1
The 7oc+et @a-uarie Dictionary, /acaranda 0ress, Sydney, 1()(
T+7T 4--6.
ABDF',)),B and 7,BT0ABD and HA"T and @c;AL (CACAFABDA) # 2)C
CI"F), 72L)'C) $, /ohn .iley and Sons, 1ueensland, ,--1
O,A0,L and 2LBI);' and @AT2"F and TATB,00 # 7hysics in Conte<t The /orces
of 0ife, O2ford 0rintin! 0ress, South Melbourne, ,--1
8-)R(,* ,RTI#*+.
Bew )cientist, $4th @ay $??5 ' 3dwards, 4ob ' /et Crash Could 5ill Millions
*o!an, /enny ' Blacout #i6es City a Breath of
7resh 8ir
1uote from /ames %o6eloc 9#ai *ypothesis:
I(T+R(+T
Dr /ran+ )ettle
$??% ;ennesaw )tate "niversity
7rincipal 'nvestigator 0aurence 7eterson
7roect Director @atthew 2ermes
http.**www.chemcases.com*$??%version*nuclear*nc#?&.htm
http.**www.solcomhouse.com*nuclear.htm
http.**library.thin+-uest.org*C??5D?D*applications*reactors.shtml
The Columbia ,lectronic ,ncyclopedia, Dth ed. Copyright c $??5, Columbia "niversity
7ress.
http.**www.factmonster.com*ceD*sci*A?=33$$5.html
Copyright c $??%,
Bational Atomic @useum
http.**www.atomicmuseum.com*tour*manhattanproect.cfm
http.**www.me.ute<as.edu*Puer*manhattan*proect.html
!ord Dictionary
http.**www.wordi-.com*definition*@anhattanQ7roect
/ederation of American )cientists
http.**www.fas.org*nu+e*intro*nu+e*design.htm # Ictober $3, 344=
http.**nuclearweaponarchive.org* and
http.**nuclearweaponarchive.org*)myth*)myth3$.html
Buclear ,nergy 'nstitute of America
http.**www.nei.org*doc.aspRcatnum9$Scatid93?D
The Bational )cience /oundation (America)
!ritten by Anthony Carpi # Aisionlearning
http.**www.visionlearning.com*library*moduleQviewer.phpRmid9&4
Iffice of Civilian Fadioactive !aste @anagement # Lucca @ountain 7roect (America)
http.**www.ocrwm.doe.gov*factsheets*doeymp??3?.shtml
)(ilard
written by Dannen, Hene on @arch %?, 344&
http.**www.dannen.com*s(ilard
"ranium 'nformation Centre # @ay 344&
http.**www.uic.com.au*
!ashington state department of health
http.**www.doh.wa.gov*hanford*publications*health*glossary.htm
Hlossary of Buclear )cience Terms
http.**www.lbl.gov*abc*Hlossary.html
!ebster Dictionary
http.**www.webster#dictionary.org*definition*transmutation
)tanford linear accelerator centre # virtual visitor centre
http.**www$.slac.stanford.edu*vvc*fa-s*fa-%.html
'so Aac (T@)
http.**www.isovac.com*home*+ryptonQ=&.htm
".). Buclear Fegulatory Commission (BFC)
http.**www.nrc.gov
http.**www.nrc.gov*reading#rm*basic#ref*teachers*unit5.html
http.**www.nrc.gov*reading#rm*basic#ref*teachers*unit&.html
http.**www.nrc.gov*reading#rm*basic#ref*teachers*unit$.html
2arvard "+rainian Fesearch 'nstitute
http.**www.huri.harvard.edu*wor+paper*chornob5.html
American Buclear )ociety
http.**enefer.speedyweb.com*badgefiles*nuclearipa.doc
Canadian Coalitionfor Buclear Fesponsibility
Courtesy . Coseph Honyeau and Buclear ,nergy 'nstitute
http.**www.ece.umr.edu*lin+s*power*,nergyQCourse*energy*HenQBuclear#
fired*Buclear*CABD"*basic.htm
Coseph Honyeau 7., # @arch 3&, $??3
http.**www.nucleartourist.com*basics*basic.htm
Fegents of the "niversity of California 3444
). A. @os(+ows+i
http.**cwp.library.ucla.edu*articles*/'))'IB.2T@0
Bina Byers
7hysics Department, "C0A
0os Angeles, CA 4??4&
http.**ar<iv.org*html*physics*?$?6?45
")A Cancerlin+
http.**www.cancerlin+susa.com*radiation.htm
2ow )tuff !or+s
http.**.peoplehowstuffwor+s.com
http.**.peoplehowstuffwor+s.com*nuclear#bomb.html
http.**.peoplehowstuffwor+s.com*nuclear.html
http.**.peoplehowstuffwor+s.com*nuclear#medicine.html
3ils
In The Beach # )tanley ;ramer 34&4
3% Days # $??3 Foger Donaldson346%.
Also mentioned is the series The )impsons, ,-th Century 7o2