Chapter 4

Information Systems Hardware

4.1 Organization of Computer Systems
Almost all computer systems have a similar, rather simple, structure
consisting of a processor, main memory, and peripheral devices such as
secondary storage, and input and output devices.
What is the Structure of a Computer System? [Figure 4.1][Slide 4-1]
A computer system is a set of devices that can accept and store programs
and data, execute programs by applying their instructions to the data, and
reporting the results.
Figure 4.1 explains the general organization of computer system
hardware. The principal components of a computer system are the
processor, main memory, input and output devices, and secondary
storage. Stress to students that the same organization is used to build a
microcomputer for a desktop or for a mainframe.
The Processor (CPU)
The central processing unit is the most important hardware component
of a computer system. It is known as the CPU, the central processor or
instruction processor, and the main microprocessor in a microcomputer.
Data is processed and stored in a computer system through the presence
or absence of electronic or magnetic signals in the computer's circuitry
of the media it uses. This is called a Atwo-state or binary representation
of data, since the computer and media can exhibit only two possible
states or conditions (1s and 0s).
The CPU can be divided into two major subunits which include the
arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) which performs the arithmetic and logic
functions required in processing and the control unit which interprets
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computer program instructions and transmits directions to the other
components of the computer system.
Main Memory [Figure 4.2][Slide 4-4]
The main memory is a fast electronic component of the computer system
that serves to store programs to be executed by the CPU and the data
these programs require. A main memory consists of a large number of
locations, identified by their addresses, as shown in Figure 4.2.
A bit is the smallest element of data, (binary digit) which can have a
value of zero or one. The capacity of memory chips is usually expressed
in terms of bits, whereas a byte is the basic grouping of bits that the
computer operates as a single unit. It typically consists of 8 bits and is
used to represent one character of data in most computer coding schemes
(e.g., 8 bits = 1 byte). The capacity of a computer's memory and
secondary storage devices is usually expressed in terms of bytes. A word
is the largest number of consecutive bytes that can be accessed at one
time in the main memory.
Commonly used codes for representing characters in computer systems
through various arrangements of bits are:
1. ACSII (American Standard Code for Information Exchange)
2. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) -
pronounced: EB SEE DICK
Multimedia computing integrates various media, such as text, graphics,
sound, and video, is becoming more popular and therefore, images are
often stored as well. A memory representation of an image is the
equivalent of a grid of dots called pixels (picture elements).
The primary storage (main memory) on most modern computers consists
of microelectronic semiconductor memory circuits, referred to as RAM
(random access memory). Memory chips with capacities of 256K bits, 1
megabit, 4 megabits, 16 megabits, and 32 megabits are now being used
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in many computers.
Advantages of semiconductor memory are:
1. Small size
2. Fast speed
3. Shock and temperature resistance
4. Reasonably low cost due to mass production.
Disadvantage of semiconductor memory are:
1. Volatility (uninterrupted electric power must be supplied or
the contents of memory will be lost (except with read only
memory, which is permanent)).
Two basic types of semiconductor memory:
1. Random Access Memory (RAM):
- these memory chips are the most widely used primary storage
mediums. Each memory position can be both read and written,
so it is also called read/write memory. This is a volatile
memory.
2. Read Only Memory (ROM):
- Nonvolatile random access memory chips are used for
permanent storage. ROM can be read but not erased or
overwritten. Instructions and programs in primary storage can be
permanently "burned in" to the storage cells during
manufacturing.
Peripherals
Secondary storage devices (such as disks and tape drives), along with
input and output devices are called peripherals, input and output devices
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transfer programs and data between the outside world and the main
memory.
4.2 Computer Categories: Microcomputers, Mainframes, and
Supercomputers
Computer system hardware is now available in a spectacular variety of
capabilities and costs. The relative cost of hardware as compared to
software has declined no less impressively. The challenge consists in
using information technology to increase operational efficiency and
managerial effectiveness, and, ultimately, to deploy it to seek
competitive advantage.
What are the Categories of Computers:
Computer systems have evolved through several major stages or
generations. Each generation is characterized by major changes in
technology and processing power. As well, each generation has become
smaller, faster, more reliable, and less costly to purchase and maintain.
The principal characteristic of a computer generation is the fundamental
technology employed to build computer circuits. Very large-scale
integration (VLSI) made it feasible to place millions of semiconductor
devices on a single silicon chip. This translates into the high speeds of
processor chips and the high capacities of memory chips.
Computer Generations: [Figure 4.3]
Generation Time Period Based On
First generation 1951-1958 Vacuum tubes
Second generation 1959-1963 Transistors
Third generation 1964-1979 Integrated circuits
Fourth generation 1979-present LSI/VLSI (large scale integration)
Fifth generation 1990s
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Computer systems are typically classified in four categories: [Figure
4.3]
1. Microcomputers
2. Minicomputers (midrange) computers
3. Mainframe computers
4. Supercomputers.
Microcomputers [Figure 4.4][Slide 4-5]
Microcomputers are the smallest but most important categories of
computers systems for end users. They are also referred to as personal
computers (or PC's). The computing power of current microcomputers
exceeds that of the mainframe computers of previous generations at a
fraction of their cost. They have become powerful professional and
technical workstations being used by end users in businesses and other
organizations such as industrial design where high-resolution graphic
processing is required.
Some microcomputers and almost all technical workstations are now
built around microprocessors called reduced instruction set computers
(RISC). RISC processors optimize a CPU=s processing speed by using a
smaller number instruction set. Basically, this means that they use a
smaller number of the basic machine instructions that a processor is
capable of executing. By keeping the instruction set simpler and using
more complex software, RISC processors can reduce the time needed to
execute program instructions. The majority of popular computers use
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer).
Microcomputers Microcomputers Microcomputers
categorized by size categorized by use categorized by special
purpose
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1. Handheld 1. Home 1. Personal Digital Assistants
2. Notebook 2. Personal 2. Network Computers
3. Laptop 3. Professional
4. Portable 4. Workstation
5. Desktop 5. Multiuser
6. Floor-standing
Minicomputers (midrange)
Minicomputers entered the business scene from scientific and
engineering applications.
1. Are general purpose computers that are larger and more
powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and less
powerful than most large mainframes.
2. Are often used as dedicated processors for computer-assisted
design (CAD) or on-line transaction processing (OLTP), where
real-time demands of fast response have to be met.
3. Often employed as corporate computers in mid-size
organizations or as departmental computers in larger firms,
where they communicate with personal computers on the one
hand and with corporate mainframes on the other.
4. Cost less to buy and maintain than mainframe computers.
5. Can function in ordinary operating environments (do not need
air conditioning or electrical wiring).
6. Smaller models of minicomputers do not need a staff of
specialists to operate them.
Applications:
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1. Used for a large number of business and scientific
applications (scientific research, instrumentation systems,
engineering analysis, and industrial process monitoring and
control)
2. Serve as industrial process-control and manufacturing plant
computers, and they play a major role in computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM), and computer-aided design (CAD)
applications.
3. Used as front-end computers to help mainframe computers
control data communications networks and large numbers of
data entry terminals.
4. Are popular as powerful network servers in department,
offices, and work sites.
Mainframes
The traditional sharp distinction between minicomputers and mainframes
is becoming cloudy. However, mainframes are still considered the largest
computers in general use.
1. Are large, powerful computers that are physically larger and
more powerful than micros and minis.
2. Usually have one or more central processors with faster
instruction processing speeds (MIPS).
3. Have large primary storage capacities.
4. Can support more input/output and secondary storage devices.
5. Can support hundreds of users concurrently.
6. Cost more to buy and maintain than mini computers.
7. Most mainframe computers need to operate in special
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environments (air conditioning and special wiring)
8. Professionals are required to operate them.
Applications:
1. Handle the information processing needs of government
agencies and business organizations with many employees and
customers
2. Handle enormous and complex computational problems.
3. Act as host computers for distributed processing networks that
include smaller computers. Used in National and International
computing networks.
Supercomputers
Are a special category of extremely powerful mainframe computer
systems specifically designed for high-speed numeric computations.
They are capable of carrying out billions of arithmetic operations per
second. Supercomputers, exploit several design approaches, all based on
parallel processing at some level of computer design. In parallel
processing, impressive speeds are achieved by performing a large
number of operations simultaneously.
Traditional supercomputing is being successfully challenged by
massively parallel computing - systems that last together hundreds, or
even thousands, of microprocessors.
Applications:
1. Government agencies
2. Military defence systems
3. National weather forecasting agencies
4. Large timesharing networks
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5. Major corporations.
4.3 Secondary Storage
Secondary storage is used for long term (permanent) storage of data and
programs. Secondary storage devices include magnetic disks and tape
units. Before the contents of secondary storage can be processed, they
must be brought into the primary (main) storage units. Magnetic
technologies (disks and tapes) are now being challenged by optical disks
for use as secondary storage devices.
Memory Hierarchy
A demand for computer memory has grown steadily throughout the
history of computers. A variety of memory technologies offer a tradeoff
between high speed on the one hand and low costs and high capacity on
the other. Computer memories are therefore organized into a hierarchy.
Explanation of memory hierarchy:
Semiconductor Memories: [Figure 4.8][Slide 4-6]
1. At the top of this hierarchy, the fastest memory units are
actually registers included in the CPU, where data are brought
in to be manipulated by the ALU which performs the arithmetic
and logic functions required in processing. The registers in the
CPU are specialized circuits which are used for high-speed,
temporary storage of instruction or data elements during the
execution of an instruction.
2. Cache memory is a high-speed temporary storage area in the
CPU for storing parts of a program or data during processing.
3. Main memory is used to store the programs currently being
processed, as well as the data they currently need or produce.
4. Semiconductor memory is volatile - their contents are lost
when power is turned off.
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Advantages of semiconductor memory are:
1. Small size
2. Fast speed
3. Shock and temperature resistance
4. Reasonably low cost due to mass production.
Disadvantage of semiconductor memory are:
1. Volatility (uninterrupted electric power must be supplied or
the contents of memory will be lost (except with read only
memory, which is permanent)).
Secondary Storage (lower stages of the memory hierarchy)
Magnetic disk or erasable optical disk & Magnetic tape or nonerasable
optical disk
1. These devices offer nonvolatile, permanent means of storing
large volumes of programs and data.
2. To be used by the processor, these programs and data items
must first be transferred to the main memory.
3. These devices offer nonvolatile, permanent means of storing
large volumes of programs and data.
4. The principal device for on-line storage today is the magnetic
disk. The medium used for archival storage is magnetic tape.
Optical disks suffer from the disadvantage of slower speeds, but
their higher storage capacities make them a competitor of the
magnetic media as a means for secondary storage.
Computer storage elements: [Table 4.3]
Bit The smallest element of data, (binary digit) which can have a value
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of zero or one. The capacity of memory chips is usually expressed in
terms of bits.
Byte Is the basic grouping of bits that the computer operates as a single
unit. It typically consists of 8 bits and is used to represent one character
of data in most computer coding schemes (e.g., 8 bits = 1 byte) . The
capacity of a computer=s memory and secondary storage devices is
usually expressed in terms of bytes.
Kilobytes Is a measurement of storage capacity. Abbreviated as KB or K
= one thousand bytes (1,024 or 2
10
)
E.g., 640K = 640 x 1024 = 655,360 NOT 640,000
Megabytes Is a measurement of storage capacity. Abbreviated as MB or
M = one million bytes (1,024 or 2
20
)
Gigabyte Is a measurement of storage capacity. Abbreviated as GB or G
= one billion bytes (1,024 or 2
30
)
Terabyte Is a measurement of storage capacity. Abbreviated as TB or T
= one trillion bytes ((1,024 or 2
40
)
Magnetic Disks
Magnetic disks are secondary storage devices that afford the capability
of both direct (random) and sequential access to records. Sequential
access means that all records must be accessed in the sequence in which
they are stored until the desired record is reached. Direct access to a
record means that the record can be accessed by its disk address, without
the need to access any intermediate records.
Advantages of magnetic disk storage:
1. Fast access
2. High storage capacities
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3. Reasonable cost.
The two basic types of magnetic disk media are:
1. Conventional (hard) metal disks
2. Flexible (floppy) diskettes.
Magnetic Disksare thin metal or plastic disks that are coated on both
sides with an iron oxide recording material. They record data on circular
tracks in the form of tiny magnetized sports representing binary digits.
All tracks with equal radiuses on a disk make up a cylinder. A disk
surface is divided into pie-shared sectors.
There are several types of magnetic disk arrangements, including
removable disk packs and cartridges as well as fixed disk units. The
removable disk devices are popular because they can be used
interchangeable in magnetic disk units and stored offline for convenience
and security when not in use.
Floppy Disks: A small plastic disk coated with iron oxide that resembles
a small phonograph record enclosed in a protective envelope. It is a
widely used form of magnetic disk media that provides a direct access
storage capability for microcomputer systems.
Hard Disk Units: A combination of magnetic disks coated with iron
oxide, and sealed into a module. These nonremovable devices allow
higher speeds, greater data-recording densities, and closer tolerances
within a sealed, more stable environment.
RAI D: Large-capacity mainframe disk drives are being challenged by
disk arrays of interconnected microcomputer hard disk drives to provide
many gigabytes of online storage. RAID (Redundant arrays of
inexpensive disks).
Advantages:
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1. Provide large capacities with high access speeds since data is
accessed in parallel over multiple paths from many disks.
2. Provide fault tolerant capability, since their redundant design
offers multiple copies of data on several disks. If one disk fails,
data can be recovered from backup copies automatically stored
on other disks.
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Tapeis a plastic tape with a magnetic surface on which data
can be stored by selective magnetization of portions of the surface.
Magnetic tape has an obvious limitation - it permits only sequential
access. However, it is the least expensive of the commonly used storage
media and is widely used to back up magnetic disks, although it has also
been employed for on-line secondary storage in the batch applications of
many legacy systems.
Optical Disks
Optical technologies, which offer far higher storage densities and thus
far higher capacities than magnetic devices, are revolutionizing
secondary storage. Most exciting is the expansion of computer
capabilities in the direction of multimedia.
Optical disks offer direct access to information. The technology is based
on using a laser to read tiny spots on a plastic disk. The disks are
currently capable of storing billions of characters of information. The
main disadvantage is slower access as compared to magnetic disks.
CD-ROM
A most common type of optical disk used on microcomputers. There are
used for read only storage. Storage is more than 600 megabytes per disk.
This is equivalent of more than 400 (1.44 megabyte floppy) disks or
300,000 double-spaced pages of text. Data are recorded as microscopic
pits in a spiral track, and are read using a laser device.
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WORM - Write Once, Read Many.
The data is stored once on the disk, however, it can be read an infinite
number of times. They are used mainly to store archival information.
Disadvantage of CD-ROM, WORM:
1. Recorded data cannot be erased.
Major use of optical disks in mainframe and midrange systems is:
1. Image processing, where long-term archival storage of
historical files of document images must be maintained.
Major use of CD-ROM disks is:
1. Provide companies with fast access to reference materials in a
convenient, compact form.
2. Interactive multimedia applications in business, education,
and entertainment. Multimedia is the use of a variety of media,
including text and graphics displays, voice, music, and other
audio, photographs, animation, and video segments.
Erasable Optical Disks
Erasable optical disks are full-fledged competitors of magnetic disks.
Their access time is slower than magnetic disks. However, their
capacities are high for a microcomputer configuration. They offer
unlimited capacity because the cartridge is removable, and they also can
be securely stored away from the compute
4.4 Input Devices
More and more data and instructions are entered into a computer system
directly through input devices such as keyboards, electronic mice, pens,
touch screens, optical scanning wands etc.
Keyboards
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The keyboard is the principal input device in virtually all
microcomputers. A variety of special-purpose keyboards are used for
data input in various applications, such as securities trading or fast-food
outlets.
The general trend is away from keyboarding and toward direct capture of
data at the source with devices for source data automation: the use of
input technologies that capture data in a computer-readable form as the
data are created.
Pointing Devices:
Pointing devices allow end users to issue commands or make choices by
moving a cursor on the display screen. Pointing devices such as the
mouse enables users to easily choose from menu selections and icon
displays using point-and-click or point-and-drag methods. Icons - are
small figures that look like familiar devices. E.g., file folders,
wastebaskets, calculators, calendars etc. Using icons helps simplify
computer use since they are easier to use with point devices than menus
and other text-based displays.
Devices for Direct Date Entry [Figures 4.11 & 4.12]
I mage Scanners: Input device that digitizes and enters into computer
memory images of figures, photographs, or signed documents.
OCR Scanner: Optical Character Recognition Scanners consist of a
combination of hardware and software that can recognize printed or
typed text and various codes and enter the corresponding characters into
computer memory.
Bar-Code Scanner Input device that reads bar code.
Smart CardPlastic cards that carries data on a built-in semiconductor
chip, or on a laser-optic or magnetic strip.
Voice Data EntryRelying on the devices that can accept spoken input.
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4.5 Output Devices
The principal output devices are video displays for soft-copy and printers
for hard-copy output.
Video Displays
Video displays are the most common type of computer output. Most
video displays use a cathode ray tube (CRT) technology. Liquid crystal
displays (LCD's) are commonly used for portable microcomputers and
terminals. They use less electricity that the CRT and provide a thin, flat
display. Plasma display - use electrically charged particles of gas
(plasma) trapped between glass plates. They are significantly more
expensive than CRT and LCD units. However, they use less power and
provide for faster display speed and better quality displays.
An X-terminal can be utilized by a user from a workstation other than
their own. An X terminal has a limited processing capability, is used to
access services provided by other computers to which it is connected.
Such a terminal includes a keyboard and a mouse, but no disk drive, and
gives its user a window-type interface.
Printers and Other Hard-Copy Output Devices
After video displays, printed output is the most common form of visual
output for the user interface. Most computers use printers to produce
permanent (hard copy) output in human-readable form.
I mpact Printers
Are printers that form characters and other images on paper through the
impact of a printing mechanism that presses a printing element and an
inked ribbon or roller against the face of a sheet of paper (e.g., dot
matrix printers, high-speed line printers).
Non-I mpact Printers
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Are printers which do not utilize a printing mechanism (e.g., laser
printers and ink jet printers).
Plotters
Are output devices that draw graphics displays on paper. Also, produce
printed paper output.
4.6 Enriching Business Systems with Multimedia [Figure
4.15][Slide4-7]
As computing power and storage capacities are matched by the growing
telecommunications capabilities, multimedia computing increasingly
enters business life. Multimedia computing integrates various media,
such as text, data, graphics, sound, still images, and motion video, and
enables the user to interact with such a system.
The most advanced applications of multimedia computing are the virtual
reality (VR) systems that immerse users in three-dimensional artificial
worlds, creating an illusion of an alternative reality.
Multimedia computing is increasingly enabling innovative systems in
various business domains such as:
1. Marketing
2. Engineering and manufacturing
3. Human resource management
4. Training
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