COMPOSITE MATERIALS USED IN AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY.

LAMINATE DESIGN


George Cristian Potrivitu
*
, Diana Alexandra Vasilache
*



Abstract: Composite materials, often shortened to composites, are engineered or
naturally occurring materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly
different physical or chemical properties which remain separate and distinct at the
macroscopic or microscopic scale within the finished structure. In this paper we tried to
present briefly the usage of composite materials in aircraft industry, especially the laminate
design.


I. INTRODUCTION - ORIGINS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

The use of fibrous structure for load-bearing purpose has its origin in nature. The structure
of a tree consist of long strong cellulose fibers bonded together with a protein-like substance
called lignin; the fibers run up the trunk of the tree and along the branches which are the
directions of the principal stresses. Wood remains one of mans major structural materials and
one might expect therefore that structural engineers should be well acquainted with the use of
fiber-reinforced materials in design. However, the advent of strong, tough metals, especially
iron (steel) and aluminum alloys has meant that in recent times sophisticated structures have
used these materials and there are overridingly important differences between them and fiber
composites; namely that they are isotropic in behavior whereas fiber composites can be highly
anisotropic. It is difficult to fracture wood across the grain but it is easy to do so along it [1].
Plywood reduces this anisotropy by the
process of lamination. For structural
engineering purposes metals usually have
similar properties in all direction within the
material. The use of anisotropic fiber
composites materials in structural design
requires more complex analysis because it is
possible and necessary to design both the
composite material and the structure for a
given application for maximum efficiency.
In the pioneering days of flight,
aircrafts structures were composite, being
composed largely of wood, wire and fabric.
Light aluminum alloys took over in 1930s
and have dominated the aircraft industry to the present time. Wooden structures did however
persist until Second World War, and the famous de Havilland Mosquito aircraft constructed
of a plywood-balsa-plywood sandwich laminate probably represents the highpoint of
engineering design with wood [2].
The emergence of a new class of fiber composite materials for use in aircraft has its
origin in a number of technical and scientific developments, the starting point being the
Fig. 1 The de Havilland Mosquito, an all-wood
WWII production aircraft [1]
discovery last century of synthetic organic materials derived originally from vegetation and
coal. These developments have produced plastics, rubbers, adhesives and paints, and oil is
now a major source for them. A major step forward was the production of phenolic resins
(Bakelite) around 1908 by Dr. Leo Baekeland. Since then a whole range of thermosetting
resins and adhesives have been developed, for example, apart from the phenolics, there are
polyesters, epoxies, polyimides and silicones. It was soon apparent that for structural use
these materials were often too brittle and too flexible, and too overcome these deficiencies
fillers such as wood with other cellulosic fibers, paper and asbestos were used [3].
The development of phenolic resins led, in the 1920s, to the production of the well-
known facing board Formica, which is a laminate of Kraft paper impregnated with phenolic
resin, and can be regarded as the precursor for modern high performance fiber-reinforced
plastics [3]. A similar material known as Gordon Aerolite and also based on phenolic resin
incorporated untwisted flax fibers was developed in the late 1930s by Dr. Norman de Bruyne
at Aero Research, Cambridge, UK for aircraft applications. A fuselage was made out of this
material for the Spitfire fighter during the Second World War (fig. 1). To save tome no
attempt was made to fully develop the constructional technology of the material so the
aluminum alloy structure was followed as far as possible even to the extent of assembly by
rivetting. The weight of the fuselage in Aerolite was the same as the aluminum one and load
tests at RAE Farnborough were entirely satisfactory [4].

Fig. 2 Spitfire fighter wing fuselage [1]
The ultimate use of composite materials is exemplified by the American Beech-craft
Starship turbo-prop executive aircraft. It is outstanding innovative both from an aerodynamic
and structural viewpoint. The whole of the airframe is built of composite materials, and with
its highly developed avionic system the Starship is undoubtedly a harbinger of what is to
come.
Finally, helicopters must be mentioned because they are a prime example of very
effective composite usage, especially for the helicopter rotor blade where the structure and
material can be simultaneously engineered to give a highly efficient product with a
spectacular decrease in maintenance requirements. The BK 107 rotor blade developed in
1960s was one of the first applications of carbon and glass fibers reinforced epoxy resins.
From this has developed the highly advanced Westland blade technology [5].
Developments on an international scale in fiber-reinforced composite materials
continue at a rapid pace. New fibers are being introduced, for example, alumina (Al
2
O
3
) and
silicon carbide (SiC) filaments as well as new organic fibers with remarkably high stiffnesses
and strength. Research into metal and ceramic matrix materials had increased. All the signs
point to major changes in the range of materials available for structural design in the next
century [1].

II. THE POTENTIAL OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

In many respects the potential applications for composite materials in aircraft are
limitless not least because of the variety of materials which will become available. The
criterion which governs the advancement of composites is elapsed time. Twenty years ago
fiber-reinforced composites barely existed; the commercialization of carbon fibers changed
that. In the 1980s the use of composites is widespread and widely accepted. The military
aircraft world has accepted much of the cost of developing and characterizing the materials,
and taken the ricks in applying composites [1]. The civil market has fallowed with extensive
use in light and executive aircraft, coupled with significant structural use in large passenger
planes. The future can only be one of increased composite usage. It is however important to
grasp what materials the term composites will encompass.
The word composite basically describes a multi-phase material where the interaction
of the two phases gives overall mechanical and physical properties of an efficient nature. The
combination of fibrous reinforcement in a matrix is the most common form of composite. Of
all current composites, carbon fiber reinforced epoxy resins (CFRP) are the most significant;
with glass and aramid fiber reinforced epoxies fulfilling supporting roles. These together
forms in excess of 90% of all composites presently specified for aircraft construction. They
are relatively mature materials capable of development within the constraints of aircraft
industry standards for composites [6].
Epoxy resins are plastics and there are limitations on the environments they can
withstand. Other sophisticated plastics will increasingly offer challenge as more exacting
requirements are placed on materials by aircraft designers. As the needs will not stay constant
with time, metal and ceramic matrix composites will increasingly gain prominence. This
evolution is not solely confined to matrices but also includes the fibers which will make the
most appropriate means of reinforcement. The properties of carbon and aramid fibers are still
being improved at the request of aircraft constructors. For the future refractory type fibers
such as silicon carbide and alumina will also have to improve and have greater commercial
availability for use in metal and ceramic matrix composites [7].

The beneficial features offered by CFRP
for aircraft structures are [1]:

(1) Weight saving over aluminum alloys through
high specific stiffness and specific strengths;
(2) Tailored directional mechanical properties;
(3) Reduced part count over metallic equivalents;
(4) Modified radar response compared to metals;
(5) Non-corroding in salt environments;
(6) Excellent fatigue resistance;
(7) Dimensional stability.
The traditional limitations of epoxy based
CFRP are [1]:

(1) Susceptibility to operational impact damage;
(2) Restricted environmental stability in terms of temperature and moisture absorbency;
(3) Excessive localized damage through lightning strikes;
(4) Uncertainties on repair techniques;
(5) Cost.

Fig. 3 Fibers woven fabrics [9]
In the table below there is a brief classification of composite materials [2]:

REINFORCING FIBERS MATRICES CORE MATERIALS
Tows, rovings and yarns Thermoset resins Honeycomb
Unidirectional tapes Epoxy resins Plastic foams
Woven fabrics Thermoplastic polymers Syntactic core materials
Aramid fibers Carbon
Boron Metals
Carbon fibers
Pan-based carbon fibers
Pitch-based carbon fibers
Glass fibers
Quartz fibers
Asbestos
Silicon carbide fibers
Alumina fibers
Metal fibers


Fig. 4 Honeycomb [9] Fig. 5 Carbon fiber [9]

III. LAMINATE DESIGN

An early example of laminated composite materials is the de Havilland Mosquito
fighter/bomber used by the British Royal Air Force during World War II. This aircraft was
built entirely out of wood because of limited metal supplies and the need for quick delivery.
The wings, for example, were made as three-ply skins (each 1.5 mm (0.060 in) thick) of birch
or spruce, laid over balsa core or fir stringers to form a sandwich structure. This successful
production aircraft (7781 units built) was designed without the analytical techniques described
in this chapter and without fancy computer tools. With current laminate design and analysis
techniques, todays higher-performance composite aircraft are made possible; with the
increase in speed and accuracy of computation results, designer confidence in composites
structure is increased. This chapter presents the basic mathematical tools used to design
laminates and provides insight on the many options for optimizing the material for particular
needs.
Three distinct levels of benefit can be derived when using composites and laminate
design. With equal fiber distribution in multiple directions, rendering an effectively quasi-
isotropic material, composites can approximate metals while providing a weight saving due to
the difference in material densities. In addition, however, designers opting to use composite
parts enjoy the advantages of being able to tailor the properties of their material by orienting
load-carrying fibers in the direction that there are loads. The result is an anisotropic material,
which by definition is a material with different properties in different direction. Ultimately,
the composites industry is finally beginning to see the development of unique structures that
have never before been attempted and with material behavior that is only possible with
distinct laminate designs. This is a result of coupled behavior, for example, an extensional
load on an anisotropic material can yield extension coupled with bending and twisting
deformations.
In this part of the paper we would like to outline a method to design ply layouts which
achieve structural design goals for composite parts. This method is based on laminated plate
theory used with the quadratic failure criterion. This general discussion shows how the
principles for isotropic materials (such as metals) are extended to the analysis of advance
composites. The basic equations are presented and the analysis procedure is outlined.
Simplifying concepts are introduced and discussed. Simple computer codes that embody these
equations are now widely available, making it unnecessary to ever have to solve these
equations by hand.

Laminated plate theory
1. Lamina
Advanced composite materials are typically supplied as a thin layer, called a ply or
lamina, which is subsequently stacked into a thin plate, called a laminate. A unidirectional ply
or lamina is a flat or curved layer of fibers oriented in one direction and held together by
matrix material that serves to support the fibers. The stresses perpendicular to the planar
surface are assumed to be zero.
While the behavior of isotropic materials can be described with two elastic constants
(typically the Youngs modulus of the Poissons ratio) and one strength value, a composite
ply that is transversely isotropic is characterized by four elastic (stiffness) constants and five
strength parameters in two-dimensional analysis. The material properties are defined along
the fiber (y-direction). For each unidirectional ply in its own axes, the four orthotropic elastic
constants are the longitudinal tensile modulus, E
s
. Only one Poissons ratio is necessary since
v
y
= v
x
(E
y
/E
x
). The five strength parameters for each unidirectional ply are the longitudinal
tensile strength, X; the longitudinal compressive strength, X; the transverse tensile strength,
Y; the transverse compressive strength, Y; and the shear strength, S.
The five initial coupon tests to experimentally determine the nine material constants
are shown in Fig. 30.2. In the stress, , versus strain, , plot, the material is characterized by
the slope of the line, which represents material stiffness, and by the failure point, which
defines the maximum stress that the material can sustain, i.e. its strength, and by the
Fig. 6 Coupon test to determine the nine material constants used to
characterize an anisotropic material [1]
corresponding maximum strain. Use of the strength parameters is discussed in the section on
failure criteria.
During three of the coupon tests, the nonzero strains are monitored and the
relationships in equation (1) are determined. The material is assumed to be linear and elastic;
thus, the stiffness of a material is the same in tension as in compression. Based on the four
elastic constants, infinitely different laminates can be designed using laminated plate theory.
If a unidirectional specimen was simultaneously tested under the three load cases,
longitudinal tension, transverse tension, and shear, then superposition of the strains results in:
Longitudinal tension test

(1)

Transverse tension test

Shear test

(2)

Written conveniently in matrix notation,
{

}
[

} {

}{

}
Defining the plane stress stiffness matrix [Q] = [S]
-1
, another form of equation (3) is
{

} {

}{

}
[

} (4)
This calculation of the plane stress stiffness matrix [Q] for a single ply is the starting
point of laminated plate theory, once the engineering constants have been experimentally
determined.
2. Coordinate transformations
Two coordinate systems are used in laminated plate theory. The local, or on-axis,
coordinate frame is defined by x and y, also referred to as the ply axes. The x-axis is along the
longitudinal direction of the ply (along the fiber); the y-axis is in the same plane, but in the
transverse direction (perpendicular to the fiber direction). The subscript s is used with
expressions for shear, and is a contraction for the subscript xy. The plys material properties
are defined in this axis system. Since not all plies are aligned in the same direction along the
principal loading axis in a laminate, a second set of coordinates is necessary to analyze
composite laminates. The global, or off-axis, coordinate frame is defined by 1 and 2, also
referred to as the laminate axis. The 1 direction is along the principal orientation of the
laminate; the 2 direction is perpendicular to it. The subscript 6 is used with expressions for
shear, and is a contraction for the subscript 12. The loads on the laminate and the boundary
conditions are usually defined in the global system. In the case of a 0-degree unidirectional
laminate, x, y, s and 1, 2, 6 are interchangeable.
Material properties are specified with respect to the
on-axis coordinates. The properties of an off-axis ply,
anything other tahn 0 degrees, can be calculated by
transforming the properties of the o-degree ply. The angle
of transformation, , is equal to the ply angle shown in
Fig. 7, where 1 and 2 are the laminate axes and x and y
are the rotated ply axes. is positive counterclockwise
from the 1-axis to 90
o
, and negative clockwise to -90
o
.
The laminate off-axis stiffness matrix is computes
from the ply on-axis stiffness matrix by using the
following transformation relation:



{

Where m=cos, n=sin. A summary of some other useful transformation relations is given
in

. It is clear from these relations that when = 0, then

, which
means shear and estension are uncoupled, i.e. shear loading only causes shear deformation,
and extensional loading causes extentional deformation with Poissons effect but no shear
deformation.
Using the off-axis plane stress stiffness coefficients, the constitutive relations of equation
(4) and (30.3) can be generalized to a ply of any orientation:
{

} [

] {

} (6)
And inversely

{

} [

] {

}

For example, a physical interpretation is shown in Fig. 8.
In general, the terms on the diagonal (S
11,
S
22
, S
66
) reflect the amount of deformation in the
direction of loading. As with the [Q] matrix, the S
12
(and S
21
) terms reflect the deformation in
the direction perpendicular to the direction of loading, and are commonly referred to as the
component due to Poissons effect (implying the major Poissons ratio). The S
16
and S
26

(and S
61
, S
62
) terms reflect the amount of shear deformation under extensional loading, and
are commonly referres to as coupling terms. Unlike the off-axis unidirectional ply shown in
Fig. 8 (b), the 0-degree unidirectional ply shown in Fig. 8 (a) does not exhibit any shear
deformation under extensional loading.
Fig. 7 Definition of ply axes (x,y)
and laminate axes (1,2), where
the lines indicate the fiber
direction [2]

Fig. 8 Extentional loading of (a) a unidirectional ply and (b) an off-axis ply and their
associated off-axis stiffness matrix [2]

IV. CONCLUSIONS
Composite materials have many well-known advantages over other structural
materials including increased strength-weight ratio, stiffness-to-weight ratio, increased fatigue
life, corrosion resistance, and the ability to tailor the properties of the material. The
extraordinary freedom to design the laminated material is at the price of more complicated
analysis. This paper presented an explanation of the basic mathematical tools used to design
laminates including laminated plate theory.

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Middelton, Donald H., Composite materials in aircraft structures, Longman Scientific
and Technical Publishing House, pp. 10-32, 64-55, 85-98, New York, 2005;
2. Stratmann, W., In de Bossu, J., Briens, G., Lissac, P., Looking ahead for materials and
processes, Elsevier Science Publishers, pp. 53-61, 1987;
3. Purslow, D., Childs, R., Composites, Vol.17:127-36, 1986;
4. Hollaway, Leonard, Handbook of Polymer Composites for Engineers, Woodhead
Publishing, pp. 56-96, 1994;
5. Kaw, Autar K., Mechanics of Composite Materials (2nd ed.), CRC Publishing, pp. 123-
156, 2005;
6. Mathews, F.L, Rawlings, R.D., Composite Materials: Engineering and Science, Boca
Raton: CRC Press, 1999;
7. Waterman, Pamela J., The Life of Composite Materials, article in Desktop Engineering
Magazine, pp. 23-45, April 2007;
8. Matzkanin, George A., Yolken, H. Thomas, Techniques for the Nondestructive
Evaluation of Polymer Matrix Composites, article in AMMTIAC Quarterly 2, April 2009;
9. Riley, B. L., AV-8B/GR Mk5 Airframe composite applications, 22
nd
John Player Lecture
to Institute of Mechanical Engineers, London, 26 March 1986;
10. Kandebo, S. W., Aviation Week and Space Technology: 52, pp. 15-35, Longman
Publishing, New York, 1986.






*
Academia Tehnic Militar Bucureti, Facultatea de Mecatronic i Sisteme Integrate de
Armament;