Paul The Apostle - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Saint
Paul
Saint Paul by Bartolomeo Montagna
Personal details
Birth
name
Saul of Tarsus
[1][2][3]
Born
c. AD 5
[4]
in Tarsus in Cilicia
[5]
(south-central Turkey)
Died
c. AD 67
[6]
probably in Rome
[6]
Sainthood
Feast day January 25 (The Conversion of Paul)
February 10 (Feast of Saint Paul's
Shipwreck in Malta)
June 29 (Feast of Saints Peter and Paul)
June 30 (former solo feast day, still
celebrated by some religious orders)
November 18 (Feast of the dedication of
the basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul)
Canonized by Pre-Congregation
Attributes Sword
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Paul the Apostle (Greek: Paulos; c. 5 c. 67), original name
Saul of Tarsus (Greek: Saulos Tarseus),
[7][2]
was
an apostle (though not one of the Twelve Apostles) who taught the
gospel of Christ to the first-century world.
[8]
He is generally
considered one of the most important figures of the Apostolic
Age.
[9][10]
In the mid-30s to the mid-50s, he founded several
churches in Asia Minor and Europe. Paul used his status as both a Jew
and a Roman citizen to advantage in his ministry to both Jewish and
Roman audiences.
[8]
Fourteen of the twenty-seven books in the New Testament have
traditionally been attributed to Paul, and approximately half of the
Acts of the Apostles deals with Paul's life and works. Seven of the
epistles are undisputed by scholars as being authentic, with varying
degrees of argument about the remainder. The Pauline authorship of
the Epistle to the Hebrews, already doubted in the 2nd and 3rd
centuries
[11]
but almost unquestioningly accepted from the 5th to the
16th centuries,
[12]
is now almost universally rejected by scholars.
[13]
The other six are believed by some scholars to have come from
followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving
letters and letters written by him that no longer survive.
[8][9][14]
Other
scholars argue that the idea of a pseudonymous author for the
disputed epistles raises many problems.
[15]
Today, his epistles continue to be vital roots of the theology, worship,
and pastoral life in the Roman and Protestant traditions of the West,
as well as the Orthodox traditions of the East.
[16]
Among the many
other apostles and missionaries involved in the spread of the Christian
faith,
[8]
his influence on Christian thought and practice has been
characterized as being as "profound as it is pervasive".
[16]
Augustine
of Hippo developed Paul's idea that salvation is based on faith and not
"works of the law".
[17]
Martin Luther's interpretation of Paul's
writings influenced Luther's doctrine of sola fide.
1 Available sources
2 Names
3 Life
3.1 Summary
3.2 Early life
3.3 Conversion
3.4 Post-conversion
3.5 Early ministry
3.6 First missionary journey
3.7 Council of Jerusalem
Paul the Apostle - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle
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Patronage Missions; Theologians; Gentile
Christians
3.8 Incident at Antioch
3.9 Second missionary journey
3.10 Third missionary journey
3.11 Journey to Rome and beyond
3.12 Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles
3.13 Last visit to Jerusalem and arrest
3.14 His final days spent in Rome
3.15 Hardships
4 Writings
4.1 Basic message
4.2 Authorship
4.3 Atonement
4.4 Relationship with Judaism
4.5 World to come
4.6 Role of women
4.7 Views on homosexuality
5 Influence on Christianity
5.1 Lord's Supper
5.2 Eastern tradition
5.3 Western tradition
5.4 Modern theology
6 Church tradition
7 Islamic view
8 Literary analysis
8.1 Writing styles
8.2 Gnosticism
9 Controversy
10 In Art
11 See also
12 References
12.1 Citations
12.2 Bibliography
13 Further reading
14 External links
The main source for information about Paul's life is the material found in his epistles and in the book of Acts. However,
these epistles contain little information about Paul's past. The book of Acts also recounts Paul's career but leaves several
parts of Paul's life out of its narrative, such as his probable but undocumented execution in Rome.
[18]
Sources outside the New Testament that mention Paul include:
Clement of Rome's epistle to the Corinthians (late 1st/early 2nd century);
Ignatius of Antioch's letter To the Romans (early 2nd century);
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The Conversion of Saul, a fresco by
Michelangelo, 154245
Polycarp's letter to the Philippians (early 2nd century);
The 2nd-century document Martyrdom of Polycarp.
Although it has been popularly assumed that his name was changed when he
converted from Judaism to Christianity, that is not the case.
[19]
His Jewish
name was "Saul" (Hebrew: , Modern Sha'ul Tiberian l ; "asked for,
prayed for, borrowed"), perhaps after the biblical King Saul, a fellow
Benjamite and the first king of Israel. The testimony of the book of Acts is
that he inherited Roman citizenship from his father. As a Roman citizen, he
also bore the Latin name of "Paul"
[20]
in biblical Greek:
(Paulos),
[21]
and in Latin: Paulus.
[22][Acts 16:37]

[22:25-28]
It was quite usual
for the Jews of that time to have two names, one Hebrew, the other Latin or
Greek.
[20]
In the book of Acts, when he had the vision that led to his conversion on the Road to Damascus, Jesus called him "Saul,
Saul",
[23]
in Aramaic.
[24]
Later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, "the Lord" referred to him as "Saul, of Tarsus".
[2]
When Ananias came to restore his sight, he called him "Brother Saul".
[25]
In Acts 13:9, Saul is called Paul for the first time on the island of Cyprus much later than the time of his conversion.
The author (Luke) indicates the names were interchangeable: "...Saul, who also is called Paul...". He thereafter refers to
him as Paul, apparently Paul's preference since he is called Paul in all other Bible books where he is mentioned,
including those he authored. Adopting his Roman name was typical of Paul's missionary style. His method was to put
people at their ease and to approach them with his message in a language and style to which they could relate.
[19]
Summary
A native of Tarsus, the capital city in the Roman province of Cilicia,
[5]
Paul wrote that he was "a Hebrew born of
Hebrews", a Pharisee,
[26]
and one who advanced in Judaism beyond many of his peers. He also wrote that he was
"unmarried", at least as early as his writing of I Corinthians 7:8, however some hold that he may have been married prior
to that, due to certain textual analyses of his writings,
[27]
and other similar rationale. His initial reaction to the newly
formed Christian movement was to zealously persecute its early followers and to violently attempt to destroy the
movement. Paul's dramatic conversion while on the road to Damascus was clearly a life-altering event for him, changing
him from being one of the early movement's most ardent persecutors to being one of its most fervent supporters.
[8]
After his conversion, Paul began to preach that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God.
[28]
His leadership, influence, and
legacy led to the formation of communities dominated by Gentile groups that worshiped Jesus, adhered to the "Judaic
moral code", but relaxed or abandoned the ritual and dietary teachings of the Law of Moses. He taught that these laws
and rituals had either been fulfilled in the life of Christ or were symbolic precursors of Christ, though the exact
relationship between Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still disputed. Paul taught of the life and works of Jesus Christ and
his teaching of a New Covenant established through Jesus' death and resurrection. The Bible does not record Paul's
death.
Early life
The two main sources of information by which we have access to the earliest segments of Paul's career are the Bible's
Book of Acts and the autobiographical elements of Paul's letters to the early church communities. Paul was likely born
between the years of 5 BC and 5 AD.
[29]
The Book of Acts indicates that Paul was a Roman citizen by birth, more
affirmatively describing his father as such, but some scholars have taken issue with the evidence presented by the
text.
[30][Acts 16:37][Acts 22:25-29]
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Geography relevant to Paul's life, stretching from Jerusalem to Rome
His was a devout Jewish
family in the city of
Tarsusone of the largest
trade centers on the
Mediterranean coast.
[31]
It
had been in existence several
hundred years prior to his
birth. It was renowned for its
university, one in which
students could receive a
superior education. During
the time of Alexander the
Great, Tarsus was the most
influential city in Asia
Minor.
[32]
In his letters, Paul reflected
heavily from his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in
their understanding of the revealed word of God.
[33]
He would also rely heavily on the training he received concerning the law and the prophets, utilizing this knowledge to
convince his Jewish countrymen of the unity of past Old Testament prophecy and covenants with the fulfilling of these
in Jesus Christ.
[34]
His wide spectrum of experiences and education gave the "Apostle to the Gentiles"
[Rom. 1:5]

[11:13]
[Gal. 2:8]
the tools which he later would use to effectively spread the Gospel and to establish the church solidly in
many
[35]
parts of the Roman Empire.
[34]
Paul referred to himself as being "of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching
the law, a Pharisee".
[Phil. 3:5]
The Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Paul's nephew, his sister's son, is mentioned in Acts 23:16. Acts also
quotes Paul indirectly referring to his father by saying he, Paul, was "a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee".
[Acts 23:6]
Paul
refers to his mother in Romans 16:13 as among those at Rome. In Romans 16:7 he states that his relatives, Andronicus
and Junia, were Christians before he was and were prominent among the apostles.
The family had a history of religious piety.
[2 Timothy 1:3][36]
Apparently the family lineage had been very attached to
Pharisaic traditions and observances for generations.
[Philippians 3:5-6]
Young Saul learned how to make the mohair with
which tents were made.
[Acts 18:1-3]
Later as a Christian missionary, that trade became a means of support for him, one
that he could practice anywhere. It also was to become an initial connection with Priscilla and Aquila with whom he
would partner in tentmaking
[Acts 18:3]
and later become very important teammates as fellow missionaries.
[Rom. 16:4]
While he was still fairly young, he was sent to Jerusalem to receive his education at the school of Gamaliel,
[Acts 22:3]
one
of the most noted rabbis in history. The Hillel school was noted for giving their students a balanced education, likely
giving Paul broad exposure to classical literature, philosophy, and ethics.
[34]
Some of his family may have resided in
Jerusalem since later the son of one of his sisters saved his life there.
[Acts 23:16]
Nothing more is known of his
background until he takes an active part in the martyrdom of Stephen.
[Acts 7:58-60;22:20]
Paul confesses that "beyond
measure" he persecuted the church of God prior to his conversion.
[Gal. 1:13-14]

[Phil. 3:6]

[Acts 8:1-3]
Although we know
from his biography and from Acts that Paul could speak Hebrew and Aramaic, modern scholarship suggests that Koine
Greek was his first language.
[37][38]
Conversion
Paul's conversion can be dated to 3136
[39][40][41]
by his reference to it in one of his letters.
[18]
There are three
accounts of his conversion (Greek: metanoia) in the Acts of the Apostles: Acts 9:1-31, 22:1-22, and 26:9-24.
It took place on the road to Damascus where he reported having experienced a vision of the resurrected Jesus. The
account in Acts 9:4 (http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Acts&verse=9:4&src=9) says that "he [Saul] fell to
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Conversion on the Way to Damascus
(1601), by Caravaggio
The Conversion of Saint Paul, a 1600
painting by Italian artist Caravaggio
(15711610)
the earth, and heard a voice saying unto him, Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou
me?" Saul replied in 9:5, "Who art thou, Lord? And the Lord said, I am Jesus
whom thou persecutest: [it is] hard for thee to kick against the pricks." (The
account in Acts 22:9 says his companions saw the light, but did not understand
the voice of him who was speaking to Saul.)
[42]
From that experience he was blinded for three days and had to be led into
Damascus by the hand. His sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus. This
life-changing experience and revelation convinced Paul that God indeed had
chosen Jesus to be the promised messiah. Luke, the author of Acts of the
Apostles, likely learned of his conversion from Paul, from the church in
Jerusalem, or from the church in Antioch.
[42]
There remain skeptics who dispute that Paul ever received such a revelation.
Religious scholar Reza Aslan states, "The story of Pauls dramatic conversion on
the road to Damascus is a bit of propagandistic legend created by the evangelist
Luke; Paul himself never recounts the story of being blinded by the sight of
Jesus."
[43]
In Galatians 1:16 he writes that God "was pleased to reveal his son to
me." In 1 Corinthians 15:8, in listing the order in which Jesus appeared to his
disciples after his resurrection, Paul says "last of all, as to one untimely born, He appeared to me also."(NASB) These
passages from his epistles, coupled with the two separate accounts he is reported to have given to both Jewish and
Roman authorities in Acts, have been interpreted to refer to his road-to-Damascus conversion experience which he
elsewhere had described as the resurrected Jesus appearing to him.
Post-conversion
At once he began to preach in the synagogues that Jesus is the Son of
God. All those who heard him were astonished and asked, "Isn't he the
man who raised havoc in Jerusalem among those who call on this
name? And hasn't he come here to take them as prisoners to the chief
priests?" Yet Saul grew more and more influential and baffled the
Jews living in Damascus by proving that Jesus is the Messiah.
Acts 9:20-22
Paul said that he received the Gospel not from any man, but by "the revelation of
Jesus Christ".
[Gal 1:11-16]
Paul declared his independence from the Jerusalem
community
[6]:pp.316320
(possibly in the Cenacle), but agreed with it on the
nature and content of the gospel.
[Gal 1:22-24]
In the opening verses of Romans 1, Paul provides a litany of his own apostolic
appointment to preach among the Gentiles
[Gal. 1:16]
and his post-conversion
convictions about the risen Christ.
[9]
Paul described himself as
a servant of Jesus Christ;
having experienced an unforeseen, sudden, startling change, due to all-powerful gracenot the fruit of his
reasoning or thoughts;
[Gal. 1:12-15]

[1 Cor. 15:10]
having seen Christ as did the other apostles when Christ appeared to him
[1 Cor. 15:8]
as he appeared to Peter,
to James, to the Twelve, after his Resurrection;
[1 Cor. 9:1]
called to be an apostle;
set apart for the gospel of God.
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Paul described Jesus as
having been promised by God beforehand through his prophets in the holy Scriptures;
being the true messiah and the Son of God;
having biological lineage from David ("according to the flesh");
[44]
having been declared to be the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection
from the dead;
being Jesus Christ our Lord;
the One through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith for the
sake of his name among all the nations, "including you who are called to belong to Jesus Christ".
Jesus
lives in heaven;
is God's Son;
would soon return.
[9]
The Cross
he now believed Jesus' death was a voluntary sacrifice that reconciled sinners with God.
[Rom. 5:6-10]
[Phil. 2:8]
The Law
he had believed the law (Jewish Torah) kept people in a right relationship with God;
[Gal. 2:16]

[Gal. 3:12]
he now believed the law only reveals the extent of people's enslavement to the power of sina power that
must be broken by Christ.
[Rom. 3:20b]

[7:7-12]
Gentiles
he had believed Gentiles were outside the covenant that God made with Israel;
he now believed Gentiles and Jews were united as the people of God in Christ Jesus.
[Gal. 3:28]
Circumcision
had believed circumcision was the rite through which males became part of Israel, an exclusive community
of God's chosen people;
[Phil. 3:3-5]
he now believed that neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything, but that the new creation is
what counts in the sight of God,
[Gal. 6:15]
and that this new creation is a work of Christ in the life of
believers, making them part of the church, an inclusive community of Jews and Gentiles reconciled with
God through faith.
[Rom. 6:4]
Persecution
had believed his violent persecution of the church to be an indication of his zeal for his religion;
[Phil. 3:6]
he now believed Jewish hostility toward the church was sinful opposition that would incur God's
wrath;
[1 Thess. 2:14-16]

[8]:p.236
he believed he was halted by Christ when his fury was at its height;
[Acts 9:1-2]
It was "through zeal" that he persecuted the Church,
[Philippians 3:6]
and he obtained mercy because he had
"acted ignorantly in unbelief".
[1 Tim. 1:13][36]
The Last Days
had believed God's messiah would put an end to the old age of evil and initiate a new age of righteousness;
he now believed this would happen in stages that had begun with the resurrection of Jesus, but the old age
would continue until Jesus returns.
[Rom. 16:25]

[1 Cor. 10:11]

[Gal. 1:4]

[8]:p.236
Paul's writings give some insight into his thinking regarding his relationship with Judaism. He is strongly critical both
theologically and empirically of claims of moral or lineal superiority
[Rom. 2:16-26]
of Jews while conversely strongly
sustaining the notion of a special place for the Children of Israel.
[9-11]
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The house believed to be of Ananias of
Damascus in Damascus
Bab Kisan, believed to be where Paul
escaped from persecution in Damascus
What is remarkable about such a conversion is the changes in the thinking that had to take place. He had to change his
concept of who the messiah was, particularly what he had perceived as the absurdity of accepting a crucified
messiah.
[1 Cor. 1:21-25]
Perhaps more challenging was changing his conception of the ethnic superiority of the Jewish
people. There are debates as to whether Paul understood himself as commissioned to take the gospel to the Gentiles at
the moment of his conversion.
[45]
Early ministry
After his conversion, Paul went to Damascus, where Acts states he was
healed of his blindness and baptized by Ananias of Damascus.
[46]
Paul says
that it was in Damascus that he barely escaped death.
[2 Cor. 11:32]
Paul also
says that he then went first to Arabia, and then came back to
Damascus.
[Gal. 1:17][47]
Paul's trip to Arabia is not mentioned anywhere else
in the Bible, and some suppose he actually traveled to Mt. Sinai for
meditations in the desert.
[48][49][50]
He describes in Galatians how three
years after his conversion he went to Jerusalem. There he met James and
stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days.
[Gal. 1:13-24]
Afterwards, Paul proclaims
that Mount Sinai is located in Arabia.
[Gal. 4:24-25]
Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from an apostle, but directly
by the revelation of Jesus Christ.
[Gal. 1:11-12]
Paul said he was almost totally
independent from the Jerusalem community.
[6]:pp.316320
He appeared eager
to bring material support to Jerusalem from the various budding Gentile
churches that he planted. In his writings, Paul used the persecutions he
endured, in terms of physical beatings and verbal assaults, to avow proximity
and union with Jesus and as a validation of his teaching.
Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went
again to Jerusalem.
[Gal. 2:1-10]
It is not completely known what happened
during these 'unknown years', but both Acts and Galatians provide some
partial details.
[51]
At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and
brought him back to Antioch.
[Acts 11:26]
When a famine occurred in Judea, around 4546,
[52]
Paul and Barnabas
journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.
[53]
According to Acts, Antioch had
become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen. It was in
Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians".
[Acts 11:26]
First missionary journey
The author of the Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey,
[Acts 13-14]
led initially by
Barnabas,
[54]
takes Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then southern Asia Minor (Anatolia), and back to Antioch. In Cyprus,
Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas the magician
[Acts 13:8-12]
who was criticizing their teachings. From this point on, Paul is
described as the leader of the group.
[55]
They sail to Perga in Pamphylia. John Mark leaves them and returns to Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas go on to Pisidian
Antioch. On Sabbath they go to the synagogue. The leaders invite them to speak. Paul reviews Israelite history from life
in Egypt to King David. He introduces Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by God. He said that his team
came to town to bring the message of salvation. He recounts the story of Jesus' death and resurrection. He quotes from
the Septuagint
[56]
to assert that Jesus was the promised Christos who brought them forgiveness for their sins. Both the
Jews and the 'God-fearing' Gentiles invited them to talk more next Sabbath. At that time almost the whole city gathered.
This upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used the occasion to announce a change in his mission
which from then on would be to the Gentiles.
[Acts 13:13-48]
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Saint Paul delivering the Areopagus sermon
in Athens, by Raphael, 1515. This sermon
addressed early issues in Christology.
[64][65]
Antioch served as a major Christian center for Paul's evangelizing.
[6]
Council of Jerusalem
Most scholars agree that a vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place some time in the years 48 to
50,
[18]
described in Acts 15:2 and usually seen as the same event mentioned by Paul in Galatians 2:1.
[18]
The key
question raised was whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised.
[57]
At this meeting, Paul states in his letter to
the Galatians that Peter, James, and John accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles.
Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, in Paul's letters, and some appear in both.
[58]
For example, the Jerusalem visit
for famine relief
[Acts 11:27-30]
apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Cephas and James only).
[Gal. 1:18-20][58]
F. F.
Bruce suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than from his first visit to
Jerusalem.
[59]
Incident at Antioch
Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly
confronted Peter in a dispute sometimes called the "Incident at Antioch", over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with
Gentile Christians in Antioch because they did not strictly adhere to Jewish customs.
[60]
Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts, "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong", and
says he told Peter, "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force Gentiles
to follow Jewish customs?"
[Gal. 2:11-14]
Paul also mentions that even Barnabas, his traveling companion and fellow
apostle until that time, sided with Peter.
[61]
The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia
[62]
suggests that Paul won the
argument, because "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke". However
Paul himself never mentions a victory and L. Michael White's From Jesus to Christianity draws the opposite conclusion:
"The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never
again to return".
[63]
The primary source account of the Incident at Antioch is Paul's letter to the Galatians.
Second missionary journey
Paul left for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn
49,
[66]
after the meeting of the Council of Jerusalem where the circumcision
question was debated. On their trip around the Mediterranean sea, Paul and
his companion Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp
argument about taking John Mark with them on their trips. The book of Acts
said that John Mark had left them in a previous trip and gone home. Unable
to resolve the dispute, Paul and Barnabas decided to separate; Barnabas
took John Mark with him, while Silas joined Paul.
Paul and Silas initially visited Tarsus (Paul's birthplace), Derbe and Lystra.
In Lystra, they met Timothy, a disciple who was spoken well of, and decided
to take him with them. The Church kept growing, adding believers, and
strengthening in faith daily.
[Acts 16:5]
In Philippi, Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a servant girl, whose
masters were then unhappy about the loss of income her soothsaying provided. (Acts 16:1624) They turned the city
against the missionaries, and Paul and Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell
apart and Paul and Silas could have escaped but remained; this event led to the conversion of the jailor.(Acts 16:2540)
They continued traveling, going by Berea and then to Athens where Paul preached to the Jews and God-fearing Greeks
in the synagogue and to the Greek intellectuals in the Areopagus.
Around 5052, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth.
[18]
The reference in Acts to Proconsul Gallio helps ascertain this date
8 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
(cf. Gallio inscription).
[18]
In Corinth, Paul met Priscilla and Aquila who became faithful believers and helped Paul
through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to Ephesus, and stayed there to
start one of the strongest and most faithful churches at that time. In 52, the missionaries sailed to Caesarea to greet the
Church there and then traveled north to Antioch where they stayed for about a year before leaving again on their third
missionary journey.
[67]
Third missionary journey
Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all around the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen, teach and
rebuke the believers. Paul then traveled to Ephesus, an important center of early Christianity, and stayed there for
almost three years. He performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently
organized missionary activity in other regions.
[68]
Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a
pro-Artemis riot involving most of the city.
[18]
During his stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote four letters to the church in
Corinth admonishing them for their pagan behavior.
[42]
Paul went through Macedonia into Achaea and made ready to continue on to Syria, but he changed his plans and
traveled back through Macedonia because of Jews who had made a plot against him. At this time (5657), it is likely that
Paul visited Corinth for three months.
[18]
In Romans 15:19 Paul wrote that he visited Illyricum, but he may have meant
what would now be called Illyria Graeca,
[69]
which lay in the northern part of modern Albania, but was at that time a
division of the Roman province of Macedonia.
[70]
Paul and his companions visited other cities on their way back to Jerusalem such as Philippi, Troas, Miletus, Rhodes, and
Tyre. Paul finished his trip with a stop in Caesarea where he and his companions stayed with Philip the Evangelist before
finally arriving at Jerusalem.
[71]

[Acts 21:8-10]

[21:15]
Journey to Rome and beyond
After Paul's arrival in Jerusalem at the end of his third missionary journey, he became involved in a serious conflict with
some "Asian Jews" (most likely from Roman Asia). The conflict eventually led to Paul's arrest and imprisonment in
Caesarea for two years. Finally, Paul and his companions sailed for Rome where Paul was to stand trial for his alleged
crimes. Acts states that Paul preached in Rome for two years from his rented home while awaiting trial. It does not state
what happened after this time, but some sources state that Paul was freed by Nero and continued to preach in Rome,
even though that seems unlikely based on Nero's historical cruelty to Early Christians. It is possible that Paul also
traveled to other countries like Spain and Britain.
[72]
See His final days spent in Rome section below.
Among the writings of the early Christians, Clement of Rome said that Paul was "Herald (of the Gospel of Christ) in the
West", and that "he had gone to the extremity of the west".
[73][74]
Chrysostom indicated that Paul preached in Spain:
"For after he had been in Rome, he returned to Spain, but whether he came thence again into these parts, we know
not".
[75]
Cyril of Jerusalem said that Paul, "fully preached the Gospel, and instructed even imperial Rome, and carried
the earnestness of his preaching as far as Spain, undergoing conflicts innumerable, and performing Signs and
wonders".
[76]
The Muratorian fragment mentions "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] [5a] (39) when he
journeyed to Spain".
[77]
Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles
This table is adapted from White, From Jesus to Christianity.
[58]
Note that the matching of Paul's travels in the Acts and
the travels in his Epistles is done for the reader's convenience and is not approved of by all scholars.
Acts Epistles
First visit to Jerusalem
[Acts 9:26-27]
"after many days" of Damascus conversion
preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas
meets apostles
First visit to Jerusalem
[Gal. 1:18-20]
three years after Damascus
conversion
[Gal. 1:17-18]
sees only Cephas (Peter) and James
9 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
Saint Paul arrested, early 1900s
Bible illustration
The Beheading of Saint Paul by
Enrique Simonet, 1887
Last visit to Jerusalem and arrest
Paul arrived in Jerusalem on his fifth and final visit to Jerusalem
[Acts 21:17ff]
in 57
with a collection of money for the community there.
[18]
Acts reports that he was
warmly received. But Acts goes on to recount how Paul was warned by James and
the elders that he was gaining a reputation for being against the Law, "teaching all
the Jews living among the gentiles to forsake Moses, and that you tell them not to
circumcise their children or observe the customs".
[Acts 21:21]
Paul underwent a
purification ritual in order to give the Jews no grounds to bring accusations against
him for not following their law. Paul caused a stir when he appeared at the Temple,
and he escaped being killed by the crowd by voluntarily being taken into Roman
custody. When a plot to kill Paul on his way to an appearance before the Jews was
discovered, he was transported by night to Caesarea. He was held as a prisoner there
for two years, until a new governor reopened his case in 59. When the governor
suggested that he be sent back to Jerusalem for further trial, Paul exercised his right
as a Roman citizen to "appeal unto Caesar".
[18]
His final days spent in Rome
Acts recounts that on the way to Rome for his appeal as a Roman citizen to Caesar, Paul was shipwrecked on "Melita"
(Malta),
[Acts 28:1]
where he was met by Publius
[Acts 28:7]
and the islanders who showed him "unusual
kindness".
[Acts 28:2]
He arrived in Rome c. 60 and spent another two years under house arrest (beyond his two years in
prison in Caesarea).
[18][Acts 28:16]
Irenaeus of Lyons in the 2nd century believed that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the church in Rome and had
appointed Linus as succeeding bishop.
[81]
Paul was not a bishop of Rome, nor did he bring Christianity to Rome since
there were already Christians in Rome when he arrived there.
[Acts 28:14-15]
Also, Paul wrote his letter to the church at
Rome before he had visited Rome.
[Romans 1:1,7,11-13;15:23-29]
However, Paul would have played an important role in the
life of the early church at Rome.
[82]
Neither the Bible nor other sources say how or when Paul died, but Ignatius,
probably around 110, writes that Paul was martyred.
[83]
Christian tradition holds
that Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero around the mid-60s at
Tre Fontane Abbey (English: Three Fountains Abbey).
[84]
By comparison,
tradition states that Peter, who was not a Roman citizen, was given the more
painful death of being crucified upside-down.
[85]
In June 2009, Pope Benedict XVI announced excavation results concerning the
tomb of Paul at the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls. The sarcophagus
was not opened but was examined by means of a probe, which revealed pieces of
incense, purple and blue linen, and small bone fragments. The bone was
radiocarbon dated to the 1st or 2nd century. According to the Vatican, these findings are consistent with the tradition
that the tomb is Paul's.
[86]
The sarcophagus was inscribed in Latin saying, "Paul apostle martyr".
[87]
Hardships
In 2 Corinthians 11:20-32 Paul provided a sampling of some of his adversities as a missionary. In comparing his
experiences to those of some of the "most eminent apostles", he wrote that he:
worked much harder.
was in prison more frequently.
was flogged more severely.
had been exposed to death again and again (five times he received from the Jews the forty lashes minus one, three
times was beaten with rods, once he was pelted with stones).
10 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
Statue of St. Paul in the Archbasilica
of St. John Lateran by Pierre-tienne
Monnot.
was shipwrecked three times, spending a night and a day in the open sea.
was constantly on the move.
had been in danger from rivers, in danger from bandits, in danger from his fellow Jews, in danger from Gentiles; in
danger in the city, in danger in the country, in danger at sea; and in danger from false believers
had labored and toiled and had often gone without sleep
had known hunger and thirst and had often gone without food
had been cold and naked
to escape arrest by the governor of Damascus, he was lowered in a basket from a window in the wall and got away
He concluded: "Besides everything else, I face daily the pressure of my concern for all the churches".
[2 Cor. 11:28]
Of the 27 books in the New Testament, 14 have been attributed to Paul; 7 of
these are widely considered authentic and Paul's own, while the authorship of the
other seven is disputed.
[88][89][90]
The undisputed letters are considered the most
important sources since they contain what everyone agrees to be Paul's own
statements about his life and thoughts. Theologian Mark Powell writes that Paul
directed these 7 letters to specific occasions at particular churches. As an
example, if the Corinthian church had not experienced problems concerning its
celebration of the Lord's Supper,
[1 Cor. 11:17-34]
today we would not know that
Paul even believed in that observance or had any opinions about it one way or
the other. He asks if we might be ignorant of other matters simply because no
crises arose that promoted Paul to comment on them.
[8]:p.234
Although approximately half of the Book of Acts deals with Paul's life and
works, the Book of Acts does not refer to Paul writing letters. Historians believe
that the author of Acts did not have access to any of Paul's letters. One piece of
evidence suggesting this is that Acts never directly quotes from the Pauline
epistles. Discrepancies between the Pauline epistles and Acts would further
support the conclusion that the author of Acts did not have access to those
epistles when composing Acts.
[91][92]
In Paul's writings, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a
Christian and thus a description of Christian spirituality. His letters have been
characterized as being the most influential books of the New Testament after the Gospels of Matthew and John.
[9]
Paul...only occasionally had the opportunity to revisit his churches. He tried to keep up his converts'
spirit, answer their questions, and resolve their problems by letter and by sending one or more of his
assistants (especially Timothy and Titus).
Paul's letters reveal a remarkable human being: dedicated, compassionate, emotional, sometimes harsh
and angry, clever and quick-witted, supple in argumentation, and above all possessing a soaring,
passionate commitment to God, Jesus Christ, and his own mission. Fortunately, after his death one of
his followers collected some of the letters, edited them very slightly, and published them. They
constitute one of history's most remarkable personal contributions to religious thought and practice.
[9]
Basic message
E.P. Sanders finds three major emphases in Paul's writings:
[9]
His strongest emphasis was on the death, resurrection, and lordship of Jesus Christ. He preached that one's faith in
11 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
Paul Writing His Epistles, painting
probably by Valentin de Boulogne, 17th
century
Jesus assures that person a share in Jesus' life (salvation). He saw Jesus' death as being for the believers' benefit,
not a defeat. Jesus died so that believers' sins would be forgiven.
The resurrection of Jesus was of primary importance to Paul as may be seen in his first letter to the
Thessalonians
[1 Thes. 1:9-10]
which is the earliest surviving account of Paul's conversion.
The resurrection brought the promise of salvation to believers. Paul taught that, when Christ returned, those
already dead but who died while believing in Christ as the saviour of mankind would be brought back to life, while
those still alive would be "caught up in the clouds together with them to meet the Lord in the air".
[1 Thes. 4:14-18]
Sanders concludes that Paul's writings reveal what he calls the essence of the Christian message:
God sent his Son. 1.
The Son was crucified for the sins of humanity. 2.
After being dead three days, the Son was raised from the dead defeating death. 3.
The Son would soon return. 4.
Those in Christ will live with him forever. 5.
Followers are urged to live by a set apart (sanctified) standard"And the very God of peace sanctify you wholly;
and I pray God your whole spirit and soul and body be preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus
Christ".
[1 Thes. 5:23]
6.
Authorship
Seven of the 13 letters that bear Paul's name Romans, 1st Corinthians, 2nd
Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1st Thessalonians and Philemon are
almost universally accepted as being entirely authentic (dictated by Paul
himself).
[9][88][89][90]
They are considered the best source of information on
Paul's life and especially his thought.
[9]
Four of the letters (Ephesians, 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus) are widely
considered pseudepigraphical, while the authorship of the other two is
subject to debate.
[88]
Colossians, and 2nd Thessalonians are thought by
some to be "Deutero-Pauline" meaning they may have been written by
Paul's followers after his death. Similarly, 1st Timothy, 2nd Timothy, and
Titus may be "Trito-Pauline" meaning they may have been written by
members of the Pauline school a generation after his death. According to
their theories, these disputed letters may have come from followers writing
in Paul's name, often using material from his surviving letters. These scribes
also may have had access to letters written by Paul that no longer survive.
[9]
Paul's letters were largely written to churches which he had visited; he was a great traveler, visiting Cyprus, Asia Minor
(modern Turkey), mainland Greece, Crete, and Rome. His letters are full of expositions of what Christians should believe
and how they should live. His most explicit references to the life of Jesus are of the Last Supper
[1 Cor. 11:17-34]
and the
crucifixion and resurrection.
[1 Cor. 15]
He provides few references to Jesus' teachings,
[1 Cor. 7:10-11]

[9:14]
leading some theologians to question how consistent
was his account of the faith with that of the four canonical Gospels, the Book of Acts, and the Epistle of James.
The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled description
(among his writings) of Jesus as "the image of the invisible God", a Christology found elsewhere only in John's
gospel.
[93]
However, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of Paul. Internal
evidence shows close connection with Philippians.
[94]
Ephesians is a letter that is very similar to Colossians, but is almost entirely lacking in personal reminiscences. Its style is
unique. It lacks the emphasis on the cross to be found in other Pauline writings, reference to the Second Coming is
12 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
Russian Orthodox icon of the
Apostle Paul, 18th century
(Iconostasis of
Transfiguration Church,
Kizhi Monastery, Karelia,
Russia)
missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a way which contrasts with the reference in 1 Cor. 7:8-9. Finally, according
to R.E. Brown, it exalts the Church in a way suggestive of a second generation of Christians, 'built upon the foundation
of the apostles and prophets' now past.
[95]
The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read
by a number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development of Paul's thinking. It has been
said, too, that the moral portion of the Epistle, consisting of the last two chapters, has the closest affinity with similar
portions of other Epistles, while the whole admirably fits in with the known details of Paul's life, and throws considerable
light upon them.
[94]
Three main reasons have been advanced by those who question Paul's authorship of
1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titusalso known as the Pastoral Epistles.
First, they have found a difference in these letters' vocabulary, style, and theology
from Paul's acknowledged writings. Defenders of the authenticity say that they
were probably written in the name and with the authority of the Apostle by one of
his companions, to whom he distinctly explained what had to be written, or to
whom he gave a written summary of the points to be developed, and that when the
letters were finished, Paul read them through, approved them, and signed them.
[94]
Second, some believe there is a difficulty in fitting them into Paul's biography as
we have it.
[96]
They, like Colossians and Ephesians, were written from prison but
suppose Paul's release and travel thereafter.
[94]
Third, 2 Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned by some on stylistic grounds,
with some noting, among other peculiarities, a dependence on
1 Thessaloniansyet a distinctiveness in language from the Pauline corpus. This,
again, is explainable by the possibility that Paul requested one of his companions
to write the letter for him under his dictation.
[94]
Atonement
Paul wrote down much of the theology of atonement.
[97]
Paul taught that Christians are
redeemed from the Law (see Supersessionism) and from sin by Jesus' death and
resurrection.
[97]
His death was an expiation as well as a propitiation, and by Christ's
blood peace is made between God and man.
[97]
By baptism, a Christian shares in Jesus' death and in his victory over
death, gaining as a free gift a new, justified status of sonship.
[97]
Relationship with Judaism
Some scholars see Paul (or Saul) as completely in line with 1st-century Judaism (a Pharisee and student of Gamaliel as
presented by Acts),
[98]
others see him as opposed to 1st-century Judaism (notably Marcionism), while the majority see
him as somewhere in between these two extremes, opposed to "Ritual Laws" (for example the circumcision controversy
in early Christianity) but in full agreement on "Divine Law". These views of Paul are paralleled by the views of Biblical
law in Christianity.
Paul's theology of the gospel accelerated the separation of the messianic sect of Christians from Judaism, a development
contrary to Paul's own intent.
[18]
He wrote that faith in Christ was alone decisive in salvation for Jews and Gentiles
alike, making the schism between the followers of Christ and mainstream Jews inevitable and permanent.
[18]
He argued
that Gentile converts did not need to become Jews, get circumcised, follow Jewish dietary restrictions, or otherwise
observe Mosaic laws to be saved.
[18]
Nevertheless, in Romans he insisted on the positive value of the Law, as a moral
guide.
E.P. Sanders' publications
[99]
have since been taken up by Professor James Dunn who coined the phrase "The New
Perspective on Paul".
[100]
N.T. Wright,
[101]
the Anglican Bishop of Durham, notes a difference in emphasis between
Galatians and Romans, the latter being much more positive about the continuing covenant between God and his ancient
13 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
Paul the Apostle , attributed to Lucas
van Leyden
people than the former. Wright also contends that performing Christian works is not insignificant but rather proof of
having attained the redemption of Jesus Christ by grace (free gift received by faith).
[Rom. 2:13ff]
He concludes that Paul
distinguishes between performing Christian works which are signs of ethnic identity and others which are a sign of
obedience to Christ.
[101]
World to come
According to Ehrman, Paul believed that Jesus would return within his lifetime.
[102]
He states that Paul expected that
Christians who had died in the mean time would be resurrected to share in God's kingdom, and he believed that the
saved would be transformed, assuming supernatural bodies.
[102]
Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his letters to the Christians at Thessalonica.
Heavily persecuted, it appears that they had written asking him first about those who had died already, and, secondly,
when they should expect the end. He assures them that the dead will rise first and be followed by those left
alive.
[1 Thes. 4:16ff]
This suggests an imminence of the end but he is unspecific about times and seasons, and encourages
his hearers to expect a delay.
[103]
The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of
lawlessness
[2 Thess. 2:3][36]
whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.
Role of women
The second chapter of the first letter to Timothyone of the six disputed
lettersis used by many churches to deny women a vote in church affairs, reject
women from serving as teachers of adult Bible classes, prevent them from serving
as missionaries, and generally disenfranchise women from the duties and
privileges of church leadership.
[104]
9 In like manner also, that women adorn themselves in modest apparel,
with shamefacedness and sobriety; not with broided hair, or gold, or pearls,
or costly array;
10 But (which becometh women professing godliness) with good works.
11 Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection.
12 But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man,
but to be in silence.
13 For Adam was first formed, then Eve.
14 And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the
transgression.
15 Notwithstanding she shall be saved in childbearing, if they continue in faith and charity and holiness with
sobriety.
1 Timothy 2:9-15
The KJV translation of this passage taken literally says that women in the churches are to have no leadership roles
vis--vis men.
[105]
Whether it also forbids women from teaching children and women is dubious as even those Catholic
churches that prohibit female priests permit female abbesses to teach and exercise authority over other females.
Fuller Seminary theologian J. R. Daniel Kirk
[106]
finds evidence in Paul's letters of a much more inclusive view of
women. He writes that Romans 16 is a tremendously important witness to the important role of women in the early
church. Paul praises Phoebe for her work as a deaconess and Junia who is described by Paul in Scripture as being
respected among the Apostles.
[Romans 16:7]
It is Kirk's observation that recent studies have led many scholars to conclude
that the passage in 1 Corinthians 14 ordering women to "be silent" during worship was a later addition, apparently by a
different author, and not part of Paul's original letter to the Corinthians.
Other scholars, such as Giancarlo Biguzzi, believe that Paul's restriction on women speaking in 1 Corinthians 14 is
14 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
genuine to Paul but applies to a particular case where there were local problems of womenwho were not allowed in
that culture to become educatedasking questions or chatting during worship services. He does not believe it to be a
general prohibition on any woman speaking in worship settings since in 1 Corinthians Paul affirms the right
(responsibility) of women to prophesy.
[1 Cor. 11]

[107]
Biblical prophecy is more than "fore-telling": two-thirds of its inscripturated form involves "forth-telling",
that is, setting the truth, justice, mercy, and righteousness of God against the backdrop of every form of
denial of the same. Thus, to speak prophetically was to speak boldly against every form of moral, ethical,
political, economic, and religious disenfranchisement observed in a culture that was intent on building its
own pyramid of values vis-a-vis God's established system of truth and ethics.
[108]
There were women prophets in the highly patriarchal times throughout the Old Testament.
[108]
The most common term
for prophet in the Old Testament is nabi [ayib"n] in the masculine form, and nab""a(h) [h'ayibn] in the Hebrew feminine
form, is used six times of women who performed the same task of receiving and proclaiming the message given by God.
These women include Miriam, Aaron and Moses' sister,
[Exod 15:20]
Deborah,
[Judges 4:4]
the prophet Isaiah's wife,
[Isa. 8:3]
and Huldah, the one who interpreted the Book of the Law discovered in the temple during the days of
Josiah.
[2 Kings 22:14]

[2 Chron. 34:22]
There were false prophetesses just as there were false prophets. The prophetess
Noadiah was among those who tried to intimidate Nehemiah.
[Neh 6:14]
Apparently they held equal rank in prophesying
right along with Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Elisha, Aaron, and Samuel.
[108]
Kirk's third example of a more inclusive view is Galatians 3:28:
There is neither...
...Jew nor Greek,
...slave nor free,
...male nor female,
for you are all one in Christ Jesus.
Galatians 3:28 (ital. added)
In pronouncing an end within the church to the divisions which are common in the world around it, he concludes by
highlighting the fact that "...there were New Testament women who taught and had authority in the early churches, that
this teaching and authority was sanctioned by Paul, and that Paul himself offers a theological paradigm within which
overcoming the subjugation of women is an anticipated outcome".
[109]
Classicist Evelyn Stagg and theologian Frank Stagg believe that Paul was attempting to "Christianize" the societal
household or domestic codes that significantly oppressed women and empowered men as the head of the household. The
Staggs present a serious study of what has been termed the New Testament domestic code, also known as the
Haustafel.
[110]
The two main passages that explain these "household duties" are Paul's letters to the Ephesians 5:22-6:5
and to the Colossians 3:18-4:1. An underlying Household Code is also reflected in four additional Pauline letters and 1
Peter: 1 Timothy 2:1ff., 8ff.; 3:1ff., 8ff.; 5:17ff.; 6:1f.; Titus 2:1-10 and 1 Peter 2:13-3:9. Biblical scholars have typically
treated the Haustafel in Ephesians as a resource in the debate over the role of women in ministry and in the home.
[111]
Margaret MacDonald argues that the Haustafel, particularly as it appears in Ephesians, was aimed at reducing the
tension between community members and outsiders.
[112]
E.P. Sanders has labeled the Apostle's remark in 1 Cor. 14:34-36 about women not making any sound during worship as
"Paul's intemperate outburst that women should be silent in the churches".
[99]
Women, in fact, played a very significant
part in Paul's missionary endeavors:
He became a partner in ministry with the couple Priscilla and Aquila who are specifically named seven times in the
New Testamentalways by their couple name and never individually. Of the seven times they are named in the
New Testament, Priscilla's name appears first in five of those instances, suggesting to some scholars that she was
the head of the family unit.
[113]
They lived, worked, and traveled with the Apostle Paul, becoming his honored,
15 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
much-loved friends and coworkers in Christ Jesus.
[114]
In Romans 16:3-4, thought to have been written in 56 or
57, Paul sends his greetings to Priscilla and Aquila and proclaims that both of them "risked their necks" to save
Paul's life.
Chloe was an important member of the church in Corinth
[1 Cor. 1:11]
Phoebe was a "deacon" and a "benefactor" of Paul and others
[Rom. 16:1-2]
Romans 16 names eight other women active in the Christian movement, including Junia ("prominent among the
apostles"), Mary ("who has worked very hard among you"), and Julia
Women were frequently among the major supporters of the new Christian movement
[9]
Views on homosexuality
Most Christian denominations
[115]
say Paul clearly portrays homosexuality as sinful in two specific locations:
Romans 1:26-27, and 1 Corinthians 6:9-10. Another well-known passage addresses the topic more obliquely:
1 Timothy 1:8-11. Since the nineteenth century, however, virtually all mainstream scholars have concluded that First
Timothy, along with Second Timothy and Titus, are not original to Paul, but rather an unknown Christian writing in
Paul's name some time in the late-first-to-mid-2nd century.
[116][117]
Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author.
[9][17]
Paul declared that faith in Christ made the Torah unnecessary for salvation, exalted the Christian church as the body of
Christ, and depicted the world outside the Church as under judgment.
[18]
Lord's Supper
Paul's writings include the earliest reference to the "Lord's Supper",
[118]
a rite traditionally identified as the Christian
communion or Eucharist.
Eastern tradition
In the East, church fathers attributed the element of election in Romans 9 to divine foreknowledge.
[18]
The themes of
predestination found in Western Christianity do not appear in Eastern theology.
Western tradition
Augustine's foundational work on the gospel as a gift (grace), on morality as life in the Spirit, on predestination, and on
original sin all derives from Paul, especially Romans.
[18]
In the Reformation, Martin Luther expressed Paul's doctrine of faith most strongly as justification by faith alone.
[18]
John Calvin developed Augustine's predestination into double predestination.
[18]
Modern theology
In his commentary The Epistle to the Romans (Ger. Der Rmerbrief; particularly in the thoroughly re-written second
edition of 1922) Karl Barth argued that the God who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any
attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions. Some theologians believe this work to be the
most important theological treatise since Friedrich Schleiermacher's On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers.
As in the Eastern tradition in general, Western humanists interpret the reference to election in Romans 9 as reflecting
divine foreknowledge.
[18]
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Various Christian writers have suggested more details about Paul's life.
1 Clement, a letter written by the Roman bishop Clement of Rome, around the year 90 reports this about Paul:
[119]
"By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that
he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and
in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught righteousness unto
the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony
before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable
pattern of patient endurance".
Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it "does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred in
Rome, "such a martyrdom is the most reasonable interpretation".
[120]
Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote in the 4th century, states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor
Nero.
[121]
This event has been dated either to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to
67. According to one tradition, the church of San Paolo alle Tre Fontane marks the place of Paul's execution. A Roman
Catholic liturgical solemnity of Peter and Paul, celebrated on June 29, commemorates his martyrdom, and reflects a
tradition (preserved by Eusebius) that Peter and Paul were martyred at the same time.
[122]
The Roman liturgical
calendar for the following day now remembers all Christians martyred in these early persecutions; formerly, June 30 was
the feast day for St. Paul.
[123]
Persons or religious orders with special affinity for St. Paul can still celebrate their patron
on June 30.
[124]
The apocryphal Acts of Paul and the apocryphal Acts of Peter suggest that Paul survived Rome and traveled further
west. Some think that Paul could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been
arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed.
[2 Tim. 4:13][36]
A tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint
Peter ad Catacumbas by the via Appia until moved to what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome.
Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History, writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his
prison chains) from the crypts of Lucina to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. Paul is considered the patron
saint of London.
The Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul is celebrated on January 25.
[125]
Paul's name is mentioned in several Islamic hadiths as the deceiver of the Christians, and along with people like Cain,
Nimrod, Fir'aun and Samiri, is punished in a stage of Hell called Saqar. Another hadith mentions demons that mislead
people after prophets, and names Paul as the demon that misled people after Jesus.
[126][127]
Also, some hadiths narrated
in Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal and Jami al-Tirmidhi, among other books, mention that in the afterlife, autarch and
arrogant people are imprisoned in a jail named "Paulus", which is the most painful location of hell.
[128][129]
Writing styles
British Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby contended that the Paul as described in the book of Acts and the view of Paul
gleaned from his own writings are very different people. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Paul
as described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as justification by
faith are absent as are references to the Spirit, according to Maccoby. He also pointed out that there are no references to
John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, although Paul mentions him several times in the book of Acts.
Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in style to reflect anyone else's words. Moreover,
George Shillington writes that the author of Acts most likely created the speeches accordingly and they bear his literary
and theological marks.
[130]
Conversely, Howard Marshall writes that the speeches were not entirely the inventions of the
author and while they may not be accurate word-for-word, the author nevertheless records the general idea of them.
[131]
17 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
A statue of Paul holding a
scroll (symbolising the
Scriptures) and the sword
(symbolising his martyrdom)
Saint Paul, Byzantine
ivory relief, 6th early
7th century (Muse de
Cluny)
F. C. Baur (17921860), professor of theology at Tbingen in Germany, the first scholar
to critique Acts and the Pauline Epistles, and founder of the Tbingen School of
theology, argued that Paul, as the "Apostle to the Gentiles", was in violent opposition to
the original 12 Apostles. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and
unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf Deissmann (18661937) and
Richard Reitzenstein (18611931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and Albert
Schweitzer stressing his dependence on Judaism.
Gnosticism
A significant second and, possibly, late first century impact on Christianity was the
development of Gnosticism, a mystery religion, which among other things, rejected the
god of the Jews as the Father of Jesus. Gnostics assert that the former is a lesser, creative
being and stands in contrast to the supreme deity as taught by Jesus.
[132][133]
It was a
religious movement that appealed to many of its time. Mark Powell says it became the
bane of many prominent church leaders as they sought to defend, what they believed to
be the orthodox faith, from what they labeled the "gnostic heresy". He compares the
difficulty in describing it to trying to describe what is meant today by "new age" religion or
thinking.
[8]:pp.3941
Some believe the Apostle Paul attacked Gnosticism in Colossians. Many subsequent Church
Fathers and councils attacked the Gnostics. Yet, according to Powell, throughout the
second, third, and fourth centuries Gnostic versions of Christianity constituted the primary
alternatives to what is usually thought of as "mainstream" Christianity.
Elaine Pagels, professor of religion at Princeton University and an authority on Gnosticism,
declined to judge (in her book The Gnostic Paul) whether Paul was actually a Gnostic.
Instead, she concentrated on how the Gnostics interpreted Paul's letters and how evidence
from gnostic sources may challenge the assumption that Paul wrote his letters to combat
"gnostic opponents" and to repudiate their statement that they possess secret wisdom.
[134]
Maccoby theorized that Paul synthesized Judaism, Gnosticism, and mysticism to create
Christianity as a cosmic savior religion. According to Maccoby, Paul's Pharisaism was his
own invention, though actually he was probably associated with the Sadducees. Maccoby
attributed the origins of Christian antisemitism to Paul and said that Paul's view of women,
though inconsistent, reflects his Gnosticism in its misogynist aspects.
[135]
Professor Robert Eisenman of California State University, Long Beach argues that Paul was
a member of the family of Herod the Great.
[136]
Eisenman makes a connection between
Paul and an individual identified by Josephus as "Saulus", a "kinsman of Agrippa".
[137]
Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's family is found in
Romans 16:11 where Paul writes, "Greet Herodion, my kinsman".
According to Timo Eskola, early Christian theology and discourse was influenced by the Jewish Merkabah tradition.
[138]
Similarly, Alan Segal and Daniel Boyarin regard Paul's accounts of his conversion experience and his ascent to the
heavens as the earliest first person accounts we have of a Merkabah mystic in Jewish or Christian literature. Conversely,
Timothy Churchill has argued that Paul's Damascus road encounter does not fit the pattern of Merkabah.
[139]
Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was Thomas Jefferson, a Deist, who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the
doctrines of Jesus."
[140]
Christian anarchists, such as Leo Tolstoy
[141]
and Ammon Hennacy,
[142]
take a similar view.
F.F. Powell argues that Paul, in his epistles, made use of many of the ideas of the Greek philosopher Plato, sometimes
even using the same metaphors and language.
[143]
For example, in Phaedrus, Plato has Socrates saying that the heavenly
ideals are perceived as though "through a glass dimly",
[144]
closely mirroring Paul's language in 1 Corinthians 13.
18 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
See also Pauline Christianity vs: Jesuism
In addition to the many questions about the true origins of some of Paul's teachings posed by historical figures as noted
above, some modern theologians also hold that the teachings of Paul differ markedly from those of Jesus as found in the
Gospels.
[145]
Barrie Wilson states that Paul differs from Jesus in terms of the origin of his message, his teachings and his
practices.
[146]
Some have even gone so far as to claim that, due to these apparent differences in teachings, that Paul was
actually no less than the "second founder" of Christianity (Jesus being its first).
[147][148]
Robert M. Price, in his book The Amazing Colossal Apostle: The Search for the Historical Paul, says "the Pauline
epistles reveal themselves to the discerning reader to have exactly the same sort of limitation as the Gospels do: both are
collections of fragments and pericopae contributed and fabricated by authors and communities of very different
theological leanings".
[149]
Paul the Apostle by Rembrandt
Harmensz van Rijn

Saint Paul by Adam Elsheimer,
1604

Paul the Apostle by El Greco
Apostle paulus by Peter Paul
Rubens

Paul the Apostle by Rembrandt

Apostles Peter and Paul by El
Greco
19 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
Paul the Apostle by Peter Paul
Rubens

Paul and Barnabas at Lystra

Paul the Apostle in prison by
Rembrandt
Albrecht Drer - The Four
Holy Men (Mark and Paul)
Achaichus
Old Testament: Christian views of the Law
Paul of Tarsus and Judaism
Persecution of Christians in the New Testament
Persecution of religion in ancient Rome
Peter and Paul
St. Paul's Cathedral
Citations
^ "Saint Paul, the Apostle, original name Saul of Tarsus from Encyclopdia Britannica Online Academic Edition"
(http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/447019/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle). global.britannica.com. Retrieved July 2014.
1.
^
a

b

c
Acts 9:11 2.
^ "Saul of Tarsus" (http://www.biblestudytools.com/encyclopedias/condensed-biblical-encyclopedia/saul-of-tarsus.html).
www.biblestudytools.com. Retrieved July 2014.
3.
^ Peter and Paul . In the Footsteps of Paul . Tarsus . 1 (http://www.pbs.org/empires/peterandpaul/footsteps
/footsteps_1_1.html). PBS. Retrieved 20101119.
4.
^
a

b
Acts 22:3 5.
^
a

b

c

d

e
Harris, Stephen L. Understanding the Bible. (http://books.google.com/books?id=KcIqAQAAMAAJ&
focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Paul+Jerusalem+independence) Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. ISBN 978-1-55934-655-9
6.
20 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
^ "Saint Paul, the Apostle, original name Saul of Tarsus from Encyclopdia Britannica Online Academic Edition"
(http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/447019/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle). global.britannica.com. Retrieved July 2014.
7.
^
a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i
Powell, Mark A. Introducing the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. 2009. ISBN
978-0-8010-2868-7
8.
^
a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i

j

k

l
Sanders, E.P. "Saint Paul, the Apostle". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online
Academic Edition. Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 08 Jan. 2013.
9.
^ "The Canon Debate", McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 32, page 577, by James D. G. Dunn: "James, the brother
of Jesus, and Paul, the two other most prominent leading figures (besides Peter) in first-century Christianity"
10.
^ Tertullian knew the Letter to the Hebrews as being "under the name of Barnabas" (De Pudicitia, chapter 20 where T.
quotes Heb. 6:4-8); Origen, in his now lost Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews is reported by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl.
6, 25, 13f.) as having written ". . if any Church holds that this epistle is by Paul, let it be commended for this. For not without
reason have the ancients handed it down as Pauls. But who wrote the epistle, in truth, God knows. The statement of some
who have gone before us is that Clement, bishop of the Romans, wrote the epistle, and of others, that Luke, the author of the
Gospel and the Acts, wrote it
11.
^ The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, publ. Geoffrey Chapman, 1989, chapter 60:2 (at p.920, col.2) 12.
^ Chapman, Geoffrey (1989). The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. pp. 920 column 2 (Chapter 60). "That Paul is neither
directly nor indirectly the author is now the view of scholars almost without exception. For details, see Kmmel,
I[ntroduction to the] N[ew] T[estament, Nashville, 1975] 392-94, 401-3"
13.
^ Paul's undisputed epistles are 1st Thessalonians, Galatians, 1st and 2nd Corinthians, Romans, Philippians, and Philemon.
The six letters believed by some but not all to have been written by Paul are Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians,
1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus. Paul and His Influence in Early Christianity (United Methodist Church) (http://gbgm-
umc.org/umw/corinthians/paul.stm)
14.
^ Carson, D.A.;Moo, D.G. An Introduction to the New Testment. Nottingham: Apollos/Inter-Varsity Press. 2005 ISBN
978-1-84474-089-5
15.
^
a

b
Aageson, James W. Paul, the Pastoral Epistles, and the Early Church. Hendrickson Publishers, 2008. ISBN
978-1-59856-041-1 p.1
16.
^
a

b
Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ed. F.L. Lucas (Oxford) entry on Paul 17.
^
a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i

j

k

l

m

n

o

p

q

r

s

t
"Paul, St" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York:
Oxford University Press. 2005
18.
^
a

b
"Why did God change Saul's name to Paul?" Catholic Answers. [1] (http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/why-did-
god-change-sauls-name-to-paul) 2 Apr 2013
19.
^
a

b
Prat, Ferdinand. "St. Paul". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 2 Apr.
2013 [2] (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11567b.htm).
20.
^ Greek lexicon G4569 (Saul) (http://studybible.info/strongs/G4569)
Greek lexicon G3972 (Paul) (http://studybible.info/strongs/G3972)
Hebrew lexicon H7586 (Shaul/Saul) (http://studybible.info/strongs/H7586)
21.
^ Paulus autem et Barnabas demorabantur Antiochiae docentes et evangelizantes cum aliis pluribus verbum Domini 22.
^ 9 23.
^ Acts 26:14 Note: This is the only place in the Bible where the reader is told what language Jesus was speaking. 24.
^ Acts 9:17; 22:13 25.
^ Philippians 3:5 26.
^ Was the Apostle Paul Married? (http://www.dennyburk.com/was-the-apostle-paul-married/) Textual analysis points to
possible earlier marriage of Paul.
27.
^ Acts 9:2021 28.
^ White, L. Michael (2007). From Jesus to Christianity (3rd impr. ed.). San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. pp. 145147.
ISBN 0060816104.
29.
^ Koester, Helmut (2000). Introduction to the New Testament (http://books.google.com/books?id=thXUHM5udTcC&
pg=107#v=onepage&q&f=false) (2 ed.). New York: de Gruyter. p. 107. ISBN 3110149702. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
30.
^ Montague, George T. The Living Thought Of St. Paul. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Co. 1966. AISN: B0006CRKIC 31.
21 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
^ Wright, G. Ernest , Great People of the Bible and How They Lived, (Pleasantville, New York: The Reader's Digest
Association, Inc., 1974. ASIN: B000OEOKL2
32.
^ Kee, Howard and Franklin W. Young, Understanding The New Testament, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall,
Inc. 1958, pg 208. ISBN 978-0139365911
33.
^
a

b

c
Wallace, Quency E. "The Early Life and Background of Paul the Apostle". The American Journal of Biblical
Theology.
34.
^ The author's claim of Paul's becoming able to establish the church solidly in "all" parts of the Roman Empire has been
changed to "many" in this article since "all" could not be substantiated by other credible sources.
35.
^
a

b

c

d
1st Timothy, 2nd Timothy, and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline", meaning they may have been written by members of
the Pauline school a generation after his death.
36.
^ Frederick Fyvie Bruce (1977), Paul, Apostle of the Heart Set Free, p. 43 37.
^ Dale Martin 2009. Introduction to New Testament History and Literature, lecture 14 "Paul as Missionary"
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3V8NeoY2qB4&list=PL279CFA55C51E75E0&index=14). Yale University.
38.
^ Bromiley, Geoffrey William (1979). International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A D (International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia (Wbeerdmans)). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 689. ISBN 0-8028-3781-6.
39.
^ Barnett, Paul (2002). Jesus, the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times. InterVarsity Press. p. 21.
ISBN 0-8308-2699-8.
40.
^ L. Niswonger, Richard (1993). New Testament History. Zondervan Publishing Company. p. 200. ISBN 0-310-31201-9. 41.
^
a

b

c
McRay, John (2007). Paul His Life and Teaching (http://books.google.com/books?id=GvgexcfnWC0C&
pg=PT54#v=onepage&q=Damascus%20conversion&f=false). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. p. 54.
ISBN 978-1441205742.
42.
^ Aslan, Reza (2013). Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth. New York: Random House. pp. n.p.
ISBN 978-0-679-60353-5.
43.
^ through his mother Mary; 44.
^ Horrell, David G (2006). An Introduction to the Study of Paul. New York: T&T Clark. p. 30. ISBN 0-567-04083-6. 45.
^ Hengel, Martin and Anna Maria Schwemer, trans. John Bowden. Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown
Years (http://books.google.com/books?id=PRIKVslqctkC&pg=PA43&vq=%22the+baptism+of+Saul
/Paul+in+Damascus%22&dq=paul+baptized+damascus&as_brr=3&sig=DLbwPWBw-HL4JYp6MmR3ZsIxoqg)
Westminster John Knox Press, 1997. ISBN 0-664-25736-4
46.
^ Kirsopp Lake, The earlier Epistles of St. Paul, their motive and origin (http://www.archive.org/stream
/earlierepistleso00lakeuoft#page/320/mode/2up) (London 1911), pp. 320323.
47.
^ (PDF) N.T. Wright, "Paul, Arabia and Elijah" (http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_Paul_Arabia_Elijah.pdf) 48.
^ Why did Paul go to Arabia? 49.
^ Martin Hengel, "Paul in Arabia" Bulletin for Biblical Research 12.1 (2002) pp. 4766 (http://www.ibr-bbr.org/IBRBulletin
/BBR_2002/BBR_2002a_04_Hengel_PaulInArabia.pdf)
50.
^ Barnett, Paul The Birth Of Christianity: The First Twenty Years (Eerdmans Publishing Co. 2005) ISBN 0-8028-2781-0 p.
200 (http://books.google.com/books?id=iEfBfYC5NU4C&pg=PA200&vq=%22Paul%27s+%E2%80%9CUnknown%E2%80
%9D+Years%22&dq=paul+fourteen+years+unknown&as_brr=3&sig=T8cKbW6QxSY-NEYkWsPszP_14ws)
51.
^ Ogg, George, Chronology of the New Testament in Peake's Commentary on the Bible (Nelson, 1963) 52.
^ Barnett p. 83 (http://books.google.com/books?id=iEfBfYC5NU4C&pg=PA83&
vq=%22famine+relief+sent+by+members+of+the+church+of+Antioch%22&dq=paul+fourteen+years+unknown&as_brr=3&
sig=Riugmq-417hSFp4dQYcIhk301Rc)
53.
^ The only indication as to who is leading is in the order of names. At first, the two are referred to as Barnabas and Paul, in
that order. Later in the same chapter the team is referred to a Paul and his companions.
54.
^ "Map of first missionary journey" (http://www.biblestudy.org/maps/pauls-first-journey-map.html). Biblestudy.org.
Retrieved 2010-11-19.
55.
^ "His quotations from Scripture, which are all taken, directly or from memory, from the Greek version, betray no familiarity
with the original Hebrew text (..) Nor is there any indication in Paul's writings or arguments that he had received the
rabbinical training ascribed to him by Christian writers (..)""Paul, the Apostle of the Heathen"
56.
22 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
(http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11952-paul-of-tarsus). JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2012-02-10.
^ Acts 15:2ff; Galatians 2:1ff 57.
^
a

b

c
White, L. Michael (2004). From Jesus to Christianity (http://books.google.com/?id=w4ehxXoIxCUC&pg=PA149&
vq=%22Two+more+of+Paul%27s+visits+to+Jerusalem%22&dq=paul+%22visits+to+jerusalem%22+acts+letters).
HarperCollins. pp. 148149. ISBN 0-06-052655-6.
58.
^ Paul: Apostle of the Free Spirit, F. F. Bruce, Paternoster 1980, p.151 59.
^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08537a.htm) see section titled: "The Incident At
Antioch"
60.
^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08537a.htm): "On their arrival Peter, who up to this
had eaten with the Gentiles, 'withdrew and separated himself, fearing them who were of the circumcision,' and by his example
drew with him not only the other Jews, but even Barnabas, Paul's fellow-labourer".
61.
^ Newadvent.org (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08537a.htm) 62.
^ White, L. Michael (2004). From Jesus to Christianity (http://books.google.com/?id=w4ehxXoIxCUC&pg=PA170&
vq=%22total+failure+of+political+bravado%22&dq=paul+%22visits+to+jerusalem%22+acts+letters). HarperSanFrancisco.
p. 170. ISBN 0-06-052655-6.
63.
^ Christianity: an introduction by Alister E. McGrath pages 2006 ISBN 1-4051-0901-7 137141 64.
^ Mercer Commentary on the New Testament by Watson E. Mills 2003 ISBN 0-86554-864-1 pages 11091110 65.
^ Andreas J. Kstenberger, L. Scott Kellum and Charles Quarles (2009). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An
Introduction to the New Testament. Nashville, Tennessee, B&H Publishing Group. p. 400 (http://books.google.ca
/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C&pg=PA400&dq=%22second+missionary+journey%22,+paul,+date,+49&hl=en&
ei=3ti_Te2NAoabtwfvv8CvBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&
q=%22second%20missionary%20journey%22%2C%20paul%2C%20date%2C%2049&f=false)
66.
^ Biblestudy.org (http://www.biblestudy.org/maps/pauls-secd-journey-map.html) 67.
^ "Paul, St". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 68.
^ Burton, Ernest De Witt (1977). A critical and exegetical commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians
(http://books.google.com/?id=b52QYgZg6W8C&pg=PR26&dq=%22illyris+graeca%22&cd=1#v=onepage&
q=%22illyris%20graeca%22&f=false). ISBN 978-0-567-05029-8. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
69.
^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Durazzo (Albania) (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05209a.htm). Newadvent.org (19090501).
Retrieved 20101119.
70.
^ Biblestudy.org (http://www.biblestudy.org/maps/pauls-third-journey-map.html) 71.
^ 4th missionary journey (http://www.biblestudy.org/maps/paul-to-rome-map.html) and 5th missionary journey
(http://www.biblestudy.org/maps/apostle-paul-fifth-missionary-journey-map.html)
72.
^ A study in scarlet (Judah sceptre Joseph birthright) (http://www.biblestudy.org/bibleref/judah-sceptre-joseph-birthright
/a-study-in-scarlet.html)
73.
^ 1st Clement Lightfoot translation (http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html)
1 Clem 5:5 "By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he
had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won
the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, [5:6] having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having
reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the
world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance".
Where Lightfoot has "had preached" above, the Hoole (http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-hoole.html)
translation has "having become a herald".
See also the endnote(#3) by Arthur Cleveland Coxe on the last page of wikisource 1st Clement regarding Paul's preaching in
Britain.
74.
^ Chrysostom on 2 Tim.4:20 (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series I Volume XIII) 75.
^ Cyril on Paul and gifts of the Holy Ghost (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II Volume VII, Lecture 17, para.26) 76.
^ The Muratorian Fragment (http://www.bible-researcher.com/muratorian.html) lines 3839 77.
^ Paul does not exactly say that this was his second visit. In Galatians, he lists three important meetings with Peter, and this
was the second on his list. The third meeting took place in Antioch. He does not explicitly state that he did not visit
78.
23 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
Jerusalem in between this and his first visit.
^ Note that Paul only writes that he is on his way to Jerusalem, or just planning the visit. There might or might not have been
additional visits before or after this visit, if he ever got to Jerusalem.
79.
^ Romans 15:25,2 Corinthians 8-9, 1 Corinthians 16:1-3 80.
^ Ireneaus Against Heresies 3.3 (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html).2: the "...Church founded and organized
at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes
down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops. ...The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the
Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate".
81.
^ MaGee Greg. "The Origins of the Church at Rome". bible.org [3] (http://bible.org/article/origins-church-rome) Accessed
18 Mar 2013
82.
^ Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Ephesians, Chapter XII (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.v.ii.xii.html) 83.
^ Serena De Leonardis and Stefano Masi (1999). Art and history: Rome and the Vatican. Casa Editrice Bonechi. p. 21
(http://books.google.ca/books?id=owS4gojfggEC&pg=PA21&dq=paul+beheaded+%22Tre+Fontane+Abbey%22&hl=en&
ei=o_W_TdHmAcOdgQfk-5XcBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q=paul%20beheaded%20%22Tre%20Fontane%20Abbey%22&f=false)
84.
^ Lashway, Calvin. "HOW and WHERE did the Apostle Paul die?" Web: HOW and WHERE did the Apostle Paul die?
(http://www.biblestudy.org/question/sauldie.html)
85.
^ St Paul's tomb unearthed in Rome (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6219656.stm) from BBC News (20061208);
dw-world.de (http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,4442169,00.html?maca=en-rss-en-all-1573-rdf)
86.
^ "Remains of St. Paul confirmed" (http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/29/remains-confirmed-to-belong-to-st-
paul/). Washington Times. June 29, 2009.
87.
^
a

b

c
The Blackwell Companion to The New Testament by David E. Aune ISBN 1405108258 page 9 "While seven of the
letters attributed to Paul are almost universally accepted as authentic (Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1
Thessalonians, Philemon), four are just as widely judged to be pseudepigraphical, i.e., written by unknown authors under
Paul's name: Ephesians and the Pastorals (1 and 2 Timothy and Titus).
88.
^
a

b
Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible by James D. G. Dunn (Nov 19, 2003) ISBN 0802837115 page 1274 "There is
general scholarly agreement that seven of the thirteen letters bearing Paul's name are authentic, but his authorship of the other
six cannot be taken for granted... Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon are
certainly Paul's own".
89.
^
a

b
Pheme Perkins, Reading the New Testament: An Introduction (Paulist Press, 1988), ISBN 0809129396 pp. 4-7. 90.
^ Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdelene: the followers of Jesus in history and legend (http://books.google.com
/books?id=Tlvgp7WggvEC&lpg=PA98&dq=discrepancies%20paul%20acts&pg=PA98#v=onepage&
q=discrepancies%20paul%20acts&f=false) By Bart Ehrman, p.98-100
91.
^ A commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (http://books.google.com/books?ei=wQaFTvaZDdKatwexocxL&ct=result&
id=n6Q9AAAAYAAJ&dq=discrepancies+paul+acts&q=discrepancies) by Charles Stephan Conway Williams, pp. 22, 240
92.
^ MacDonald, Margaret Y. Sacra Pagina: Colossians and Ephesians. Liturgical Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-8146-5819-2 93.
^
a

b

c

d

e
"Epistle to the Colossians Catholic Encyclopedia" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04131b.htm).
Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
94.
^ Brown, R.E., The Churches the Apostles left behind p.48. 95.
^ Barrett, C.K. the Pastoral Epistles p.4ff. 96.
^
a

b

c

d
"Atonement". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press.
2005
97.
^ The International standard Bible encyclopaedia (1915), Volume 4, page 2276 edited by James Orr 98.
^
a

b
Paul and Palestinian Judaism in 1977; Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People in 1983 99.
^ J.D.G. Dunn's Manson Memorial Lecture (4.11.1982): 'The New Perspective on Paul' BJRL 65(1983), 95122. 100.
^
a

b
"New Perspectives on Paul" (http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_New_Perspectives.htm). Ntwrightpage.com.
2003-08-28. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
101.
^
a

b
Ehrman, Bart. Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. Oxford University
Press, USA. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530013-0
102.
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^ Rowlands, Christopher. Christian Origins (SPCK 1985) p.113 103.
^ Kroeger, Richard C. and Catherine C. I Suffer Not a Woman. Baker Book House, 1992. ISBN 0-8010-5250-5 104.
^ Wright, N.T. "The Biblical Basis for Women's Service in the Church". Web: Dec. 16, 2009 105.
^ Kirk, J. R. Daniel. Fuller Theological Seminary (http://www.fuller.edu/academics/faculty/daniel-kirk.aspx) 106.
^ Giguzzi, Giancarlo "Paolo, un apostolo contro le donne?" in Credere Oggi: in dialogo con San Paolo e le sue lettere no.
124, Edizioni Messaggero Padova, 2004, pp. 95107. credereoggi.it (http://www.credereoggi.it/upload
/2004/articolo143_95.asp)
107.
^
a

b

c
"Prophet, Prophetess, Prophecy". Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology. 108.
^ Kirk, J.R. Daniel. "Jesus I Have Loved. But Paul?" Baker, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4412-3625-8 109.
^ Stagg, Evelyn and Frank Stagg. Woman in the World of Jesus. Westminster Press, 1978. ISBN 0-664-24195-6 110.
^ Gombis, Timothy. "A Radically Different New Humanity: The Function of the Haustafel in Ephesians
(http://www.etsjets.org/files/JETS-PDFs/48/48-2/48-2-pp317-330_JETS.pdf)". Journal of the Evangelical Theological
Society. 48/2 (June 2005) 31730. Accessed 14 February 2013.
111.
^ MacDonald, Margaret. The Pauline Churches: A Socio-historical Study of Institutionalization in the Pauline and Deutero-
Pauline Writings. SNTSMS 60; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p109
112.
^ Achtenmeier, P.J. HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (revised ed.). HarperCollins. pp. 882. ISBN 0-06-060037-3. 113.
^ Keller, Marie Nol. Priscilla and Aquila: Paul's Coworkers in Christ Jesus. Liturgical Press, 2010. ISBN
978-0-8146-5284-8.
114.
^ Robinson, B.A. "Christian denominations and homosexuality" (http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_chur2.htm).
Overview: Most Christian denominations, sects, and new religious movement have stated policies towards gays and
lesbians: Whether to allow known, sexually active homosexuals to: become and remain church members with full
privileges. be considered for ordination hold other positions of power. Whether to allow known celibate homosexuals to:
become and remain church members with full privileges. be considered for ordination hold other positions of power.
Whether to provide a formal religious ceremony for committed gay and lesbian couples. These are variously called union,
civil union, commitment or marriage ceremonies, depending upon the laws of the individual state. Whether to have an
active study program to reduce homophobia within the denomination. There is no consensus within Christianity about: The
nature of homosexuality, What Bible passages that discuss same-sex sexual behavior actually mean, or What policies to
enforce about gay and lesbian members, candidates for ordination. commitment rituals or study programs. The core
reason for this lack of consensus is related to how an individual faith group defines truth. The main criteria are: What the
six or so "clobber passages" about same-sex sexual behavior mean, according to historical interpretations. The policy that
the faith group has taken towards homosexuality and homosexuals in the past. The individual members' personal
experience. The findings of scientific research into homosexuality. Conservative faith groups like the Roman Catholic
Church, and Southern Baptist Convention tend to give criteria 1 & 2 much more weight than 3 & 4. Religious liberals and
progressive Christians tend to stress 3 & 4 in comparison to 1 & 2. The response of Christian faith groups to
homosexuality thus cover a wide range. An individual faith group's stance, can be predicted, based on upon their position
in the liberal - fundamentalist continuum: More liberal denominations and Christians tend to view homosexuality as a civil
rights matter; they generally believe it is fixed, unchosen, normal, natural, and morally neutral sexual orientation for a
minority of adults. More conservative denominations and Christians tend to view homosexuality as a profound evil; they
generally believe it is changeable, chosen, abnormal, unnatural and immoral behavior, regardless of the nature of the
relationship. Thus: The more liberal denominations, like the United Church of Christ, have changing their positions on
homosexuality, in recent years, to adopt a more inclusive stance. Mainline denominations such as the Methodists,
Presbyterians and Episcopalians are actively debating the question. Denominational schisms may result., particularly in
the case of the Presbyterian Church (USA), and Episcopal Church. USA. Similar splits have occurred in the past over
human slavery, whether women should be ordained, and certain theological debates. More conservative denominations
are taking no significant action to change their beliefs and policies at this time. Fundamentalist denominations commit
significant effort to prevent equal rights for homosexuals. For example, they: Opposed hate-crime laws that protect
persons of all sexual orientation, Opposed laws that prohibit employment discrimination based on sexual orientation,
Opposed the elimination of the military's "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policy. Occasionally expel congregations from their
denominations over "the issue." In the case of the Southern Baptist Convention three of their congregations were expelled.
115.
25 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
The latter had conducted a study of homosexuality, had concluded that the denomination's beliefs were invalid, and had
welcomed gays and lesbians as members. All movement appears to be towards greater inclusiveness towards
homosexuality and homosexuals. This is reinforced by the more accepting stance of today's youth. We are unaware of any
religious groups becoming less inclusive. Sponsored link: Partial list of churches and their position on homosexuality: As
we uncover statements about homosexuality by various Christian denominations, we include them in a new essay and link
it to the following list. Over time, we hope to add to this list so that it represents all of the large Christian denominations,
and some smaller ones. We encourage our visitors to help us add to this list by supplying us with information from their
own denominations. We currently have essays available about homosexual policies and beliefs by the following
denominations. : Alliance of Baptists Anglican Church of Canada Anglican Communion, worldwide American Baptist
Association American Baptist Churches in the USA Assemblies of God Children of God (COG) Christian Reformed Church
in North America The Church of Christ Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Christian Science Church of England The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon) Church of Scotland Community of Christ: (Formerly the
Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (RLDS): Cooperative Baptist Fellowship Coptic Orthodox
Church (centered in Egypt) Disciples of Christ (Christian Church) Episcopal Church, USA Evangelical Christian Church
(Christian Disciples) Evangelical Lutheran Church in America Evangelical Lutheran Church of Canada Evangelical
Lutheran Church in Denmark The Family Jehovah's Witnesses and homosexuality; Witnesses and same-sex marriages
Lutheran Church of Australia Methodist Church in Britain Metropolitan Community Church Mennonites Presbyterian
Church (USA): (3.4 million membership; mainline denomination) Presbyterian Church in America (0.3 million
membership; conservative denomination) Presbyterian Church in Canada The Quakers Reformed Church in America
Roman Catholic Church Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (RCN) Russian Orthodox Church Reorganized Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (RLDS): See Community of Christ Seventh Day Adventists: Part 1: Background. Events
from 1977 to 1999 Part 2: Events year 2000 to now. SDA manual. Other gay-positive groups. Conclusions. Society of
Friends (Quakers) Southern Baptist Convention Baptist State Convention of North Carolina An exchange of viewpoints on
a Southern Baptist web site Unification Church Unitarian Universalist Association * United Church of Christ United
Church of Canada United Methodist Church United Pentecostal Church International Uniting Church in Australia Unity
Church The Way, International World Council of Churches Worldwide Church of God Other Christian groups * The
Unitarian Universalist Association is not generally considered a Christian denomination. We have included it here because
about 10% of its members consider themselves to be Christian.
^ Ehrman, Bart. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. Oxford University Press.
2003. p. 393 ISBN 0-19-515462-2
"when we come to the Pastoral epistles, there is greater scholarly unanimity. These three letters are widely regarded by
scholars as non-Pauline."
116.
^ Collins, Raymond F. 1 & 2 Timothy and Titus: A Commentary. Westminster John Knox Press. 2004. p. 4 ISBN
0-664-22247-1
"By the end of the twentieth century New Testament scholarship was virtually unanimous in affirming that the Pastoral
Epistles were written some time after Paul's death. ... As always some scholars dissent from the consensus view."
117.
^ 1 Corinthians 10:14-17, 11:17-34 118.
^ The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 5:56, translated by J.B. Lightfoot in Lightfoot, Joseph Barber (1890). The
Apostolic Fathers: A Revised Text with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations
(http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html). Macmillan. p. 274. ISBN 0-8010-5612-8. OCLC 54248207
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54248207).
119.
^ Brown, Raymond Edward; John Paul Meier (1983). Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity
(http://books.google.com/?id=_6H3XKLXGvYC&pg=PA124&
vq=%22such+a+martyrdom+is+the+most+reasonable+interpretation%22&dq=paul+clement+death). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist
Press. p. 124. ISBN 0-8091-2532-3.
120.
^ Hist. Eccl., II.25 - 121.
^ Eusebius, Hist. Eccl., II.25, where he quotes Dionysius of Corinth to this effect 122.
^ Alban Butler's Lives of the saints, available at http://www.bartleby.com/210/6/301.html 123.
^ Such as the Daughters of St. Paul, a women's missionary order at http://www.paulines.ph/?p=3935 124.
26 of 30 7/20/2014 9:05 PM
^ "Chambers' The Book of Days" (http://www.thebookofdays.com/months/jan/25.htm). 1869. Retrieved 2012-02-09. 125.
^ Noor al-Thaqalain, vol 1, p 85; Bihar al-Anwar, vol 8, pp. 310, 311. 126.
^ Encyclopedia of Quran, Tehran, vol 6, pp. 543 to 547. 127.
^ Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, vol 11, p 260; Jami al-Tirmidhi,vol 4, p 236; Sunan al-Kubra, al-Nasa'i, vol 10, p 398.
Scholars like al-Tirmidhi categorize the hadith as Hasan and Sahih.
128.
^ Christ(PBUH): a Salafi study, 2008, Rafa'ei Sorur, Chapter 3, Article 7. 129.
^ Shillington, George (2007). Introduction to Luke-Acts. London: T & T Clark. p. 18. ISBN 0-567-03053-9. 130.
^ Marshall, I. Howard (1980). The Acts of the Apostles. Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. p. 42.
ISBN 0-8028-1423-9.
131.
^ An Introduction to Gnosticism and The Nag Hammadi Library. nhlintro.html at gnosis.org (http://gnosis.org/naghamm
/nhlintro.html)
132.
^ ANTITHESIS : Contradictions Between the Old Testament Deity and the New Testament God.antithes.htm at gnosis.org
(http://gnosis.org/library/marcion/antithes.htm)
133.
^ Pagels, Elaine. The Gnostic Paul: Gnostic Exegesis of the Pauline Letters. Continuum International Publishing, 1992.
ISBN 978-1563380396
134.
^ Maccoby, Hyam (1998). "1". The Mythmaker. New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0-7607-0787-1. 135.
^ See "Paul as Herodian (http://depts.drew.edu/jhc/eisenman.html)", JHC 3/1 (Spring, 1996), 110122. 136.
^ Antiquities, Book XX, Chapter 9:4. ccel.org (http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-20.htm) 137.
^ Timo Eskola. Messiah and the Throne: Jewish Merkabah Mysticism and Early Exaltation Discourse Tubingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 2001.
138.
^ Churchill, Timothy W. R. "Divine Initiative and the Christology of the Damascus Road Encounter", Eugene: Pickwick,
2010.
139.
^ The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Being his Autobiography, Correspondence, Reports, Messages, Addresses, and Other
Writings, Official and Private. Published by the Order of the Joint Committee of Congress on the Library, from the
Original Manuscripts, Deposited in the Department of State, With Explanatory Notes, Tables of Contents, and a Copious
Index to Each Volume, as well as a General Index to the Whole, by the Editor H. A. Washington. Vol. VII. Published by
Taylor Maury, Washington, D.C., 1854.
140.
^ Tolsoy, Leo (1882). Church and State. "This deviation begins from the time of the Apostle and especially after that
hankerer after mastership Paul"
141.
^ Hennacy, Ammon (1970). The Book of Ammon. 142.
^ Powell, F. F. "Saint Paul's Homage to Plato" (http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2004/April/mtpub2.asp).
Retrieved 7 September 2013.
143.
^ Plato; Benjamin Jowett, trans. Phaedrus (http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/phaedrus.tml). "For there is no light of justice or
temperance or any of the higher ideas which are precious to souls in the earthly copies of them: they are seen through a glass
dimly."
144.
^ Maccoby, Hyam, The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity (Harpercollins, October 1987), pg. 14. 145.
^ Wilson, Barrie A. (2008). How Jesus Became Christian. New York, Toronto: St. Martin's Press. pp. chapters 9, 10, 12. 146.
^ Dwyer, John C., Church History: Twenty Centuries of Catholic Christianity (Paulist Press, July 1985 ), pg. 27. 147.
^ Wrede, William, Paul (trans. Edward Lummis; London: Philip Green, 1907), pg. 179. 148.
^ Robert M. Price, The Amazing Colossal Apostle, (Signature books, 2012), pg. viii. ISBN 978-1-56085-216-2 149.
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Brown, Raymond E. The Church the Apostles left behind(Chapman 1984)
Bruce, F.F. "Is the Paul of Acts the Real Paul?" Bulletin John Rylands Library 58 (1976) 283305
Bruce, F.F., Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (ISBN 0-8028-4778-1)
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Carson, D.A.;Moo, D.J. An Introduction to the New Testament ISBN 978-1-84474-089-5
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Davies, W.D. Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology. S.P.C.K., 3rd ed., 1970.
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Davies, W.D. "The Apostolic Age and the Life of Paul" in Matthew Black, ed. Peake's Commentary on the Bible.
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Dunn, James D.G., Jesus, Paul, and the Gospels (Grand Rapids (MI), Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2011)
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Hanson, Anthony T. Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology. Eerdmans, 1974. ISBN 0-8028-3452-3
Holzbach, Mathis Christian, Die textpragmat. Bedeutung d. Kndereinsetzungen d. Simon Petrus u.d. Saulus
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London: T&T Clark, 2006
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Kim, Yung Suk. A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011. ISBN
978-1-60899-793-0
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MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon
Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0664244644
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Jesus and Paul: Parallel lives (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2007) ISBN
0-8146-5173-9
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills (Collegeville, Minn.:
Liturgical Press, 1995) ISBN 0-8146-5845-8
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) ISBN 0-19-826749-5
Ogg, George. "Chronology of the New Testament". Matthew Black, ed. Peake's Commentary on the Bible.
Nelson, 1962. ISBN 0-8407-5019-6
Rashdall, Hastings, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology (1919)
Ruef, John, Paul's First letter to Corinth (Penguin 1971)
Sanders, E.P., Paul and Palestinian Judaism (1977)
Segal, Alan F. Paul, the Convert, (New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-300-04527-1
Segal, Alan F., "Paul, the Convert and Apostle" in Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman
World (Harvard University Press 1986) ISBN 978-0674750760
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//www.escapefromwatchtower.com/spong7&8.html)", in Rescuing the Bible From Fundamentalism, reprint ed.
(New York: HarperCollins, 1992).
Bart D Ehrman. Peter, Paul and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend; 304 pages,
Oxford University Press (March, 2008)
Bart D. Ehrman. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings; 608 pages,
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Hyam MacCoby. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity; 238 pages, Barnes & Noble Books
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Theological Translations); 34 pages, Lutterworth Press (July, 2002); ISBN 978-0-227-17013-7
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pages, Wipf & Stock Publishers (May, 2002)
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in-jewish-context/) s by Dr. Henry Abramson
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/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=37&Issue=1&ArticleID=10) Biblical Archaeology Review
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul_the_Apostle&oldid=617716575"
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