Tempering (metallurgy)

1
Tempering (metallurgy)
Differentially tempered steel. The various colors
produced indicate the temperature to which the
steel was heated. Light-straw indicates 204C
(399F) and light blue indicates 337C
(639F).
[1][2]
Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the
toughness of iron-based alloys. Tempering is usually performed after
hardening, to reduce some of the excess hardness, and is done by
heating the metal to some temperature below the critical temperature
for a certain period of time, then allowed to cool in still air. The exact
temperature determines the amount of hardness removed, and depends
on both the specific composition of the alloy and on the desired
properties in the finished product. For instance, very hard tools are
often tempered at low temperatures, while springs are tempered to
much higher temperatures. In glass, tempering is performed by heating
the glass and then quickly cooling the surface, increasing the toughness.
Introduction
Photomicrograph of martensite, a very hard
microstructure formed when steel is quenched.
Tempering reduces the hardness in the martensite
by transforming it into various forms of tempered
martensite.
Tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such
as steel or cast iron, to achieve greater toughness by decreasing the
hardness of the alloy. The reduction in hardness is usually
accompanied by an increase in ductility, thereby decreasing the
brittleness of the metal. Tempering is usually performed after
quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its hardest
state. Tempering is accomplished by controlled heating of the
quenched work-piece to a temperature below its "lower critical
temperature". This is also called the lower transformation temperature
or lower arrest (A
1
) temperature; the temperature at which the
crystalline phases of the alloy, called ferrite and cementite, begin
combining to form a single-phase solid solution referred to as
austenite. Heating above this temperature is avoided, so as not to
destroy the very-hard, quenched microstructure, called martensite.
[3]
Precise control of time and temperature during the tempering process is critical to achieve the desired balance of
physical properties. Low tempering temperatures may only relieve some of the internal stresses, decreasing
brittleness while maintaining a majority of the hardness. Higher tempering temperatures tend to produce a greater
reduction in the hardness, sacrificing some yield strength and tensile strength for an increase in elasticity and
plasticity. However, in some low alloy steels, containing other elements like chromium and molybdenum, tempering
at low temperatures may produce an increase in hardness, while at higher temperatures the hardness will decrease.
Many steels with high concentrations of these alloying elements behave like precipitation hardening alloys, which
produce the opposite effects under the conditions found in quenching and tempering, and are referred to as maraging
steels.
In carbon steels, tempering alters the size and distribution of carbides in the martensite, forming a microstructure
called "tempered martensite". Tempering is also performed on normalized steels and cast irons, to increase ductility,
machinability, and impact strength. Steel is usually tempered evenly, called "through tempering," producing a nearly
uniform hardness, but it is sometimes heated unevenly, referred to as "differential tempering," producing a variation
in hardness.
[4]
Tempering (metallurgy)
2
History
Tempering is an ancient heat-treating technique. The oldest known example of tempered martensite is a pick axe
which was found in Galilee, dating from around 1200 to 1100 BC.
[5]
The process was used throughout the ancient
world, from Asia to Europe and Africa. Many different methods and cooling baths for quenching have been
attempted during ancient times, from quenching in urine, blood, or metals like mercury or lead, but the process of
tempering has remained relatively unchanged over the ages. Tempering was often confused with quenching and,
often, the term was used to describe both techniques. In 1889, Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen wrote, "There is
still so much confusion between the words "temper," "tempering," and "hardening," in the writings of even eminent
authorities, that it is well to keep these old definitions carefully in mind. I shall employ the word tempering in the
same sense as softening."
[6]
Terminology
In metallurgy, one may encounter many terms that have very specific meanings within the field, but may seem rather
vague when viewed from outside. Terms such as "hardness," "impact resistance," "toughness," and "strength" can
carry many different connotations, making it sometimes difficult to discern the specific meaning. Some of the terms
encountered, and their specific definitions are:
Strength: This is resistance to permanent deformation and breaking. Strength, in metallurgy, is still a rather vague
term, so is usually divided into yield strength (strength beyond which deformation becomes permanent), tensile
strength (the ultimate breaking strength), and shear strength (resistance to transverse, or cutting forces).
Toughness: Resistance to fracture, as measured by the Charpy test. Toughness often increases as strength
decreases.
Hardness: Hardness is often used to describe strength or rigidity but, in metallurgy, the term is usually used to
describe resistance to scratching or abrasion.
Brittleness: Brittleness describes a material's tendency to break before bending or deforming either elastically or
plastically. Brittleness increases with decreased toughness, but is greatly affected by internal stresses as well.
Plasticity: The ability to mold, bend or deform in a manner that does not spontaneously return to its original
shape. This is proportional to the ductility or malleability of the substance.
Elasticity: Also called flexibility, this is the ability to deform, bend, compress, or stretch and return to the original
shape once the external stress is removed. Elasticity is related to the Young's modulus of the material.
Impact resistance: Usually synonymous with high-strength toughness, it is the ability resist shock-loading with
minimal deformation.
Wear resistance: Usually synonymous with hardness, this is resistance to erosion, ablation, spalling, or galling.
Structural integrity: The ability to withstand a maximum-rated load while resisting fracture, resisting fatigue, and
producing a minimal amount of flexing or deflection, to provide a maximum service life.
In carbon steel
Very few metals react to heat treatment in the same manner, or to the same extent, that carbon steel does, and carbon
steel heat treating behavior can vary radically depending on alloying elements. Steel can be softened to a very
malleable state through annealing, or it can be hardened to a state nearly as rigid and brittle as glass by quenching.
However, in its hardened state, steel is usually far too brittle, lacking the structural integrity to be useful for most
applications. Tempering is a method used to decrease the hardness, thereby increasing the ductility of the quenched
steel, to impart some springiness and malleability to the metal. This allows the metal to bend before breaking.
Depending on how much temper is imparted to the steel, it may bend elastically (the steel returns to its original shape
once the load is removed), or it may bend plastically (the steel does not return to its original shape, resulting in
permanent deformation), before fracturing. Tempering is used to precisely balance the mechanical properties of the
metal, such as shear strength, yield strength, hardness, ductility and tensile strength, to achieve any number of a
Tempering (metallurgy)
3
combination of properties, making the steel useful for a wide variety of applications. Tools such as hammers and
wrenches require good resistance to abrasion, impact resistance, and resistance to deformation. Springs do not
require as much rigidity, but must deform elastically before breaking. Automotive parts tend to be a little less rigid,
but need to deform plastically before breaking.
Except in rare cases where maximum rigidity and hardness are needed, such as the untempered steel used for files,
quenched steel is almost always tempered to some degree. However, steel is sometimes annealed through a process
called normalizing, leaving the steel only partially softened. Tempering is sometimes used on normalized steels to
further soften it, increasing the malleability and machinability for easier metalworking. Tempering may also be used
on welded steel, to relieve some of the stresses and excess hardness created in the heat affected zone around the
weld.
Quenched-steel
Tempering is most often performed on steel that has been heated above its upper critical (A
3
) temperature and then
quickly cooled, in a process called quenching, using methods such as immersing the red-hot steel in water, oil, or
forced-air. The quenched-steel, being placed in, or very near, its hardest possible state, is then tempered to
incrementally decrease the hardness to a point more suitable for the desired application. The hardness of the
quenched-steel depends on both cooling speed and on the composition of the alloy. Steel with a high carbon-content
will reach a much harder state than steel with a low carbon-content. Likewise, tempering high-carbon steel to a
certain temperature will produce steel that is considerably harder than low-carbon steel that is tempered at the same
temperature. The amount of time held at the tempering temperature also has an effect. Tempering at a slightly
elevated temperature for a shorter time may produce the same effect as tempering at a lower temperature for a longer
time. Tempering times vary, depending on the carbon content, size, and desired application of the steel, but typically
range from a few minutes to a few hours.
Tempering quenched-steel at very low temperatures, between 66 and 148C (151 and 298F), will usually not have
much effect other than a slight relief of some of the internal stresses. Tempering at higher temperatures, from 148 to
205C (298 to 401F), will produce a slight reduction in hardness, but will primarily relieve much of the internal
stresses. Tempering in the range of 260 and 340C (500 and 644F) causes a decrease in ductility and an increase in
brittleness, and is referred to as the "tempered martensite embrittlement" (TME) range. Except in the case of
blacksmithing, this range is usually avoided. Steel requiring more strength than toughness, such as tools, are usually
not tempered above 205C (401F). Instead, a variation in hardness is usually produced by varying only the
tempering time. When increased toughness is desired at the expense of strength, higher tempering temperatures,
from 370 to 540C (698 to 1,004F), are used. Tempering at even higher temperatures, between 540 and 600C
(1,004 and 1,112F), will produce excellent toughness, but at a serious reduction in the strength and hardness. At
600C (1,112F), the steel may experience another stage of embrittlement, called "temper embrittlement" (TE),
which occurs if the steel is held within the TE temperature range for too long. When heating above this temperature,
the steel will usually not be held for any amount of time, and quickly cooled to avoid temper embrittlement.
Normalized steel
Steel that has been heated above its upper critical temperature and then cooled in standing air is called normalized
steel. Normalized steel consists of pearlite, bainite and sometimes martensite grains, mixed together within the
microstructure. This produces steel that is much stronger than full-annealed steel, and much tougher than tempered
quenched-steel. However, added toughness is sometimes needed at a reduction in strength. Tempering provides a
way to carefully decrease the hardness of the steel, thereby increasing the toughness to a more desirable point.
Cast-steel is often normalized rather than annealed, to decrease the amount of distortion that can occur. Tempering
can further decrease the hardness, increasing the ductility to a point more like annealed steel.
[7]
Tempering is often
used on carbon steels, producing much the same results. The process, called "normalize and temper", is used
Tempering (metallurgy)
4
frequently on steels such as 1045 carbon steel, or most other steels containing 0.35 to 0.55% carbon. These steels are
usually tempered after normalizing, to increase the toughness and relieve internal stresses. This can make the metal
more suitable for its intended use and easier to machine.
[8]
Welded steel
Steel that has been arc welded, gas welded, or welded in any other manner besides forge welded, is affected in a
localized area by the heat from the welding process. This localized area, called the heat-affected zone (HAZ),
consists of steel that varies considerably in hardness, from normalized steel to steel nearly as hard as quenched steel
near the edge of this heat-affected zone. The uneven heating and cooling also creates internal stresses in the metal,
both within and surrounding the weld. Tempering is sometimes used in place of stress relieving (even heating and
cooling of the entire object to just below the A
1
temperature) to both reduce the internal stresses and to decrease the
brittleness around the weld. Localized tempering is often used on welds when the construction is too large, intricate,
or otherwise too inconvenient to heat the entire object evenly. Tempering temperatures for this purpose are generally
around 205C (401F) and 343C (649F).
[9]
Quench and self-temper
Modern reinforcing bar of 500MPa strength can be made from expensive microalloyed steel or by a quench and
self-temper (QST) process. After the bar exits the final rolling pass, where the final shape of the bar is applied, the
bar is then sprayed with water which quenches the outer surface of the bar. The bar speed and the amount of water
are carefully controlled in order to leave the core of the bar unquenched. The hot core then tempers the already
quenched outer part, leaving a bar with high strength but with a certain degree of ductility too.
Blacksmithing
Tempering was originally a process used and developed by blacksmiths (forgers of iron). The process was most
likely developed by the Hittites of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), in the twelfth or eleventh century BC. Without
knowledge of metallurgy, tempering was originally devised through a trial-and-error method.
Because few methods of precisely measuring temperature existed until modern times, temperature was usually
judged by watching the tempering colors of the metal. Tempering often consisted of heating above a charcoal or coal
forge, or by fire, so holding the work at exactly the right temperature for the correct amount of time was usually not
possible. Tempering was usually performed by slowly, evenly overheating the metal, as judged by the color, and
then immediately cooling, either in open air or by immersing in water. This produced much the same effect as
heating at the proper temperature for the right amount of time, and avoided embrittlement by tempering within a
short time period. However, although tempering-color guides exist, this method of tempering usually requires a good
amount of practice to perfect, because the final outcome depends on many factors, including the composition of the
steel, the speed at which it was heated, the type of heat source (oxidizing or carburizing), the cooling rate, oil films
or impurities on the surface, and many other circumstances which vary from smith to smith or even from job to job.
The thickness of the steel also plays a role. With thicker items, it becomes easier to heat only the surface to the right
temperature, before the heat can penetrate through. However, very thick items may not be able to harden all the way
through during quenching.
[10]
Tempering (metallurgy)
5
Tempering colors
Pieces of through-tempered steel flatbar. The first one, on the left, is normalized
steel. The second is quenched, untempered martensite. The remaining pieces have
been tempered in an oven to their corresponding temperature, for an hour each.
"Tempering standards" like these are sometimes used by blacksmiths for
comparison, ensuring that the work is tempered to the proper color.
If steel has been freshly ground, sanded, or
polished, it will form an oxide layer on its
surface when heated. As the temperature of
the steel is increased, the thickness of the
iron oxide will also increase. Although iron
oxide is not normally transparent, such thin
layers do allow light to pass through,
reflecting off both the upper and lower
surfaces of the layer. This causes a
phenomenon called thin-film interference,
which produces colors on the surface. As the
thickness of this layer increases with
temperature, it causes the colors to change
from a very light yellow, to brown, then
purple, then blue. These colors appear at
very precise temperatures, and provide the
blacksmith with a very accurate gauge for measuring the temperature. The various colors, their corresponding
temperatures, and some of their uses are:
Faint-yellow 176C (349F) engravers, razors, scrapers
Light-straw 205C (401F) rock drills, reamers, metal-cutting saws
Dark-straw 226C (439F) scribers, planer blades
Brown 260C (500F) taps, dies, drill bits, hammers, cold chisels
Purple 282C (540F) surgical tools, punches, stone carving tools
Dark blue 310C (590F) screwdrivers, wrenches
Light blue 337C (639F) springs, wood-cutting saws
Grey-blue 371C (700F) and higher structural steel
Beyond the grey-blue color, the iron oxide loses its transparency, and the temperature can no longer be judged in this
way. The layer will also increase in thickness as time passes, which is another reason overheating and immediate
cooling is used. Steel in a tempering oven, held at 205C (401F) for a long time, will begin to turn brown, purple
or blue, even though the temperature did not exceed that needed to produce a light-straw color. Oxidizing or
carburizing heat sources may also affect the final result. The iron oxide layer, unlike rust, also protects the steel from
corrosion through passivation.
[11]
Differential tempering
A differentially tempered sword. The center is tempered to a springy hardness
while the edges are tempered to a very high hardness.
Differential tempering is a method of
providing different amounts of temper to
different parts of the steel. The method was
often used in bladesmithing, for making
knives and swords, to provide a very hard
edge while softening the spine or center of
the blade. This increased the toughness
while maintaining a very hard, sharp,
impact-resistant edge, helping to prevent breakage. This technique was more often found in Europe, as opposed to
the differential hardening techniques more common in Asia, such as in Japanese swordsmithing.
Tempering (metallurgy)
6
Differential tempering consists of applying heat to only a portion of the blade, usually the spine, or the center of
double-edged blades. For single-edged blades, the heat, often in the form of a flame or a red-hot bar, is applied to the
spine of the blade only. The blade is then carefully watched as the tempering colors form and slowly creep toward
the edge. The heat is then removed before the light-straw color reaches the edge. The colors will continue to move
toward the edge for a short time after the heat is removed, so the smith typically removes the heat a little early, so
that the pale-yellow just reaches the edge, and travels no farther. A similar method is used for double-edged blades,
but the heat source is applied to the center of the blade, allowing the colors to creep out toward each edge.
[12]
Interrupted quenching
Interrupted quenching methods are often referred to as tempering, although the processes are very different from
traditional tempering. These methods consist of quenching to a specific temperature that is above the martensite start
(M
s
) temperature, and then holding at that temperature for extended amounts of time. Depending on the temperature
and the amount of time, this allows either pure bainite to form, or holds-off forming the martensite until much of the
internal stresses relax. These methods are known as austempering and martempering.
[13]
Austempering
Time-temperature transformation (TTT) diagram.
The red line shows the cooling curve for
austempering.
Austempering is a technique used to form pure bainite, a transitional
microstructure found between pearlite and martensite. In normalizing,
both upper and lower bainite are usually found mixed with pearlite. To
avoid the formation of pearlite or martensite, the steel is quenched in a
bath of molten metals or salts. This quickly cools the steel past the
point where pearlite can form, and into the bainite-forming range. The
steel is then held at the bainite-forming temperature, beyond the point
where the temperature reaches an equilibrium, until the bainite fully
forms. The steel is then removed from the bath and allowed to air-cool,
without the formation of either pearlite or martensite.
Depending on the temperature, austempering can produce either upper or lower bainite. Upper bainite is a laminate
structure formed at temperatures typically above 350C (662F) and is a much tougher microstructure. Lower
bainite is a needle-like structure, produced at temperatures below 350 C, and is stronger but much more brittle.
[14]
In either case, austempering produces greater strength and toughness for a given hardness, and reduced internal
stresses which could lead to breakage. This produces steel with superior impact resistance. Modern punches and
chisels are often austempered. Because austempering does not produce martensite, the steel does not require further
tempering.
Martempering
Martempering is similar to austempering, in that the steel is quenched in a bath of molten metal or salts to quickly
cool it past the pearlite-forming range. However, in martempering, the goal is to create martensite rather than bainite.
The steel is quenched to a much lower temperature than is used for austempering; to just above the martensite start
temperature. The metal is then held at this temperature until the temperature of the steel reaches an equilibrium. The
steel is then removed from the bath before any bainite can form, and then is allowed to air-cool, turning it into
martensite. The interruption in cooling allows much of the internal stresses to relax before the martensite forms,
decreasing the brittleness of the steel. However, the martempered steel will usually need to undergo further
tempering to adjust the hardness and toughness.
Tempering (metallurgy)
7
Physical processes
Tempering involves a three-step process in which unstable martensite decomposes into ferrite and unstable carbides,
and finally into stable cementite, forming various stages of a microstructure called tempered martensite. The
martensite typically consists of laths (strips) or plates, sometimes appearing acicular (needle-like) or lenticular
(lens-shaped). Depending on the carbon content, it also contains a certain amount of "retained austenite." Retained
austenite are crystals which are unable to transform into martensite, even after quenching below the martensite finish
(M
f
) temperature. An increase in alloying agents or carbon content causes an increase in retained austenite. Austenite
has much higher stacking-fault energy than martensite, lowering the wear resistance of the steel, although some or
most of the retained austenite can be transformed into martensite by cold and cryogenic treatments prior to
tempering.
The martensite forms during a diffusionless transformation, in which the transformation occurs due to shear-stresses
created in the crystal lattices rather than by chemical changes that occur during precipitation. The shear-stresses
create many defects, or "dislocations," between the crystals, providing less-stressful areas for the carbon atoms to
relocate. Upon heating, the carbon atoms first migrate to these defects, and then begin forming unstable carbides.
This reduces the amount of total martensite by changing some of it to ferrite. Further heating reduces the martensite
even more, transforming the unstable carbides into stable cementite.
The first stage of tempering occurs between room-temperature and 200C (392F). In the first stage, carbon
precipitates into -carbon (Fe
24
C). In the second stage, occurring between 150C (302F) and 300C (572F), the
retained austenite transforms into a form of lower-bainite containing -carbon rather than cementite. The third stage
occurs at 200C (392F) and higher. In the third stage, -carbon precipitates into cementite, and the carbon content
in the martensite decreases. If tempered at higher temperatures, between 650C (1,202F) and 700C (1,292F), or
for longer amounts of time, the martensite may become fully ferritic and the cementite may become coarser or
spheroidize. In spheroidized steel, the cementite network breaks apart and recedes into rods or spherical shaped
globules, and the steel becomes softer than annealed steel; nearly as soft as pure iron, making it very easy to form or
machine.
[15]
Embrittlement
Embrittlement occurs during tempering when, through a specific temperature range, the steel experiences an increase
in hardness and a reduction in ductility, as opposed to the normal decrease in hardness that occurs to either side of
this range. The first type is called tempered martensite embrittlement (TME) or one-step embrittlement. The second
is referred to as temper embrittlement (TE) or two-step embrittlement.
One-step embrittlement usually occurs in carbon steel at temperatures between 230C (446F) and 290C (554F),
and was historically referred to as "500 F embrittlement." This embritttlement occurs due to the precipitation of
Widmanstatten needles or plates, made of cementite, in the interlath boundaries of the martensite. Impurities such as
phosphorus, or alloying agents like manganese, may increase the embrittlement, or alter the temperature at which it
occurs. This type of embrittlement is permanent, and can only be relieved by heating above the upper critical
temperature and then quenching again. However, these microstructures usually require an hour or more to form, so
are usually not a problem in the blacksmith-method of tempering.
Two-step embrittlement typically occurs by aging the metal within a critical temperature range, or by slowly cooling
it through that range, For carbon steel, this is typically between 370C (698F) and 560C (1,040F), although
impurities like phosphorus and sulfur increase the effect dramatically. This generally occurs because the impurities
are able to migrate to the grain boundaries, creating weak spots in the structure. The embrittlement can often be
avoided by quickly cooling the metal after tempering. Two-step embrittlement, however, is reversible. The
embrittlement can be eliminated by heating the steel above 600C (1,112F) and then quickly cooling.
[16]
Tempering (metallurgy)
8
In alloy steels
Many elements are often alloyed with steel. The main purpose for alloying most elements with steel is to increase its
hardenability and to decrease softening under temperature. Tool steels, for example, may have elements like
chromium or vanadium added to increase both toughness and strength, which is necessary for things like wrenches
and screwdrivers. On the other hand, drill bits and rotary files need to retain their hardness at high temperatures.
Adding cobalt or molybdenum can cause the steel to retain its hardness, even at red-hot temperatures, forming
high-speed steels. Often, small amounts of many different elements are added to the steel to give the desired
properties, rather than just adding one or two.
Most alloying elements (solutes) have the benefit of not only increasing hardness, but also lowering both the
martensite start temperature and the temperature at which austenite transforms into ferrite and cementite. During
quenching, this allows a slower cooling rate, which allows items with thicker cross-sections to be hardened to greater
depths than is possible in plain carbon-steel, producing more uniformity in strength.
Tempering methods for alloy steels may vary considerably, depending on the type and amount of elements added. In
general, elements like manganese, nickel, silicon, and aluminum will remain dissolved in the ferrite during
tempering while the carbon precipitates. When quenched, these solutes will usually produce an increase in hardness
over plain carbon-steel of the same carbon content. When hardened alloy-steels, containing moderate amounts of
these elements, are tempered, the alloy will usually soften somewhat proportionately to carbon steel.
However, during tempering, elements like chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum precipitate with the carbon. If the
steel contains fairly low concentrations of these elements, the softening of the steel can be retarded until much higher
temperatures are reached, when compared to those needed for tempering carbon steel. This allows the steel to
maintain its hardness in high temperature or high friction applications. However, this also requires very high
temperatures during tempering, to achieve a reduction in hardness. If the steel contains large amounts of these
elements, tempering may produce an increase in hardness until a specific temperature is reached, at which point the
hardness will begin to decrease.
[17][18]
For instance, molybdenum steels will typically reach their highest hardness
around 315C (599F) whereas vanadium steels will harden fully when tempered to around 371C (700F). When
very large amounts of solutes are added, alloy steels may behave like precipitation hardening alloys, which do not
soften at all during tempering.
[19]
In cast-iron
Cast-iron comes in many types, depending on the carbon-content. However, they are usually divided into grey and
white cast-iron, depending on the form that the carbides take. In grey cast iron, the carbon is mainly in the form of
graphite but, in white cast-iron, the carbon is usually in the form of cementite. Grey cast-iron consists mainly of the
microstructure called pearlite, mixed with graphite and sometimes ferrite. Grey cast-iron is usually used as-cast, with
its properties being determined by its composition.
White cast-iron is composed mostly of a microstructure called ledeburite mixed with pearlite. Ledeburite is very
hard, making the cast-iron very brittle. If the white cast-iron has a hypoeutectic composition, it is usually tempered to
produce malleable cast-iron. Two methods of tempering are used, called "white tempering" and "black tempering."
The purposes of both tempering methods is to cause the cementite to decompose from the ledeburite, increasing the
ductility.
[20]
Tempering (metallurgy)
9
White tempering
White tempering is used to burn off excess carbon, by heating it for extended amounts of time in an oxidizing
environment. The cast iron will usually be held at temperatures as high as 1,000C (1,830F) for as long as 60
hours. The heating is followed by a slow cooling rate of around 10 C (18 F) per hour. The entire process may last
160 hours or more. This causes the cementite to decompose from the ledeburite, and then the carbon burns out
through the surface of the metal, increasing the malleability of the cast-iron.
Black tempering
Unlike white tempering, black tempering is done in an inert gas environment, so that the decomposing carbon does
not burn off. Instead, the decomposing carbon turns into a type of graphite called "temper graphite" or "flaky
graphite," increasing the malleability of the metal. Tempering is usually performed at temperatures as high as 950C
(1,740F) for up to 20 hours. The tempering is followed by slow-cooling through the lower critical temperature,
over a period that may last from 50 to over 100 hours.
Precipitation hardening alloys
Precipitation hardening alloys first came into use during the early 1900s. Most heat-treatable alloys fall into the
category of precipitation hardening alloys, including alloys of aluminum, magnesium, titanium and nickel. Several
high-alloy steels are also precipitation hardening alloys. These alloys become softer than normal when quenched,
and then harden over time. For this reason, precipitation hardening is often referred to as "aging."
Although most precipitation hardening alloys will harden at room temperature, some will only harden at elevated
temperatures and, in others, the process can be sped up by aging at elevated temperatures. Aging at temperatures
higher than room-temperature is called "artificial aging". Although the method is similar to tempering, the term
"tempering" is usually not used to describe artificial aging, because the physical processes, (i.e.: precipitation of
intermetallic phases from a supersaturated alloy) the desired results, (i.e.: strengthening rather than softening), and
the amount of time held at a certain temperature are very different from tempering as used in carbon-steel.
References
[1] Light, its interaction with art and antiquities By Thomas B. Brill - Plenum Publishing 1980 Page 55
[2] Andrews, Jack (1994). New Edge of the Anvil: a resource book for the blacksmith. pp. 9899
[3] Steel metallurgy for the non-metallurgist By John D. Verhoeven - ASM International 2007 Page 99-105
[4] The Medieval Sword in the Modern World By Michael 'Tinker' Pearce - 2007 Page 39
[5] Tool steels By George Adam Roberts, George Krauss, Richard Kennedy, Richard L. Kennedy - ASM International 1998 Page 2
[6] Roberts-Austen By Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen, Sydney W. Smith - Charles Griffin & Co. 1914 Page 155-156
[7] Steel castings handbook By Malcolm Blair, Thomas L. Stevens - Steel Founders' Society of America and ASM International Page 24-9
[8] Practical heat treating By Jon L. Dossett, Howard E. Boyer - ASM International 2006 Page 112
[9] How To Weld By Todd Bridigum - Motorbook 2008 Page 37
[10] Practical Blacksmithing and Metalworking By Percy W. Blandford - TAB Books 1988 Page 3, 7475
[11] Practical Blacksmithing and Metalworking By Percy W. Blandford - TAB Books 1988 Page 74-75
[12] Knife Talk II: The High Performance Blade By Ed Fowler - Krause Publications 2003 Page 114
[13] Elements of metallurgy and engineering alloys By Flake C. Campbell - ASM International 2008 Page 195-196
[14] Steel Heat Treatment Handbook By George E. Totten -- Marcel Dekker 1997 Page 659
[15] Principles of Heat Treatment of Steel By Romesh C. Sharma - New Age International (P) Limited 2003 Page 101-110
[16] Elements of metallurgy and engineering alloys By Flake C. Campbell - ASM International 2008 Page 197
[17] http:/ / www.keytometals. com/ page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle& site=kts& NM=91
[18] Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies By George E. Totten -- CRC Press 2007 Page 6, 200--203
[19] [19] Steels: Microstructure and Properties: Microstructure and Properties By Harry Bhadeshia, Robert Honeycombe -- Elsevier 2006Page
191--207
[20] Physical metallurgy for engineers By Mikls Tisza - ASM International 2002 Page 348-350
Tempering (metallurgy)
10
Further reading
Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide by Robert H. Todd, Dell K. Allen, and Leo Alting pg. 410
External links
A thorough discussion of tempering processes (http:/ / www. msm. cam. ac. uk/ phase-trans/ 2004/ Tempered.
Martensite/ tempered. martensite. html)
Webpage showing heating glow and tempering colors (http:/ / www. sparetimelabs. com/ animato/ animato/ 3003/
3003am. html)
Article Sources and Contributors
11
Article Sources and Contributors
Tempering (metallurgy) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=598861967 Contributors: Acdx, Afluegel, Alan Liefting, Albany NY, Andy Dingley, Anna Frodesiak, Anon lynx,
Antiuser, Apexfreak, Arakunem, Arctic Kangaroo, Arjayay, Arthena, Asuma, Auric, Beland, BenRG, Bobblewik, Bogdanb, Chefkavi1990, ChrisGualtieri, Corpx, DVdm, Dikaiopolis, Dogears,
Doug123w, Emilio Juanatey, Erik Wannee, Erik9, Ettrig, Ewen, Frehley, Gaius Cornelius, Gareth Griffith-Jones, GoingBatty, Helix84, Iepeulas, Into The Fray, Janke, Jerome Kohl, Joelpt,
Khazar2, Kjkolb, Kolbasz, Kopper, Larkster, Ldelaluz, LinguistAtLarge, Lo2u, Lyrl, Mandarax, MarzEz, Mattinnes, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mmarre, Night Gyr, Nneonneo, Notsleeping, Omodaka,
Petri Krohn, Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, Polyparadigm, RSCUSU, Sbrools, Sentinel75, Sharanc25, Sherurcij, Sources said, TheRanger, Time3000, Tom harrison, Tsiaojian lee, Tylerbrowne28,
Vi Kaushik, Vicarious, W00tboy, WODUP, Wikighost1, Wizard191, Woohookitty, XJaM, Zaereth, ZarlanTheGreen, Zvika, 163 , anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Tempering colors in steel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tempering_colors_in_steel.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: User:Zaereth
File:Britannica Alloys Plate Figure 14.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Britannica_Alloys_Plate_Figure_14.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Osmond and
Cartaud.
File:Tempering standards used in blacksmithing.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tempering_standards_used_in_blacksmithing.JPG License: Creative Commons
Zero Contributors: User:Zaereth
File:Differentially tempered sword.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Differentially_tempered_sword.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:Zaereth
File:Austempering.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Austempering.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Zapatilla
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
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