Comunication Skills

CS1 - Common Skills
CS1 : Communication skills

Learning outcomes
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to:
Identify the phases in the communication cycle and demonstrate effective verbal communication in one to one and group situations
Demonstrate effective listening skills and techniques and use different questioning techniques in order to gain information and
understanding
Identify the elements of a written report and the formal presentation of references and supplementary information
Explain the use of information technology for the effective search and presentation of information
Outline the skills needed to effectively organise, run and control both formal and informal meetings
Discuss how styles of leadership and management can influence individuals and help to resolve conflict
Minimum hours of tuition 7 hours.
1.0 Oral communication
1.1 Identification of the phases of communication -the communication cycle.
Communication is a fundamental part of all our lives. The range of methods we can use to communicate with each other is growing all the
time. We can communicate using everything from a note stuck on the fridge door to video-conferencing.
But no matter which medium we choose, the underlying structure or communication cycle remains the same. If we are unsure of what we
wish to communicate, or transmit it badly, we run the risk of not being understood by other people.
We need to consider exactly what we want to communicate and who the receiver will be as a message is successful only when both the
sender and the receiver perceive it in the same way!
Consider the following points..
What is it I want to say?
Why do I want to say this?
Who are my target audience?
What am I expecting the receiver to do with the information once they have it?
What is the best way of transmitting this information and ensuring that I get the message across?
What will ensure that the receiver remains interested in what I have to say?
What equipment or tools do I need?
Once we have considered the above we can start to choose how we are going to express ourselves, i.e. the words and possible pictures or
images we might use. It is important to recognise that how we reach this decision is influenced by our own experiences and what we are
comfortable with and have found to work for us. Various things can affect our ability to receive information including, age, gender, nationality,
level of education and in deed the mood we are in at the time.
We need to consider the following:-
What language should I use is it formal or informal?
What is the prior learning of the target audience?
Have we worked together before?
What am I assuming about the individual receiver and what might they be assuming in return?
Could any of these assumptions or pre-conceived ideas affect or hinder the ability for me to deliver or for the recipient?
Transmitting
To establish yourself as an effective communicator, you must first establish credibility. In the business arena, this involves displaying
knowledge of the subject, the audience and the context in which the message is delivered. It is essential that you transmit what you want to
say clearly and at the right time.
Consider the following:-
Can the receiver hear and see what I want to transmit?
Have I been clear enough?
Is this the right time to transmit this information?
Page 1 of 34 NEBOSH iDiploma: CS1 - Common Skills
Are there likely to be any distractions which may affect what I want to transmit?
Is my approach consistent?
Do I need to include a summary?
Receiving
Depending on whether you receive information in the written form or spoken will influence your interpretation of the information and
ultimately how you store and use that information in the future.
As a speaker it is important to remember that we think at least 3 times faster than we speak and therefore it is easy to trip over your words
and get mixed up.
When you are the recipient take notes and try not to react or judge the speaker until the end, when you will have all the information to hand.
You can then ask the speaker to clarify anything which you havent understood fully.
Concentration is important however you are receiving information and therefore it is important to set the conditions for such an activity if you
have that within your control. Again note taking is important as you will be able to reflect at a later stage and your notes can be a tool for
checking your own understanding.
Decoding
If the sender of the information has done their homework and preparation for the event then you should be able to decode the information
effectively, whether the information is presented orally or written.
It is important to remember that the meaning of the message being transmitted is the responsibility of the sender and not the receiver.
Therefore dont be put off asking questions and checking your understanding. You may only get one chance to do so on the day of a lecture
for example, so be bold and ask!
Responding
When you are the sender of the message it is important that you keep in mind the 6 steps as described and make sure that none of the steps
are missed out in order to get the message across as intended.
1.2 Identification of barriers to reception, understanding and acceptance.
To deliver your messages effectively, you must commit to breaking down the barriers that exist in each of these stages of the communication
process.
Lets begin with the message itself. If your message is too lengthy, disorganised, or contains errors, you can expect the message to be
misunderstood and misinterpreted. Use of poor verbal and body language can also confuse the message.
Barriers in context tend to stem from senders offering too much information too fast. When in doubt here, less is oftentimes more. It is best
to be mindful of the demands on other peoples time, especially in todays ultra-busy society.
Once you understand this, you need to work to understand your audiences culture, making sure you can converse and deliver your message
to people of different backgrounds and cultures within your own organization, in this country and even abroad.
Consider the potential barriers to communicating
The communicator
Trying to communicate at the wrong level
Making assumptions as to people's understanding
Lack of authority
Poor verbal skills
Poor written skills
Lack of enthusiasm
Personality clashes
Inappropriate messages
The receiver
Health problems - e.g. poor eyesight, poor hearing
Language difficulties
Reading difficulties
Learning difficulties
Lack of interest, and distraction I boredom
Misunderstanding
Failing to ask when not sure
Barriers can be overcome by:
Avoiding negativity, being positive and enthusiastic
Making communication 'two-way'
Using attention-getting techniques
Ensure correct exposure
Ensure comprehension through feedback, testing etc
Making messages clear and understandable
Making messages credible and achievable
Making messages appropriate to the workplace
Its estimated that the average person ignores, forgets, or misunderstands at least 75% of what he or she hears. Is it any wonder that
mistakes occur and opportunities are missed.
Barriers Caused by Outside Influences (Noise)
Noise is the name given to features of the setting in which the communication takes place which interfere with the accurate transfer of
information. In literal terms, it can be physical noise, such as heavy traffic, constantly-ringing telephones or people talking to you while you
are reading a letter. It can also refer to other kinds of interference, such as a poor telephone connection or illegible handwriting.
1.3 Develop Personal Communication Skills
This is one of the simplest ways in which communication may be improved. Communication skills cover the ability to write clear English so
that a meaning is expressed directly and without ambiguity. They also include the ability to talk to a wide range of people in formal and
informal situations to achieve a range of purposes.
More important, perhaps, are the skills that are often neglected. These include the range of reading skills which are needed for the correct
understanding of information, and to these we must also add the ability to listen and understand, so that the speaker knows that you are
sympathetic and aware of what he or she is saying.
A simple awareness of these abilities - particularly the last - as skills which can be developed, will help you a great deal in improving your
communication at a business and also a personal level.
1.4 Communicating on an international level
With more and more companies expanding and trading on the international circuit, employees in various locations now have day-to-day
communications with each other, this is particularly true of emails, mobile phones and texting. Given different cultural contexts, this brings
new communication challenges to the workplace.
Even when employees speak the same language some cultural differences will be evident and should be considered in an effort to
communicate effectively.
In such cases, effective communication strategy begins with the understanding that the sender of the message and the receiver of the
message are from different cultures and backgrounds. Of course, this introduces a certain amount of uncertainty, making communications
even more complex.
We would all benefit from learning how to better communicate with individuals and groups whose first language, or language of choice, does
not match our own.
Learning the basics about culture and at least something about the language of communication in the host country are necessary. This is
crucial even for the basic level of understanding required to engage in appropriate greetings and physical contact, which can be a tricky area
inter-culturally. For instance, kissing a business associate is not considered an appropriate business practice in the U.S.A. but in Paris, one
peck on each cheek is an acceptable greeting!
While many companies will recognise the need to offer training in the different cultures where the company conducts business, it is important
that employees recognise the need to increase their knowledge and understanding of the different culture. This requires the ability to see that
a persons own behaviours and reactions are oftentimes culturally driven.
Simply showing a genuine interest, paired with patience and understanding could well be the best answer here.
2. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
By this we mean the process of communication without words, i.e. body language and various other elements of the communication process:
- Use of the voice the way a room is laid out for an interview or meeting, dress and personal appearance All these are very important when
we deal with people in person.
Circumstances
The circumstances of the meeting are obviously very important to its success and the preferred outcome.
Consider the following:-
If you keep someone waiting for 15 minutes before seeing them, this could indicate to the person that you are not interested in the
meeting and that you regard them as a fairly low priority in your days work.
If it is apparent that you have not prepared or researched the subject under discussion, you are also showing that it is not important to
you.
If you allow interruptions during the course of the meeting, either by the telephone ringing or interruptions from other callers, again
the message you are giving to the recipient is that you do not consider them important enough to prevent these sorts of interruptions
from occurring.
All of the above reveal your attitude, just as clearly as what you actually say. These are unspoken acts of communication. If you overlook
non-verbal elements like these in the way that you organise and approach a meeting, you will lose the advantages of oral communication
because of the bad impression you create by your underlying message.
Dress and General Appearance
The way in which you dress says a lot about the way you regard the people you are meeting.
If you wear smart, clean clothes and in general look well groomed, you will make clear that you value their company and have done them the
courtesy of dressing fairly formally.
Conversely, wearing overly casual or dirty and untidy clothes will suggest that you are not concerned about them. It may also suggest a lack
of efficiency, since an onlooker might think that if you take so little care over your appearance, you may be similarly unconcerned about your
work.
Dressing formally, but without ostentation, is an important element of non-verbal communication, to convey a smart and efficient image to
the visitor.
Accommodation
Choosing the most appropriate room layout for a meeting is very important as this again will set the tone of the meeting from the outset.
As part of your preparation you need to decide what setting is most appropriate; i.e. a formal setting where you are perhaps behind a desk,
or a series of separate tables and chairs, with a single desk at the front facing the others, will create the impression of a very formal setting in
which one person - the person at the desk - dominates the meeting, rather like a school classroom.
A single large table where everyone sits around it and there is not necessary a head of the table round or oval table, you will be suggesting
a coming together of equals. This will create a more relaxed atmosphere.
Where an uncomfortable meeting, perhaps disciplinary, is to take place, consideration should be given to exits in order that you dont allow
yourself to be blocked in a room with an angry or violent person. Make sure you are sat with a clear exit path to the nearest door!
2.1 Defining Body Language
Lets consider what we mean by Body Language under the following headings:-
Contact
The amount of body contact between people tells us a lot about their relationship. In a formal business meeting the initial contact is usually
through a handshake and that can tell you a lot.
A weak and floppy handshake can signify that you are unsure of yourself or insincere.
A good, firm handshake can signal the beginning and end of a meeting, and also signifies trust and genuineness between the two people
involved.
Approach other forms of contact with caution. While some people will respond to a pat on the arm or slap on the back, others may find it
intrusive or even offensive, even though you intend it as a sign of friendship.
Proximity
Get to know how the people you work with feel about proximity. Some people find it disturbing to be approached too closely, while others
welcome friendly and informal seating arrangements. Think carefully about this when arranging the layout of a room.
Orientation
If you directly face the person who is speaking to you, you give the impression that you are really listening to them. However if you face
away, then it looks as though you have no interest in what is being said.
If someone gets up and walks over to the window during a conversation, it may suggest that they are bored with the conversation; but
equally it may also suggest that they are upset or angry and by getting up and putting some distance between you both means that the
person concerned may be trying to hide there true feelings.
Be aware of such activity and sensitive to the other person. The meeting may no be going as they expected and they may be feeling
uncomfortable with the situation.
Posture
Consider how you sit and what you do with your hands and legs. If you sit forward and look at the speaker, you are showing involvement and
active interest, by contrast, if you sit back looking at the carpet, you are indicating boredom or anger.
A person sitting with hunched shoulders and folded arms is being defensive, possibly resisting new ideas or negative feedback; someone
leaning back comfortably, is thinking in a free, relaxed way, which shows complete trust in the other people present.
You may have heard that when you reach the stage where you are mirroring the other persons body language you are clearly thinking the
same way and providing the signs are positive, you are totally comfortable with each other!
However if you are facing one another both with arms crossed then the signs are not good!
Head and Face Signals
Facial Expressions
The expression on your face gives a clear indication of how you are feeling. When listening, try to adopt a neutral expression, smiling in a
friendly way to encourage the speaker. When speaking, look for responses shown by expressions:
Smiles reveal pleasure
Withdrawn, vacant expressions suggest boredom
Frowns may suggest anger, but more often concentration or deep thought.
And yawning says it all!
Nodding and shaking the head
These are fairly obvious, intentional forms of communicating. However, as well as the usual meaning, shaking the head with a frowning
expression may suggest puzzlement or, accompanied by closed eyes, it can suggest anger and frustration.
Nodding and shaking are also important techniques when listening to someone speak. It shows that you are listening carefully and responding
to what is being said. Try to develop the habit of using these signs in an unobtrusive way to indicate that you are interested in and
understand what is being said. It will give the speaker confidence and help him to express his ideas fully and freely.
Eye Contact
The eyes are the windows to the soul! Sounds very romantic however, it is generally accepted that a person who looks straight into your eyes
is honest and trustworthy. Whether this is true in every situation is open to question but it is a good idea to look directly at the person you
are talking to. By doing this suggests an open, honest nature, but be careful to strike the right balance as an unwavering stare is often
uncomfortable and can appear threatening to the recipient. At important stages of the conversation at the beginning, certainly, and at the
end - it is a good idea to look at your listener directly, in the eyes if possible.
When you are talking to a group of people, however, make sure that your eyes travel across the room, so that you can look at each person in
turn. Arrange the room so that you can achieve eye-contact with everyone who is there. Without this, people quickly become bored, as they
feel isolated and left out.
Be aware that in a formal classroom style setting the speaker can have a tendency to forget the person directly to their right so it is important
you are aware of this and make the effort to include everyone in the room.
2.2 Vocal Signals
Volume and tone of voice
When you start addressing a meeting of any size or an audience it is important to check from the outset that you can be heard and adjust
your volume or audio equipment accordingly.
The art of good public speaking is to speak calmly and clearly with a reasonable volume and pace, you will give the impression of being in
control. Remember to breathe! If you talk very quickly in a high-pitched voice, and frequently run out of breath, you will sound nervous.
Always listen carefully to the tone of someones voice - it can be as important as what he is saying in conveying a mood or response. Make
allowances, too, for people who are nervous or upset, and try to speak calmly to them.
Movement
If someone is constantly fidgeting with his hands, frequently crosses his legs, taps his feet, drums his fingers or gets up and walks around the
room, it is a sure sign of nerves or agitation. Learn to recognise such signs and deal with them sympathetically.
When you are talking yourself, try to remain still. Movement is distracting, and other peoples mannerisms can be extremely annoying - head-
scratching, beard-stroking, jangling coins in a trouser pocket or similar movements can be very disturbing when you are trying to listen.
Paralinguistics
This is a long word for the noises people make when they are listening to someone else speak and wish to show agreement - uh-huh, mm
and oh, for example. Like nodding and smiling, these are a useful way of showing somebody that you are following what he is saying.
This facet of nonverbal communication includes such vocal elements as:
Tone
Pitch
Rhythm
Timbre
Loudness
Inflection
For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice. One of the major criticisms is of instructors who speak in
a monotone. Listeners perceive these instructors as boring and dull. Students report that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when
listening to teachers who have not learned to modulate their voices. Remember that it is not enough simply to listen to what is being said -
you must also show that you are listening (and that you understand) if the communication process is to be fully effective.
2.3 Using the telephone.
A conversation using the telephone needs just as much thought as planning a meeting if the conversation is formal and important.
Preparation should include:-
Identify a suitable time to call in order that the recipient is able to concentrate and you can both have some privacy if required.
Make sure you have the correct contact details of the person you need to speak to and practice asking for them by name if the persons name
is unusual or foreign. Have the relevant extension number to hand.
Ensure you have any notes or correspondence to hand in order that you dont have to break off from your conversation to find the relevant
paperwork.
Have note paper and pen to hand for recording content, actions and agreements reached during the conversation.
Speaking on the Telephone
Speak clearly, in your normal voice, dont adopt a telephone voice as it is unlikely that you would be able to keep it up during the
course of the conversation and is a distraction in itself.
Do not try to speak too quickly or too slowly, as the listener may lose track of what is being said.
Be careful to sound the consonants at the ends of words -t, d and ck sounds, in particular, are often lost when speaking quickly, and
you must take care to pronounce them when using the telephone.
Be particularly careful when giving numbers. Fifteen and fifty, for example, are easily confused; make clear which you are using by
saying fifteen - one-five and fifty - five-zero.
If you have to give a name, give the spelling too. Be careful over easily confused letters such as s and f: spell them out using a
phonetic alphabet - S for sugar, F for Freddie, and so on.
If you are making an international call the International Phonetic Alphabet used by telephone operators. Country names or capital cities
tend to be easily understood by both parties. I.e. F for France, S for Sweden, U for Ukraine rather than umbrella!
Answering a Call
Answer the telephone by giving your name or the extension number or department name. Few things are more irritating than to be kept
waiting for several seconds for an extension to be answered, only to be met with a curt Hello!
If you cannot help the caller, say so, and suggest someone else who can, but dont allow the caller to be passed from one department to
another if you are unsure, as we all know how frustrating this can be. If you can help, do so quickly. Calls are expensive - and apart from
this, rapid service will impress a caller with your firms efficiency.
If you cannot give information now but think you may be able to find it, suggest that you call back. This will save time and money for the
caller, and also allow you time to find the relevant material.
If you did not get the callers name, position and number (including extension) when he or she called, make sure that you get them before
you ring off. This will ensure that you know whom to contact should the need arise.
3.0 Presentation skills: effective use of visual aids, dealing with questions and securing audience participation.
A presentation is a formal address by one person to a group of people, whether it is to a group of 4 or 5 well known colleagues or a much
larger number up to two or three hundred people - in which the main aim is to convey information or ideas in a direct and straightforward
way, often with the use of duplicated notes and audio or visual aids.
The main difference between a formal presentation and the kinds of meeting which we have touched on earlier is that, whereas most
meetings involve the exchange of ideas and information between individuals, a presentation consists of one person talking to others on a pre-
arranged subject.
A formal presentation is the modern equivalent of a lecture or speech. A presentation will often make extensive use of visual aids and
duplicated or printed material which is circulated to the audience before during or at the end of the meeting.
Presentations are important parts of the communication process within companies. However giving a presentation is not for everyone and it is
important that adequate planning and preparation take place in order for the speaker to feel in control and comfortable with their audience.
Choosing the most appropriate method of presenting the information is key to its success.
We have moved on from simply having Over-head Projectors and Flip Charts to Power Point presentations and interactive white boards. We
no longer have to analyse black and white handouts when colour copiers and printers enable graphs and pie charts to come to life with an
infusion of colour.
Engaging the audience in a formal presentation setting needs to be determined in advance. Are you going to allow the audience to ask
questions during the presentation or will you ask for questions to be saved until the end? This is usually the preferred option and it ensures
you control the time and avoid getting taken off the track of your presentation.
Thought needs to be given to size and acoustics of the room. Will you need audio equipment and a roving microphone to allow the audience
to hear the questions being asked?
We will look in more detail about the preparation, writing and delivery of a presentation later on.
3.1 Effective listening
It is obvious to say that if you have poor interpersonal communications skills (which include effective listening), your productivity will suffer
simply because you do have the tools needed to influence, persuade and negotiate all necessary for workplace success. Lines of
communications must be open between people who rely on one another to get work done.
Considering this, you must be able to listen attentively if you are to perform to expectations, avoid conflicts and misunderstandings, and to
succeed - in any arena.
3.2 Positive listening techniques used to overcome poor listening skills.
3.2.1 Understanding Your Own Communication Style
Good communication skills require a high level of self-awareness. Understanding your personal style of communicating will go a long way
toward helping you to create good and lasting impressions on others. By becoming more aware of how others perceive you, you can adapt
more readily to their styles of communicating. This does not mean you have to be a chameleon, changing with every personality you meet.
Instead, you can make another person more comfortable with you by selecting and emphasising certain behaviours that fit within your
personality and resonate with another. In doing this, you will prepare yourself to become an active listener.
3.2.2 Be An Active Listener
It is stated that people generally speak at 100 to 175 words per minute, but they can listen intelligently at 600 to 800 words per minute.
Since only a part of our mind is paying attention, it is easy to drift and lose concentration while listening to someone. The cure for this is
active listening - which involves listening with a purpose. It may be to gain information, obtain directions, understand others, solve problems,
share interest, see how another person feels, show support, etc.
If you're finding it particularly difficult to concentrate on what someone is saying, try repeating their words mentally as they say it - this will
reinforce their message and help you control mind drift.
3.2.3 Use Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is about body language which includes facial expressions like smiles, gestures, eye contact. This shows the person
you are communicating with that you are indeed listening actively and avoid the need for repetition and misunderstandings.
3.2.4 Give Feedback
Remember that what someone says and what we hear can be amazingly different! Our personal filters, assumptions, judgments, and beliefs
can distort what we hear. Repeat back or summarize to ensure that you understand. Restate what you think you heard and ask, "Have I
understood you correctly?" If you find yourself responding emotionally to what someone said, say so, and ask for more information: "I may
not be understanding you correctly, and I find myself taking what you said personally. What I thought you just said is XXX; is that what you
meant?"
Feedback is a verbal communications means used to clearly demonstrate you are actively listening and to confirm the communications
between you and others. Obviously, this serves to further ensure the communications are understood and is a great tool to use to verify
everything you heard while actively listening.
4.0 Questioning techniques
To gain the best out of a candidate in an interview for example, a variety of questioning techniques will be used and in
particular the Open question which will not allow for a candidate simply answering Yes orNo.
4.1 Open: introduces a general area of questioning which require explanations: e.g. why, how, please explain, describe:
e.g. Tell me about the duties and responsibilities of your current/most recent job? or How did you reach that conclusion?
Why is a course of action being adopted?
Who will be carrying out such a task?
When will actions be carried out?
What has to be done?
Where will we act?
How will a task be approached?
What if certain circumstances arise?
These questions encourage the candidate to give a detailed response and should bring about a greater two-way flow of information.
Whereas Probing : finds out what lies behind a statement:
e.g. What aspects of the job did you most enjoy?
These questions elicit more specific information and allow you to explore important or uncertain points.
4.2 Closed: checks facts.
e.g. How many staff were you responsible for?
These questions can help focus a candidate on giving a specific number or a simply yes or no depending on the question.
In an interview situation you would want to avoid leading questions, i.e. encouraging a candidate to answer in a particular way:
e.g. This job involves dealing with difficult customers - are you able to do that? the answer to these questions are a foregone conclusion.
4.3 Analytical
elicits evidence of the candidates ability to analyse the work/task: e.g. What strategies do you employ to prioritise a busy workload
4.4 Multiple questions have there uses.
e.g. Can you tell me how you dealt with an angry customer, what the outcome was and how you would tackle a similar problem again?
However these questions can be confusing and the recipient is unlikely to be able to remember everything you have asked.
4.5 Hypothetical questions allow you to
ask a candidate how he/she would handle a particular situation:e.g. How would you deal with a difficult customer?
In this situation candidates are unlikely to be able to imagine the situation in its real context and their answer will be based on how they think you should
handle the situation, not what they would do in reality.
4.6 Using discriminatory
questions can produce explosive results from a candidate who is aware of equal opportunities and questions about childcare, domestic and personal
circumstances and health e.g. Do you have childcare responsibilities? are a no go area in most situations.
4.7 Using visual aids in presentations
One of the building blocks of a dynamic presentations is to ensure you have good quality Visual Aids
Seven reasons to use visual aids:
1. Increase retention of material
2. Teach more in less time
3. Keep and maintain the attention of your audience
4. Provide a picture of something you have described in words
5. Minimize misunderstanding or to clarify your information
6. Add drama and variety
7. Add a level of professionalism
4.7.1 Resources for visual aids
Chalkboards and dry erase boards
Slide projectors
Videotapes
Overheads
Flipcharts
P ower point presentations
Interactive whiteboards for demonstrating work on PCs and the Web
Remember when using visual aids:
They should be large, clear, legible, and brief. If you cant read every word from the back of the room, dont use it.
Use colourpeople respond to colour.
Dont rush anything you display. Give everyone time to see and understand the point you are making. Continue with your presentation
until you audience has had time to read the visual.
Each visual should make a single point.
Dont give your talk to the visual aid. Glance at the visual aid to keep your train of thought, but always face your audience.
Never stand in front of what you are showing.
Test the visual aid ahead of time to avoid embarrassment.
4.7.1 Resources for visual aids
Chalkboards and dry erase boards
Slide projectors
Videotapes
Overheads
Flipcharts
P ower point presentations
Interactive whiteboards for demonstrating work on PCs and the Web
Remember when using visual aids:
They should be large, clear, legible, and brief. If you cant read every word from the back of the room, dont use it.
Use colourpeople respond to colour.
Dont rush anything you display. Give everyone time to see and understand the point you are making. Continue with your presentation
until you audience has had time to read the visual.
Each visual should make a single point.
Dont give your talk to the visual aid. Glance at the visual aid to keep your train of thought, but always face your audience.
Never stand in front of what you are showing.
Test the visual aid ahead of time to avoid embarrassment.
4.7.2 Fact Sheets & Handouts
Your fact sheet is another effective element of your presentation. This visual aid will help solidify the facts and figures that you introduced in
your presentation.
Use pictures and graphs that are easily depicted and will show up
Use a font that is easy to read not too ornate!
Include interesting facts.
Include a crossword puzzle, word search, short quiz, song lyrics, etc. Be creative.
Do not forget to use spell check. It is very unprofessional to use handouts with misspelled words.
5.0 Written communications
In this section we will look at formal report writing including:
general format; layout of document to enhance clarity and visual impact
5.1 Writing a Formal Report
In education and work, formal reports communicate information to others without the need for meetings. If you are to explain your work to
others in this way, effective reports are vital. Effective reports will give you a professional image and get others to take your work seriously.
Preparation
Be clear about the purpose of the report and its readers plan the report carefully, identifying the references you need identify the correct style
to use
Execution
be aware of any house-style requirements from the text, refer to visual references, appendices and other sections number and title each
reference pay particular attention to reference and bibliography sections
Principles
Written reports provide specific research-based information that results in a course of action being decided and acted on. Reports are
designed to give information concisely and accurately. A formal report has an impersonal and objective tone of voice. The main argument is
clear and uses a minimum of words. Accurately presented facts are in the main body of the report - your evaluation of these is in the
conclusions and recommendations sections.
Report structure
Reports tend to follow a standard structure with the following headings:
1. Title - indicates the content and type of report you have written.
2. Executive summary - outlines the work you have done and the conclusions and recommendations you have made.
3. Table of contents - provides easy reference to information within your report.
4. Terms of reference - can be included in the introduction - identifies the purpose and objectives of your report, when it was prepared, for
whom, why, and how research was undertaken.
5. Introduction - this will give more details of what you have dealt with, the background or context to the problem, the authority or status
of the work presented, and the purpose behind the work and the report.
6. Body of report - can give an outline of underpinning theory, a statement of the nature and factual results of investigations, and any
conclusions, arguments or opinions resulting from them.
7. Conclusion or Summary - should be clearly and logically presented - as succinctly as possible - and should contain no new material.
8. Recommendations - should contain a summary of proposals for the future - these will have been discussed in detail in the body of the
report.
9. References - should identify sources of specific pieces of information identified within the text.
10. Bibliography - will contain a list of books and other sources of generally referenced information.
11. Appendices - should be used to contain details that would otherwise interrupt the natural flow of information in the body of the report or
make the body too large.
12. Abstracts An abstract is usually 100 to 200 words and should include the following:
why the report has been written (i.e. what question or problem is it addressing?)
how the study was undertaken
what the main findings were
what the significance of the findings is.
Be specific and precise so that the reader can get a good understanding of the main points without having to read the whole report.
The abstract should be on a separate page with the centred heading ABSTRACT in capitals. It is usually written in a single paragraph with no
indentation.
All reports are signed and dated. Clearly label different sections of your report with headings and sub-headings. Clearly number sections for
easy access and reference.
5.2 Report Writing/Layout: do's and don'ts
Use a spell checker to go over your document. But don't assume that it will detect every spelling error. For example, it cannot detect
when "there" and "their" are misused.
Use a grammar checker but as with the spell checker, don't assume that it will pick up every error as it is not programmed to deal with
many of the errors that Singaporeans typically make. For instance, using "would" instead of "will" or using verb forms such as "had seen" -the
past perfect- instead of the simple past tense "saw".
Get someone to proof read your copy before it is finally sent for printing and distribution. Have them check grammar, spelling and
punctuation.
Label your tables and charts fully . Include legends and sources where necessary. Number your tables and charts in a consistent way
throughout the document. Remember that charts, drawings, diagrams, photographs and other images are all referred to as figures in formal
documents. In labelling your figures, you usually use the abbreviation Fig. Your first chart in Chapter 2 will be labelled Fig. 2.1, your next
diagram Fig. 2.2, your next image Fig. 2.3 and so on.
6.0 Writing styles
Writing is an essential skill upon which all health and safety managers rely.
Writing is the major means of communication within an organisation; paper is thought to be the major product of professionals; some
estimate that up to 30% of work-time is engaged in written communication. Thus it is absolutely vital for you to actively develop the skill of
writing; not only because of the time involved in writing, but also because your project's success may depend upon it. Indeed, since so much
of the communication between you and possibly more senior management occurs in writing, your whole career may depend upon its quality.
6.1 Two Roles
In an industrial context, writing has two major roles:
it clarifies - for both writer and reader
it conveys information
It is this deliberate, dual aim which should form the focus for all your writing activity.
There are many uses for paper within an organisation; some are inefficient - but the power of paper must not be ignored because of that. In
relation to a project, documentation provides a means to clarify and explain on-going development, and to plan the next stages. Memoranda
are a simple mechanism for suggestions, instructions, and general organisation. The minutes of a meeting form a permanent and definitive
record.
Writing is a central part of any design activity. Quality is improved since writing an explanation of the design, forces the designer to consider
and explore it fully. For instance, the simple procedure of insisting upon written test-plans forces the designer to address the issue. Designs
which work just "because they do" will fail later; designs whose operation is explained in writing may also fail, but the repair will be far
quicker since the (documented) design is understood.
If you are having trouble expressing an idea, write it down; you (and possibly others) will then understand it. It may take you a long time to
explain something "off the cuff", but if you have explained it first to yourself by writing it down - the reader can study your logic not just once
but repeatedly, and the information is efficiently conveyed.
6.2 Forget the Past
Professional writing has very little to do with the composition and literature learnt at school: the objectives are different, the audience has
different needs, and the rewards in health and safety can be far greater. We write for very distinct and restricted purposes, which are best
achieved through simplicity.
English at school has two distinct parts: the analysis and appreciation of the great works of literature, and the display of knowledge. It is all a
question of aim. A novel entertains. It forces the reader to want to know: what happens next. On the other hand, a health and safety report
is primarily designed to convey information. The job is helped if the report is interesting; but time is short and the sooner the meat of the
document is reached, the better.
In school we are taught to display knowledge. The more information and argument, the more marks. In industry, it is totally different. Here
the wise manager must extract only the significant information and support it with only the minimum-necessary argument. The expertise is
used to filter the information and so to remove inessential noise. The manager as expert provides the answers to problems, not an exposition
of past and present knowledge: we use our knowledge to focus upon the important points.
6.3 For the Future
When you approach any document, follow this simple procedure:
1. Establish the AIM
2. Consider the READER
3. Devise the STRUCTURE
4. DRAFT the text
5. EDIT and REVISE
We will now expand upon these points and explain some techniques to make the document effective and efficient - but these five stages (all
of them) are what you need to remember.
6.3.1 Aim
You start with your aim . Every document must have a single aim - a specific, specified reason for being written. If you can not think of one,
do something useful instead; if you can not decide what the document should achieve, it will not achieve it.
Once you have established your aim, you must then decide what information is necessary in achieving that aim. The reader wants to find the
outcome of your thoughts: apply your expertise to the available information, pick out the very-few facts which are relevant, and state them
precisely and concisely.
6.3.2 The Reader
A document tells somebody something. As the writer, you have to decide what to tell and how best to tell it to the particular audience; you
must consider the reader.
There are three considerations:
What they already know affects what you can leave out.
What they need to know determines what you include.
What they want to know suggests the order and emphasis of your writing.
To be most effective, you may need to produce three different reports for three different audiences.
The key point, however, is that writing is about conveying information - conveying; that means it has to get there. Your writing must be right
for the reader, or it will be lost on its journey; you must focus upon enabling the reader's access to the information.
6.3.3 Structure
Writing is very powerful - and for this reason, it can be exploited in health and safety. The power comes from its potential as an efficient and
effective means of communication; the power is derived from order and clarity. Structure is used to present the information so that it is more
accessible to the reader.
In all comes down to the problem of the short attention span. You have to provide the information in small manageable chunks, and to use
the structure of the document to maintain the context.
While still considering the aim and the reader, the document is broken down into distinct sections which can be written (and read) separately.
These sections are then each further decomposed into subsections (and sub-subsections) until you arrive at simple, small units of information
- which are expressed as a paragraph, or a diagram.
Every paragraph in your document should justify itself; it should serve a purpose, or be removed. A paragraph should convey a single idea.
There should be a statement of that key idea and (possibly) some of the following:
a development of the idea
an explanation or analogy
an illustration
support with evidence
contextual links to reinforce the structure
It may be appropriate to avoid words entirely in places; diagrams are often much better than written text. Whole reports can be written with
them almost exclusively and you should always consider using one in preference to a paragraph. Not only do diagrams convey some
information more effectively, but often they assist in the analysis and interpretation of the data. For instance, a pie chart gives a quicker
comparison than a list of numbers; a simple bar chart is far more intelligible than the numbers it represents. They must be given due care:
add informative labels and titles, highlight any key entries, remove unnecessary information.
6.3.4 Draft, Revise and Edit
The following are a few points to consider as you wield the red pen over your newly created composition.
6.4 Layout
The main difference between written and verbal communication is that the reader can choose and re-read the various sections, whereas the
listener receives information in the sequence determined by the speaker. Layout should be used to make the structure plain, and so more
effective: it acts as a guide to the reader.
Suppose you have three main points to make; do not hide them within simple text - make them obvious. Make it so that the reader's eye
jumps straight to them on the page. For instance, the key to effective layout is to use:
informative titles
white space
variety
Another way to make a point obvious is to use a different font.
A typical business letter tends to look like this:-
Smith and Davies Associates Ltd
13 High Street
Great Grimsby
North East Lincolnshire
DN228DL
Our Ref:
Your Ref:
12 April 2006
Mr Samuel Peterson
34 Lawn Terrace
West Butterwick
North Lincolnshire
DN17 6PP
Dear Mr Peterson
Account No .
BODY OF LETTER
Yours sincerely
Joseph Davies
Managing Director
6.5 Style
People in business do not have the time to marvel at your florid turn off phrase or incessant illiteration. They want to know what the document is about and
(possibly) what it says; there is no real interest in style, except for ease of access.
In some articles a summary can be obtained by reading the first sentence of each paragraph. The remainder of each paragraph is simply an expansion upon, or
explanation of, the initial sentence. In other writing, the topic is given first in a summary form, and then successively repeated with greater detail each time.
This is the pyramid structure favoured by newspapers.
A really short and simple document is bound to be read. This has lead to the "memo culture" in which every communication is condensed to one side of A4.
Longer documents need to justify themselves to their readers' attention.
6.6 The Beginning
Let us imagine the reader. Let us call him Mr X.
Mr X has a lot to do today: he has a meeting tomorrow morning with the regional manager, a call to make to the German design office,
several letters to dictate concerning safety regulations, and this months statistical data has failed to reach her. He is busy and distracted. You
have possibly 20 seconds for your document to justify itself to him. If by then it has not explained itself and convinced her that he needs to
read it - Mr X will tackle something else. If Mr X is a good manager, he will insist on a rewrite; if not, the document may never be read.
Therefore the beginning of your document is crucial. It must be obvious to the reader at once what the document is about, and why it should
be read. You need to catch the readers attention but with greater subtlety than this article; few health and safety reports can begin with the
word sex!
Unlike a novel, the health and safety document must not contain "teasing elevations of suspense". Take your "aim", and either state it or
achieve it by the end of the first paragraph.
For instance, if you have been evaluating a new piece of machinery for possible purchase then your reports might begin: "Having evaluated
the Jacobson Ventilation system, I recommend that ...".
6.6.1 Punctuation
Punctuation is used to clarify meaning and to highlight structure. It can also remove ambiguity: a cross section of customers can be rendered
less frightening simply by adding a hyphen (a cross-section of customers).
We tend not to punctuate - which deprives us of this simple tool. Despite what some remember from school, punctuation has simple rules
which lead to elegance and easy interpretation.
The two most common uses of the Colon are:
1) To introduce a list which explains, or provides the information promised in, the previous clause.
A manager needs two planning tools: prescience and a prayer.
2) To separate main clauses where the second is a step forward from the first: statement to example, statement to explanation, cause to
effect, introduction to main point.
To err is human: we use computers.
The two most common uses of the Semicolon are:
1) to unite sentences that are closely associated, complementary or parallel:
Writing is a skill; one must practise to improve a skill.
Engineers engineer; accountants account for the cost.
2) to act as a stronger comma, either for emphasis or to establish a hierarchy
The report was a masterpiece; of deception and false promises.
The teams were Mike, Mick and Steve; and Mandy, Cheryl and Caroline.
6.7 Spelling
For some, spelling is a constant problem. In the last analysis, incorrect spelling distracts the reader and detracts from the authority of the author. Computer
spell-checking programmes provide great assistance, especially when supported by a good dictionary. Chronic spellers should always maintain a (preferably
alphabetical) list of corrected errors, and try to learn new rules (and exceptions!). For instance (in British English) advice-advise, device-devise, licence-
license, practice-practise each follow the same pattern: the -ice is a noun, the -ise is a verb.
6.8 Simple Errors
For important documents, there is nothing better than a good, old-fashioned proof-read. As an example, the following comes from a national
advertising campaign/quiz run by a famous maker of Champagne:
Question 3: Which Country has one the Triple Crown the most times?
Won understands the error, but is not impressed by the quality of that company's product.
6.9 Sentence Length
Avoid long sentences. We tend to associate "unit of information" with "a sentence". Consequently when reading, we process the information when we reach the
full stop. If the sentence is too long, we lose the information either because of our limited attention span or because the information was poorly decomposed
to start with and might, perhaps, have been broken up into smaller, or possibly better punctuated, sentences which would better have kept the attention of
the reader and, by doing so, have reinforced the original message with greater clarity and simplicity.
6.10 Word Length
It is inappropriate to utilize verbose and bombastic terminology when a suitable alternative would be to: keep it simple. Often the long, complex word will not
be understood. Further, if the reader is distracted by the word itself, then less attention is paid to the meaning or to the information you wished to convey.
6.11 Jargon
I believe that a digital human-computer-interface data-entry mechanism should be called a keyboard; I don't know why, but I do.
6.12 Wordiness
When one is trying hard to write an impressive document, it is easy to slip into grandiose formulae: words and phrases which sound significant but which
convey nothing but noise.
You must exterminate. So: "for the reason that" becomes "because"; "with regards to" becomes "about"; "in view of the fact that" becomes "since"; "within a
comparatively short period of time" becomes "soon".
Often you can make a sentence sound more like spoken English simply by changing the word order and adjusting the verb. So: "if the department experiences
any difficulties in the near future regarding attendance of meetings" becomes "if staff cannot attend the next few meetings". As a final check, read your
document aloud; if it sounds stilted, change it.
6.13 Conclusion
Writing is a complex tool, you need to train yourself in its use or a large proportion of your activity will be grossly inefficient. You must reflect
upon your writing lest it reflects badly upon you.
If you want one message to take from this article, take this: the writing of a professional Manager should be clear, complete and concise. If
your document satisfies these three criteria, then it deserves to be read.
7.0 Writing techniques
7.1 Critical analysis and its use and application in assignment reports
A critical analysis is subjective writing because it expresses the writer's opinion or evaluation of a text. Analysis means to break down and
study the parts. Writing a critical paper requires two steps: critical reading and critical writing.
7.2 Critical reading:
1. Identify the author's thesis and purpose
2. Analyse the structure of the passage by identifying all main ideas
3. Consult a dictionary or encyclopaedia to understand material that is unfamiliar to you
4. Make an outline of the work or write a description of it
5. Write a summary of the work
6. Determine the purpose which could be
To inform with factual material
To persuade with appeal to reason or emotions
To entertain (to affect people's emotions)
7. Evaluate the means by which the author has accomplished his purpose
If the purpose is to inform, has the material been presented clearly, accurately, with order and coherence?
If the purpose is to persuade, look for evidence, logical reasoning, contrary evidence
If the purpose was to entertain, determine how emotions are affected: does it make you laugh, cry, angry? Why did it affect you?
Consider the following questions: How is the material organized? Who is the intended audience? What are the writer's assumptions about the
audience? What kind of language and imagery does the author use?
7.3 Critical Writing
Avoid introducing your ideas by stating "I think" or "in my opinion." Keep the focus on the subject of your analysis, not on yourself.
Identifying your opinions weakens them.
Always introduce the work. Do not assume that because your reader knows what you are writing about, you do not need to mention
the work's title.
Other questions to consider: Is there a controversy surrounding either the passage or the subject which it concerns?
What about the subject matter is it of current interest?
What is the overall value of the passage?
What are its strengths and weaknesses?
Support your thesis with detailed evidence from the text examined. Do not forget to document quotes and paraphrases.
Remember that the purpose of a critical analysis is not merely to inform, but also to evaluate the worth, utility, excellence, distinction,
truth, validity, beauty, or goodness of something.
Even though as a writer you set the standards, you should be open-minded, well informed, and fair. You can express your opinions, but
you should also back them up with evidence.
Your review should provide information, interpretation, and evaluation. The information will help your reader understand the nature of
the work under analysis. The interpretation will explain the meaning of the work, therefore requiring your correct understanding of it.
The evaluation will discuss your opinions of the work and present valid justification for them.
8.0 Literature search techniques
8.1 A guide to making your own literature list
When you study at college, reading lists are prepared for you. Then, suddenly, something plunges you into having to find your own resources.
Literature searches are made to build up your own list of relevant books, articles, web pages and other sources that you will use.
You can find books and articles for yourself and construct your own booklists if you know how.
You should use several methods:
Work with what you already have
Make full use of library resources, public and colleges
look for relevant bibliographies other people have made
search relevant journals
make computer based searches;
look at directories of publications in particular fields
8.2 Using PCs
For powerful computer searches, you should think about the key words to use
Key words are words that you can enter into computer search engines or look up in the indexes of printed sources. You could write down the
words that define your topic and then write definitions of the terms used. Having done that, mark the key words that you think are worth
searching for. Now think of for terms, topics and keywords.
Your list of keywords and parameters will help you in searching library catalogues, bibliographies, abstracts and indexes, online databases
and in using other Search Engines.
Make use of synonyms i.e. words which mean the same, however few, if any, words always mean exactly the same as one another. A fuller
definition would be, words which can sometimes replace each other in a sentence without affecting its meaning.
Noticing synonyms can help avoid confusion about the multitude of words an author uses.
"Experience" and "observation" are used as synonyms. You can ask yourself whether "science" and "knowledge" are also used as synonyms?
Lists of synonyms can be found in a dictionary of synonyms or in a Thesaurus. PCs and word-processors usually have an extensive range to
choose from.
9.0 Writing a prcis.
Serious academic writers will have to read and remember large amounts of prose (and poetry) along with scientific and social-studies articles
as well. In many college courses, you are probably able to memorize facts and key statements with relative ease.
A summary or a precis is NOT a personal interpretation of a work or an expression of your opinion of the idea; it is, rather, an
exact replica in miniature of the work, often reduced to one-quarter to one-fifth of its size, in which you express the complete
argument!
What actually happens when you write a precis ? First, you must understand the complete work so that you can abstract the central argument
and express it clearly and completely. Next, you must develop the argument exactly as the writer has presented it AND reduce the work by
75-80% of its size.
The key word here is assimilation. When you read the material, it is probable that you will understand only those parts which have
associations within your own experience - intellectual, emotional, physical, etc..
How you actually go about writing a precis depends largely on your ability to restate the writer's central ideas after you have assimilated
them in your own mind.
Here are the rules of the game:
1. Read the article many times most carefully.
2. Write a precis of the article in which you state the entire argument
and present the logical progression (the development) of the argument.
3. Reduce the article to one-fifth to one-quarter of its original length
and omit nothing from the essential argument. This is, in reality,
the key to the whole enterprise!
4. Type the precis and begin with your abstraction of the central, inform-
ing idea of the article. Having understood and written the central idea,
present the essential argument in as cogent manner as possible.
(Clue: Once you have assimilated the article through the illustrations
and examples the writer uses to make his/her abstract ideas concrete,
you do not have to include these in your precis!)
5. Here is a central rule:
Do not copy a single sentence from the article! You may use
key words and phrases only when you are expressing ideas which are
technically precise or when you feel comfortable using the writer's
own words, i.e., you understand exactly he or she means, and there
is really no better way to express the concept.
Finally, in order to complete this assignment, you will have to read the work most carefully, ask questions about the work repeatedly, and
reach into your own experiences so that you can shape most cogently the writer's concepts!
This assignment is not easy! When you have completed it well, you will never, never forget the argument, the examples, and the
development of the article. More than likely you will also be learning that, when you write research papers and other critical papers, you
ability to write the precis is central to the basics of analysis, synthesis, comparison, and other key, higher order thinking skills absolutely
required for your success in college and in the profession or career you have chosen when you graduate.
10.0 Paraphrasing
10.1 A paraphrase is...
your own rendition of essential information and ideas expressed by someone else, presented in a new form.
one legitimate way (when accompanied by accurate documentation) to borrow from a source.
a more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses concisely on a single main idea.
Paraphrasing is a valuable skill because...
it is better than quoting information from an undistinguished passage.
it helps you control the temptation to quote too much.
the mental process required for successful paraphrasing helps you to grasp the full meaning of the original.
10.2 Six Steps to Effective Paraphrasing
1. Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.
2. Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a note card.
3. Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you later how you envision using this material. At the top of the note card, write a
key word or phrase to indicate the subject of your paraphrase.
4. Check your rendition with the original to make sure that your version accurately expresses all the essential information in a new form.
5. Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have borrowed exactly from the source.
6. Record the source (including the page) on your note card so that you can credit it easily if you decide to incorporate the material into your
paper.
Some examples to compare
The original passage:
Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse quotations in the final [research] paper. Probably
only about 10% of your final manuscript should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact
transcribing of source materials while taking notes.
A legitimate paraphrase:
In research papers students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material down to a desirable level. Since the problem usually
originates during note taking, it is essential to minimise the material recorded verbatim.
An acceptable summary:
Students should take just a few notes in direct quotation from sources to help minimize the amount of quoted material in a research paper.
A plagiarized version:
Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes, resulting in too many of them in the final research paper. In fact,
probably only about 10% of the final copy should consist of directly quoted material. So it is important to limit the amount of source material
copied while taking notes.
10.3 Direct quotations
Direct quotations are another person's exact words--either spoken or in print--incorporated into your own writing.
Use a set of quotation marks to enclose each direct quotation included in your writing.
Use a capital letter with the first word of a direct quotation of a whole sentence. Do not use a capital letter with the first word of a
direct quotation of part of a sentence.
If the quotation is interrupted and then continues in your sentence, do not capitalize the second part of the quotation.
Example:
Mr. and Mrs. Smith, owners of a 250 -acre farm, said, "We refuse to use that pesticide because it might pollute the nearby wells."
Indirect quotations are not exact words but rather rephrasing or summaries of another person's words. Do not use quotation marks for
indirect quotations.
According to their statement to the local papers, the Smiths refuse to use pesticide because of potential water pollution
11.0 Methods and notation for referencing researched sources
11.1 In-text citation - Any information you derive from an external source of information - quotes, paraphrases, data, statistics, images, etc.-
should be cited within the text of your paper, not just on your List of References (Works Cited) page. These are called in-text citations.
In-text citations require sources to be cited in an abbreviated style within the text of a document rather than in footnotes or endnotes. The
full citation style is required for the Works Cited page.
An in-text citation may include: (1) the author's name incorporated into the text with the page number in parenthesis at the end of the
statement or (2) the author's name and the page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence or paragraph. If you incorporate the
author's name into your text, give only the page number in parentheses.
For example :
According to S. E. Timison (1999), "Students often had difficulty assimilating the information, especially when it was their first time" (p.19).
S.E. Timison (1999) found "students often had difficulty using assimilating the information" (p. 19); what implications does this have for
lecturers?
11.2 Numbering Systems
Reports in particular can be very effective when numbered points are used. The most common system used today is the so-called American military style:
1. 1. Purposes:
2. 1.1
Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.
3. 1.2 Yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy
4. 2. Terms of reference:
5. 2.1 Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.
6. 2.2 Yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy
....and so on.
You can also use (a), (b), (c) with sub-sections (i), (ii), (iii). Again, the style does not matter as much as consistency.
11.3 Harvard Referencing System
General Points
If you are using a direct quotation, make this clear, put it in inverted commas, and give the page reference.
e.g. :...As Smith (1978) says " To know all is to forgive all" (p33)
This format also applies when you want to quote someone who is quoting someone else.
e.g. "..Smith says that to know all is to forgive all (cited by Green and Jones, p47)".
Then mention Green and Jones in your references. This indicates that you have come across the quotation in the book by Green and Jones, so
therefore there is no problem in including this in your reference list. As you have not read the book by Smith, it would be misleading to quote
this in your references
If the author/editor's surname is double barrelled with no hyphen, use the final surname in your alphabetical list.

e.g. if the author is J Wynn Smith, cite him/her as Smith, J Wynn.
If the author/editor's surname is hyphenated, use the first surname in your alphabetical list.
e.g. if the author is J Wynn-Smith, cite him/her as Wynn-Smith, J.
If there are two authors, give both names.
e.g. Smith, J. and Jones, R.
If there are three or more authors, quote all three names the first time you cite them in the body of the essay, then abbreviate this by using
et al. Give all three name in the reference list at the end.
e.g. Smith, J., Jones, R. and Green, D. becomes Smith, J. et al.
If the work is a translation, put the name of the translator(s) in between the name of the author and the title, italics.
e.g. Smith, J. (tr Jones, R. and Green, D. 1972) The finer points of Hungarian grammar ...
11.4 Features of a footnote system
There are two components to a footnote system:
the note identifiers and accompanying footnotes in the text of your assignment
the bibliography, at the end of the assignment.
In text referencing and accompanying footnotes
Each note identifier or number is also listed at the bottom (or foot) of each page with relevant
In text referencing and accompanying footnotes
The footnote system enables you to reference by using consecutive numbers called note identifiers within your text, starting with the
number 1. These numbers are used to identify information that has been referenced.
Each note identifier or number is also listed at the bottom (or foot) of each page with relevant bibliographic details. This is called a
footnote. Footnotes are usually set in a smaller font than the font in the body of your assignment.
In your text, the note identifiers are placed at the end of any quotes, paraphrases, summaries or copied tables, etc. They are written as
superscripted Arabic numerals (ie numbers slightly raised above the level of the text). These should come before any following punctuation
marks (eg commas, colons, etc), except for those at the end of a sentence where they follow the full stop.
Footnotes are usually set in a smaller font than the font in the body of your assignment.
11.5 Executive Summary
The most important part of the report is the Executive summary as this may be the only part that will be read by senior managers and
directors. Unless your report is extremely brief, some of your readers may not have time to read it all. Even if they do, they may want to
recap it later without having to read the whole thing again. What they need is a summary. Not a summary in the sense of a conclusion, but a
synopsis, prcis or resume which briefly summarises the key points of the report.
Every report which runs to more than three or four pages should have an executive summary at the beginning, straight after the contents
page. The summary should be a miniature version of the report or proposal, complete in itself, so the key facts are clear to anyone who reads
it. This being the case, it should obviously follow the same structure as the full version aims and objectives, method, results and conclusion.
It should be clear why it is far more sensible to write the summary after youve written the main body of the document. You will be expected
to include an executive summary in your assignments.
12. Use of information technology
The use of information technology is part of every day working and home life for the majority of the population these days. Customers and
suppliers have become more computer literate, perhaps also more demanding. As business has become more complex, however, a
straightforward approach is often welcomed. Whether you have received formal IT training, self taught or a reluctant techno-phobe, you will
need access to a PC, the internet and its resources as part of your working life and will use many of the standard software packages to
produce documents, minutes, data and graphs, training materials and much much more.
We dont intend to give you IT training in this course as it is envisaged you will have the necessary basics to get by. However we will briefly
address some of the things you need to consider when producing documents etc.
12.1 Typefaces
Each typeface has a unique tone that should produce a harmonious fit between the verbal and visual flow of your content.
In specifying typefaces you should choose from the resident default fonts for most operating systems.
Legibility on screen
Some typefaces are more legible than others on the screen. A traditional typeface such as Times Roman is considered to be one of the most
legible on paper, but at screen resolution its size is too small and its shapes look irregular. Screen legibility is most influenced by the x-height
(the height of a lowercase "x") and the overall size of the typeface.
Adapted traditional typefaces
Times New Roman is a good example of a traditional typeface that has been adapted for use on computer screens. A serif typeface like Times
New Roman (the default text face in most Web browsers) is about average in legibility on the computer screen, with a moderate x-height.
Times New Roman is a good font to use in text-heavy documents that will probably be printed by readers rather than read from the screen.
The compact letter size of Times New Roman also makes it a good choice if you need to pack a lot of words into a small space.
Designed for the screen
Typefaces such as Georgia and Verdana were designed specifically for legibility on the computer screen; they have exaggerated x-heights and
are very large compared to more traditional typefaces in the same point size. These fonts offer excellent legibility for Web pages designed to
be read directly from the screen. However, the exaggerated x-heights and heavy letterforms of these fonts look massive and clumsy when
transferred to the high-resolution medium of paper.
Choosing typefaces
The most conventional scheme for using typefaces is to use a serif face such as Times New Roman or Georgia for body text and a sans serif
face such as Verdana or Arial as a contrast for headlines. Generally text-laden Web pages are set in Times New Roman because it produces a
reasonable balance between density of information and overall legibility. Most readers expect a serif font for long blocks of text and find
Times New Roman comfortable to read off-screen from paper printouts. Various studies show that serif type is more legible than sans serif
type and vice versa.
When producing documents to be read on the PC, via the Web or Email, you may use either a variation of the serif font or a contrasting sans
serif face for the display type. It is safest to use a single typographic family and vary its weight and size for display type and emphasis. If you
choose to combine serif and sans serif faces, select fonts that are compatible and don't use more than two typefaces (one serif, one sans
serif) on a page.
12.2 Bullet Points
Most word processing packages enable you to use bullet points by selecting the relevant icon from the screen. Bullet points are especially
useful for summaries (particularly executive summaries for reports). They can be further used when a document is to serve several purposes,
such as for a set of overhead projector transparencies.
Throughout this course material you will have seen examples of bullet points.
12.3 Using Graphics
Graphics in written and oral reports are invaluable aids to your audience because they condense text. Highlight patterns and clarify
relationships . Good graphics display the significance of your data , which may be more exactly displayed in a table and allow the reader to
follow your discussion. Drafting graphics may also be a very effective way to help you draft a long written report or oral presentation .
Remember three rules of presenting data using graphics:
1. Keep it simple.
2. Choose a graphic that communicates the most important message.
3. Dont assume people will read text that accompanies a graphic.
13.0 The Wonderful World of the Web
Using the Internet, sending emails and surfing are part of normal everyday working life for most professionals however whilst the Web is a
marvellous tool there are some limitations you need to be aware of.
13.1 Internet search engines - uses and limitations
Search engines use automated software programs known as spiders or bots to survey the Web and build their databases. Web documents are
retrieved by these programs and analysed. Data collected from each web page are then added to the search engine index. When you enter a
query at a search engine site, your input is checked against the search engine's index of all the web pages it has analysed. The best URLs are
then returned to you as hits, ranked in order with the best results at the top.
PRELIMINARY SEARCHING HINTS
1. Choose a search engine, directory or library in accordance with
the kind of search you are doing and the kind of results you are seeking.
2. Consider: Are you looking for a Web site?
3. Determine your aims: Do you want a specific hard-to-find document, or general information on a broader topic? Do you need to search the
entire Web, or is what you are seeking likely to be found on a number of sites, or only the most popular sites?
4. In making your choice, determine whether the information you are
looking for is likely to be in a page's title or first paragraph, or buried
deeper within the document or site.
5. Use a search engine's advanced features, if available, and read the
help files if you are unclear about its searching procedure.
CHOOSING SEARCH TERMS AND SYNTAX
1. Enter synonyms, alternate spellings and alternate forms ( e.g. dance,
dancing, dances ) for your search terms.
2. Enter all the singular or unique terms which are likely to be included
in the document or site you are seeking.
3. Avoid using very common terms (e.g. Internet, people) which
may lead to a preponderance of irrelevant search results.
4. Determine how your search engine uses capitals and plurals, and
enter capitalized or plural forms of your search words if appropriate.
5. Use a phrase or proper name if possible to narrow your search
and therefore retrieve more relevant results (unless you want a large
number of results)
6. Use multiple operators (e.g. AND, NOT) if a search engine
allows you to do so.
7. If you receive too many results, refine and improve your search.
8. Pay attention to proper spacing and punctuation in your search
syntax (i.e. no space when using + means +term not + term)
13.2 Evaluating web pages
This requires skill:
1. Train your eye and your fingers to employ a series of techniques that help you quickly find what you need to know about web pages;
2. Train your mind to think critically, even suspiciously, by asking a series of questions that will help you decide how much a web page is
to be trusted.
Combine the two techniques into a process that begins with looking at your search results from a search engine or other source, follows
through by investigating the content of page, and extends beyond the page to what others may say about the page or its author(s).
Is it somebody's personal page?
Read the URL Uniform Resource Locator - carefully:
Look for a personal name (e.g., dsmith or smith) following a tilde ( ~ ), a percent sign ( % ), or or the words "users,"
"members," or "people."
Is the server a commercial ISP- Internet Service Provider - or other provider mostly of web page hosting (like aol.com or
geocities.com
What type of domain does it come from ? (educational, nonprofit, commercial, government, etc.)
Is the domain appropriate for the content?
Government sites: look for .gov, .mil, .us, or other country code
Educational sites: look for .edu
Nonprofit organizations: look for .org
If from a foreign country, look at the country code and read the page to be sure who published it.
Is it published by an entity that makes sense?
Who "published" the page?
In general, the publisher is the agency or person operating theserver i.e. computer from which the document is issued.
The server is usually named in first portion of the URL (between http:// and the first /)
Have you heard of this entity before?
Does it correspond the name of the site? Should it?
Who wrote the page?
Look for the name of the author, or the name of the organisation, institution, agency, or whatever who is responsible for the page
An e-mail contact is not enough
If there is no personal author, look for an agency or organisation that claims responsibility for the page.
If you cannot find this, try to locate the publisher. Does this publisher claim responsibility for the content? Does it explain why the page
exists in any way?
Web pages are all created with a purpose in mind by some person or agency or entity.
You are therefore looking for someone who claims accountability and responsibility for the content.
An e-mail address with no additional information about the author is not sufficient for assessing the author's credentials.
If this is all you have, try e-mailing the author and asking politely for more information about him/her
Is the page dated? Is it current enough?
Is it "stale" or "aged" information on a time-sensitive or evolving topic?
CAUTION: Undated factual or statistical information is no better than anonymous information. Don't use it.
How recent the date needs to be depends on your needs.
For some topics you want current information. For others, you want information put on the web near the time it became known.
In some cases, the importance of the date is to tell you whether the page author is still maintaining an interest in the page, or has abandoned
it.
What are the author's credentials on this subject?
Does the background or education look like someone who is qualified to write on this topic?
Might the page be by a hobbyist, self-proclaimed expert, or enthusiast?
Is the page merely an opinion? Is there any reason you should believe its content more than any other page?
Is the page a rant, an extreme view, possibly distorted or exaggerated?
If you cannot find strong, relevant credentials, look very closely at documentation of sources (next section).
Anyone can put anything on the web in just a few minutes. Your task is to distinguish between the reliable and questionable.
Many web pages are opinion pieces offered in a vast public forum.
You should hold the author to the same degree of credentials, authority, and documentation that you would expect from something published
in a reputable print resource (book, journal article, good newspaper).
13.3 Electronic mail
Electronic mail is the method of sending a letter or message, electronically, to another user. The communicating users computers must be
linked together via a local area network or a wide area network.
The mail is transmitted as a single file. At the beginning of the file is the address of the user to whom the mail is being sent. The address
will be a unique identifier which the computer recognises and it would normally have been done automatically without the sending user
having any knowledge of the process.
Mail can be accumulated and not be lost, may be prioritised for attention, and may also be printed. In most respects, electronic mail is the
same as sending a letter via the post but it has the following advantages: -By its very nature, it is much speedier than any postal system.
Mail can be forwarded on to other individuals.
Mail can be sorted and used as an electronic filing system, so that particular letters can be displayed on to a VDU, no matter where you
are in the country (or in the world) as long as the computers are linked together in a network.
Electronic mail reduces the amount of paper required in an office environment.
There are some disadvantages, however:
It can be more expensive than typing and posting a letter.
It is dependent upon good and error-free communication links.
If your computer or communications are not working, then you will, probably, not have access to your mail.
When all things are considered, however, electronic mail is an extremely useful and powerful facility which in the past few years has
revolutionised communications between users - particularly at different locations. For example, it has now become possible to send a letter
from a user on a computer system in England to a user on a computer system in America in a matter of seconds and then receive a reply
seconds later. (A wide area network would be required for this example.)
14.0 Meeting skills
Meetings are very important for the work of any organisation. Good meetings are important for collective decision-making, planning and follow-up,
accountability, democracy, and other practices that will help you to build a good organisation. If meetings are used in the correct way, they can help
an organisation to be efficient. However, like all organising tools, meetings can be used badly and end up not serving the purpose that they are
supposed to. Sometimes we seem to attend too many long meetings, which discuss the same thing over and over again without seeming to move
forward. Meetings can become places where conflict is played out. Some people can also see attending meetings as working for the organisation
instead of seeing it as a tool for getting work done. We should try to make our meetings places where we get democratic and constructive
participation and involvement from our members.
14.1 Important things to know about meetings
The purpose of meetings
Most people do not like attending meetings especially if they are not sure what the purpose of the meeting is, or if it goes on too long and achieves
too little. Meetings must not be too frequent or held just for the sake of it. There must be a need for a meeting. There should be decisions about the
different types of meetings needed. For example, some meetings could be to discuss policy and others to discuss organisation (practical work).

Wherever possible the members must know what type of meeting they are going to and what the meeting is for in other words, the PURPOSE of the
meeting. Sometimes an organisation might call a special or extraordinary meeting.

There are different types of meetings and planning and it should take account of this.
14.2 Different types of meetings
Most organisations will hold the following types of meetings:
1. The general members meeting:
This is the most common meeting, which usually happens once a month or once every two weeks. The general members meeting should be
the place where members are informed of developments, involved in decisions and given education and information that will help them to
become more active in the organisation. General meetings are usually the places where decisions are made and where the executive reports
on work they and other sub-committees have done.
2. Special meetings:
These can be called to discuss specific issues, for example preparing for a national conference or work on planning activities for the year. Any
members who are interested should be invited to attend special meetings. They should not be run like general members meetings (with
minutes, reports etc) but should only focus on the issues theyve been called to discuss.
3. Executive meetings:
The executive should meet more regularly than the general members, and executive meetings should have a more business-like focus. The
executive has to plan implementation for the organisation, monitor the work that has been done, deal with problems, and often (if youre part
of a larger organisation) relate to other levels of the organisation. They should discuss correspondence in detail and address problems as they
come up. The executive should also keep an eye on the finances of the organisation and monitor income and expenditure. Every executive
meeting should have an item on the agenda that plans for the next general members meeting. They should provide both leadership and
administration to the organisation.
4. Annual General Meeting:
Most organisations have an Annual General Meeting laid down in their constitution. The AGM is the place where the executive accounts to all
members about the activities of the year as well as the finances of the organisation. The AGM is also the place where new leaders are elected
and are given a mandate to run the organisation for another year. Most AGMs need at least the following two detailed reports to the
members:
The secretarys report that lists plans of the organisation, the actual activities that took place that year, the achievements of the year,
and the problems experienced.
The treasurers report: a detailed financial report that lists all income from subscriptions, grants, donations, fundraising; and all
expenditure. This report should also clearly state what the balance is and where that balance is held. It is important to have a written
financial report at your AGM but very often members find financial reports difficult to understand and you should try and make it
simpler by putting the main headings on news-prints and explaining it to people in less financial language.
14.3 Planning a meeting
Planning should improve participation by ensuring that discussion is on a single topic and that the members are well prepared for the
meeting. This is the responsibility of the Chairperson, Secretary and Executive, depending on the type of organisation.
Planning does not mean controlling and directing the meeting in such a way that it restricts participation
Planning should include the following:
Notification: It is the executives responsibility to ensure that everyone has been notified of the date, time and venue of the meeting, as well
as the main issues to be discussed. For many organisations it is a useful practice to always have their meetings on the same day at the same
time in the same place. Where a meeting is taking place away from the workplace then access, parking and reporting instructions need to be
taken into account.
Equipment, Support Materials
Support equipment for the meeting need to be considered ensuring that visual and audio aids are in place or hired. Refreshments and suitable
breaks to be built into the agenda if the meeting is to last for any length of time.
Preparing the agenda: The agenda is a list of the most important issues for the members to discuss. It is drawn from the Matters Arising
from the previous meeting and from the discussions of the Executive or Secretariat.
The agenda is the responsibility of the Chairperson and the Secretary. The chairperson should read the minutes of the previous meeting to
familiarise him/herself with the issues. This will form the basis of a list of matter arising from these minutes.
Matters arising include:
Tasks a report back must be given
Matters for which further information was required for discussion
Matters that were deferred to this meeting
There are standard items for any agenda. These items should be arranged in order of priority and time should be allocated for each
discussion. Where possible, try to familiarise yourself with each area of discussion.
An agenda should include a last item known as General or Any Other Business to allow individuals to raise short items not included on the
agenda.
14.4 How to run a meeting
14.4.1 The agenda
Open the meeting and welcome everyone. Then go through the agenda step by step.
Those present and apologies: The apologies of those members not able to attend the meeting are recorded as part of the minutes. Send
round an attendance register if there are too many people to just record it in the minutes. Ask if there are any apologies from people who
are not there.
Minutes: Minutes are accurate notes of what is discussed and decided on at meetings. Make sure that the minutes of the previous meeting are
circulated to everyone or at least read at the beginning of the meeting. (See section on writing minutes) Minutes must be adopted at the
beginning of a meeting. Give people a chance to read the minutes or read them out aloud. Everyone must agree that they are an accurate
record of the last meeting. Members must be given the chance to add where item/points might have been left out.
Matters arising from the minutes: This covers points that were discussed at the last meeting, when perhaps someone was asked to do some
work or there have been subsequent developments, which now need discussion. A list of these points is drawn from the previous meetings
minutes.
Correspondence: This means all the letters that have been received by the organisation since the last meeting. They can be dealt with in
different ways. If your group does not receive many letters, they could be read out and then discussed. Another way is for the secretary to
list them with a brief explanation. The chairperson then goes through the list and suggests action. If the issue raised in the letter needs
decisive action it can be more fully discussed.
Other items on the agenda: Someone must introduce each item on the agenda. The item introduced could be either a discussion or a report.
If it is a discussion someone is given the job of leading the discussion and making proposals on that particular item.
If it is a report, the person who is reporting should comment on the following:
Was it a task that was completed, what were the problems and what still needs to be done? (issue, facts, options, proposal see guide on
inputs and verbal reports)
Discussion should be to examine a problem or discuss an issue in more detail get everyones ideas and points of view on it, arrive at a
decision, delegate responsibility for the completion of the task, and follow-up to ensure that it is completed.
14.4.2 Meeting Procedures
All members should know meeting procedures. There are a number of points that people use in meetings to ensure that the meetings run
smoothly. Often members use these points to assist the chairperson.
The following are procedural points most used in meetings:
Point of Order:
It should be used when a member feels that the meeting procedure is not being stuck to and s/he wants the meeting to return to the correct
procedure or order. For example, when an individual is speaking totally off the point, another member might ask on a point of order for the
speaker to stick to the agenda.
Point of Information:
A member may raise their hand and ask to make point of information (or request information) when it is not his or her turn to speak. This can
enable a member to speak (by putting up his/her hand and asking to speak) when it is not his/her turn to request more information on the
matter being discussed, or to give more information on a point being discussed.
Out of Order:
When an individual is not sticking to meeting procedure, being rude, interjecting or misbehaving in some way, the chairperson might rule
him/her out of order.
Protection:
A speaker who is being harassed when he/she is speaking can ask for the protection of the Chairperson.
Quorums:
This is the minimum number of people who must be present for the meeting to conduct business and take decisions. This minimum number is
stated in the organisations constitution. The meeting cannot start until there is a quorum. Always ensure that you have this minimum number
of people at a meeting, especially when decisions must be taken. If you do not, and decisions are taken, members who were not present can
request that it is re-discussed, meaning that time was wasted.
All these points are called meeting rules or procedures, which are there to try to make meetings more efficient and effective. They should
not be over-used just for the sake of it.
14.4.3 How to take decisions in meetings
Decisions are usually reached through two main ways:
Consensus
This means reaching decisions by discussion and general agreement.
Voting
People vote for a particular proposal. Usually one person will put forward a proposal, someone else will second it and then people will vote. If
the majority of people accept the proposal, it then becomes binding on the organisation. Voting can either be done by a show of hands or
secret ballot.
Show of hand
The Chairperson would call for a show of hand when there is a difference of opinion amongst members when a decision needs to be reached.
S/he will call on members to raise their hands to show their support for or against a proposal.
These votes are then counted majority would then ensure that the proposal stands or falls away.
Secret ballot
Each person would be given a piece of paper where s/he would write whether s/he supports a particular proposal or not. The votes would be
counted and the majority would ensure that the proposal stands or falls away.
It is usually better to reach consensus than to vote. Reaching consensus often means that there are compromises from everyone but it
ensures that most people feel part of the decision. Sometimes a vote does need to be taken, for example in elections or when the meeting
cannot reach a decision through consensus.
Resolutions
These are formal proposals put forward to the meeting, for people to agree or disagree with. If some disagree, they are voted on. If passed,
they become resolutions and therefore policy of the organisation. There should be a proposer and seconder of each resolution.
Resolutions are a clear way to set out the policies and decisions of an organisation. Usually a resolution has three parts to it:
We start the resolution by saying that, eg: "The AGM of the XXX meeting on (give date)notes that: and then you list the main issues that you
are concerned about, for example:
Noting:
1. the rapid increase in accidents in this area,
2. the loss of work hours
3. etc.
The second part of the resolution will then list the points that show your understanding of the issue and its causes, for example:
Believing:
1. that the increase in accidents is due to
2. that low moral adds to absenteeism
3. etc
The third part lists exactly what your organisation has decided to do or what its policy should be on the issue, for example:
Therefore resolves:
1. to employ consultant to look at ways of reducing work place accidents
2. to review welfare at work policy to improve moral
3. etc
Amendments may need to be made to resolutions, and these should be accepted by everyone present. If there is not total agreement on an
amendment, a vote should be held and the chairperson should record the votes of those for, and those against, the amendment, as well as
those abstaining. If the majority support the amendment it stands and the original section of the resolution falls away.
The Chairperson and members must study the constitution of the organisation to make sure they know and understand all these procedures.
14.5 How to chair the meeting
The chairperson is the most important person in the meeting. He or she will set the pace for the meeting, make sure that people stick to the
topics, ensure that democratic decisions are taken, and that everyone is on board with these decisions. Chairing is a great skill and it is
important to teach members to chair meetings and rotate the job where possible so that more people can practise this skill. However, it is
always good to have an experienced chairperson for important meetings.
A good chairperson is an active chairperson; it is not the chairpersons job to simply keep a list of speakers and to let them speak one after
the other. The chairperson should introduce the topic clearly and guide the discussion especially when people start repeating points. When a
discussion throws up opposing views, the chairperson should also try to summarise the different positions and where possible, propose a way
forward. The way forward can involve taking a vote on an issue, having a further discussion at another date, or making a compromise that
most people may agree with. The chairperson should ask for agreement from the meeting on the way forward, and apologise to those who
still wanted to speak.
Here are the basic steps for chairing a meeting:
The Chairperson opens the meeting and presents the agenda.
S/he should start a meeting by setting a cut-off time when everyone agrees that the meeting should end. This helps to encourage
people to be brief.
S/he calls on individuals to introduce or lead the discussion of points on the agenda and gives everyone a chance to speak.
S/he also ensures that no one dominates discussion.
S/he should try to summarise the discussion clearly restating ideas and proposals put forward. However, there is no need to repeat
everything that has been said.
S/he must be able to get agreement on what the decision is s/he must ensure that everyone understands the decision, delegates to
someone the duty of carrying out the decision, ensures that the person given the responsibility knows what s/he has to do and when it
should be done and reported on.
S/he ensures that everyone takes part in the discussions and decision-making.
S/he ensures that the date for the next meeting is always set at the meeting.
14.6 How to write minutes in the meeting
It is essential that minutes are recorded accurately. This not only serves as a reminder of issues that need to be followed up but also prevents
arguments about previous decisions. Minutes are also a guide for the secretary and chairperson when drawing up the agenda for the next
meeting.
Minutes help the organisation to learn from its past failures and successes. This is done when the secretary reflects on the minutes of the past
year when drawing up an annual report.
There are three aspects to taking good minutes:
1. Listening
This is a very important skill to develop. You must not only listen to what is being said but you have to ensure that you understand as well.
2. Taking notes
Write down only the main points and the decisions taken. It is impossible to write down everything that is being said.
Always try to identify the main points
What is the main aim of the discussion?
What information is important?

Use your own words. If you do this you will find that your minutes are more accurate and complete than if you try to jot down everything a
speaker says.
Pay special attention to decisions. If necessary, ask for the decisions to be repeated.
Ask for clarification. Do not hesitate to stop the meeting if you are not clear about any decisions or issues being discussed.
14.7 Writing the minutes
The following information should be included:
Nature of meeting, date, time, venue
Names of those present
Names of visitors
Apologies
Summaries of decisions and discussions
This includes work to be followed up and who have taken responsibility for certain tasks. The minutes should be written neatly in a special
minute book or file; avoid jotting down minutes on scraps of paper. The book or file should be kept safely and always available for
consultation at any time.
15. 0 Interpersonal skills and working relationships
15.1 Interpersonal Relationships and Conflict resolution
Dealing with interpersonal relationships is a complex subject that is often given inadequate attention. Each individual in a group has a
particular and unique personality style that has been shaped by the lifetime of their experience. There are driver types and quiet people,
expressives, analyticals, reserved, shy, reactive and many others. After you have been working together for a while, an attentive person with
training will recognise members personalities and styles and use that understanding to predict how the group will react to different situations.
As the group gets into conflicts, the elements of group dynamics and personality style need to be taken into account by the facilitators of the
group.
15.2 Getting to know yourself
It is important to undertake some personal stocktaking and get to know yourself and how you are likely to affect the group dynamic.
Ask yourself : Do I talk a lot, or very little?
Am I confident about myself and my ideas?
Do I listen to others well, or am I impatient having to listen to others?
Am I empathetic to others or do I care mostly about getting the task done?
When others speak, am I listening to what they say, or thinking about what I am going to say?
Am I quick to get angry?
Am I defensive or accepting when someone talks about my behaviour?
Do I ramble or am I a bulleted list sort of person?
What makes me annoyed?
What makes me feel good?
As you define yourself as a member of the group you will find your strengths and areas that need improving. A good exercise in community
building is to share how you perceive yourself. There are a number of personality style tests that are available and offer huge value to group
understanding.
15.3 Getting to know each other
Getting to know one another is not a fast process, and the more the group changes and the larger it gets the longer it takes. It is hard to
trust strangers and demands a great deal of working at by all concerned. Many groups neglect this, assuming that the "business" is more
important than their relationships. Where appropriate it may be that you are able to incorporate social activities as part of business meetings,
say by starting or finishing with a buffet lunch. A group may decide to hold purely social gatherings, where the point is to have fun but the
underlying principle is to strengthen the team and get them working and playing together.
15.4 Working with personality style conflicts
One of the most common sources of conflict in all groups is the potential friction between the "doers and the talkers". This gap between task
and process is very common and is often a source of conflict and frustration.
A healthy group has a balance between task and process. Think of task and process like the wings of a bird. If one wing is shorter than the
other, the bird flies around in circles. If there is mostly task and little process, the friction between people will erupt into communication
problems and the resulting conflicts keep tasks from moving forward. On the other hand, too much process, and everybody spends much of
their time in feelings meetings and the tasks that need doing suffer. However, when task and process are balanced, both wings are working
at maximum efficiency to carry the group in the direction it wants to go. You need process to determine the direction to go and how to work
together, you need task orientation to accomplish all the jobs needed.
Often the conflicts that arise from process and task chafing come from personality styles. The result of these reactions are called your
personality style. Personality style characterises how you approach group work and can and usually does effect your attitudes about other
people you work with.
15.5 The task oriented vs. the process oriented person
A task oriented person is someone who gets great pleasure in getting results. They create bulleted to do lists in order of priority and then
check off items as they are accomplished. They are often fact and results driven, and want the bottom line clearly defined. They often want
details organised, and they tend to know exactly where things are. So conversely, they are uncomfortable with ambiguity and get annoyed by
discussions that are not related to tasks at hand. They have little patience for digressions. In extreme cases, if you ask them how they feel
about an issue, they will minimize it, and be annoyed by the fact that you asked them for their feelings not the facts.
A process oriented person is one who gets pleasure from working with people. They want to make people feel good about what is happening,
and they see the world in terms of relationships. They tend to not be interested so much in facts as the consequences of the facts and may
also be disorganized, easily losing place of the current discussion thread. They may care more about getting out peoples feelings than
worrying about details or results. They tend to be very comfortable with ambiguity. If you ask them for the facts, they tend to want to move
into relationships and concepts instead and may become annoyed that you asked them for the facts rather than their feelings.
Both the descriptions above are oversimplifications of the enormously complex arena of personality types, but it illustrates the differences and
sets up the idea that both styles look the groups purpose with very different perspectives. Both perspectives are equally valid.
The key element to understand is that neither the task nor process orientated person is right, they simply are different. Both styles (and all
the others that exist) need to be recognized, and then worked with as the group dynamic unfolds. Ideally your group has a good mixture of
styles, and although this can seem chaotic, it is actually a very good thing, much better than if you were all one style or another. Both task
and process styles really do benefit the group as long as you learn what the other needs.
One of the best ways for style angst to be worked out in a meeting is for the individuals to be allowed to state what they are feeling and what
they want. For example, in the problem with Task-Oriented John, he could have asked the group for help by saying something like: "As a task
oriented person, the 45 minutes of discussion here with no real end product in sight is making me frustrated. Can we move to the proposal
stage soon, or may I be excused until you finish your discussion?"
By clearly stating his frustrations, and proposing two solutions, he has made the group aware of his needs and the group then has choices to
work with. In extreme cases, task oriented people will have difficulty asking for what they want and the facilitator needs to watch for angst
from the task oriented people and then intervene on their behalf.
Recognising your personality style and the needs and limitations it places you under is a key step in understanding how to work with a group.
Both task and process styles have important contributions to make and you have to be patient and recognise the value of styles that are
different from yours. You will be annoyed with your style opposite sometimes, so use that annoyance constructively to make changes in the
process that benefit the group.
If you are a task oriented person, you can help the group get organised and working on results. Your skills at seeing the bottom line can help
the group when you summarize information, add facts, or urge the group towards concrete proposals.
If you are a process oriented person you offer the skills of building relationships and understandings so that proposals can be made that get
accepted and implemented with a high degree of spirit. You can work to keep the morale of the group high by offering personal support and
acknowledgment of peoples work.
Groups often go through cycles where task or process gets emphasis in the groups activities. There may be a period where you make many
decisions, hard and fast, and work with lots of information, get lots of details accomplished and then get somewhat paralysed by what may
seem to be a minor side issue. The group then focuses on process work, working through the issue, hearing emotional side issues, talking
with each other and building up communication bridges and processes.
Over time, most experienced and successful groups learn to balance the task and process parts of their activities so each works to
complement the other. As meeting skills grow in the group, the facilitator can capture emotional issues that get raised as part of a task
agenda and skilfully roll them into the task processing so the end result is the optimum for everyone. When you can balance both the task
wing and the process wing so they work together, your group will fly as high as it can go.
15.6 Active listening
Active listening is a skill which enhances communication. In active listening you listen carefully, then paraphrase back what you heard, with
the goal of supporting and drawing out the feelings of the speaker. When this is done well it validates a persons feelings and encourages him
or her to fully communicate. The goal of active listening is to help clarify the feelings and thinking behind the words. When active listening is
applied it creates a supportive bond between the speaker and the listener. Because there is no threat of criticism or judgment, the speaker is
encouraged to express feelings honestly.
The important thing about active listening is that it is not intended to change or alter the feelings of the speaker, only to support them in
expressing their feelings. When you try and advise or change the message the speaker gives, it forces them to defend themselves, which
often causes further denial of the feelings and experiences. When the listener responds by trying to change the speakers way of looking at
things, to see the situation from the listeners perspective, the listener is trying to divert the communication down the path to meet their
needs, not the speakers.
One of the special difficulties in active listening is when the listener is called on for decisions, judgments or evaluations. Often what the
speaker is doing in this situation is try to pass the buck, and disguise or mask the expression of feelings. In active listening it is best to try to
identify the emotional context of the question and leave an opening for the speaker to say what is really bothering him.
For example Brian, a new health and safety officer inducting a group of contractors comes to the meeting looking angry and says:
"I'll never get anywhere with those damn contractors. They never listen, I dont know why I bother!
An active listening response would be something like:
"You had a problem with the contractors? You sound pretty frustrated."
The active listener checks in on the emotional context which includes body language, then summarizes back what the speaker said. Often this
encourages the speaker to continue.
"Yeah , those men just don't listen to me when I tell them what to do."
The speaker has continued to describe the problem in more detail. Again the listener paraphrases what the speaker has said in order to
encourage the dialog.
"So the men didn't listen to you?"
"Yeah, I tried to tell them about the PPE storage area but they didnt listen, stuffs all over the place."
Now with a better understanding of the situation the listener tries to capture the emotion and rephrase back to the speaker.
"Being ignored like that must have made you mad."
"Boy don't you know it. I just walked away I was so mad. I guess I should go back and see if I can work it out. Being in charge is hard
sometimes."
In effective active listening the goal is to convey back to the speaker that we are seeing things from his or her viewpoint. The listener must
look for and respond to feelings. Not all of a message is in the words so non-verbal clues can help the listener be aware of the speakers
feelings.
16.0 Resolving Conflicts
Conflicts and miscommunications occur thats life! Not everyone thinks, acts or responds in the same way and members come under stress
at different times which causes differences in tolerance and patience. Not everyone has the same level of commitment, honesty, or even
integrity. It is important to define a process that resolves problems and encourages members to talk about the issues under conflict in a
controlled and reasonable way, even if those issues are intensely personal. Many people are conditioned to avoid conflict at any cost, that
conflict is bad, a failure. Overcoming this tendency to avoid conflict is hard and conflict resolution training is a good first step. Conflict is
healthy and a normal part of any human relationship. One of the most important elements of all the successful intentional communities is a
clearly defined process for dealing with group and personal conflicts. Sometimes conflicts can't be resolved and must simply be respectfully
accepted as differences. Vegetarian versus meat eater can be such a conflict within a community.
If you ignore conflicts between individuals, it is common to find these conflicts coming into meetings as hidden agendas. In some
organisations interpersonal conflicts are expected to be resolved by the individuals, not the group. Some organisations have the whole group
take responsibility for conflict resolution between members. Figure out a strategy for who is responsible for interpersonal conflict resolution
and set some ground rules. Interpersonal conflicts often start out as poor communication. The more frank and open you are while
communicating, the less conflict and less severe conflict will exist.
Sometimes meetings become really intense, and negotiations and discussions become counterproductive. The whole meeting environment
becomes too emotionally charged to reach a solution. Conflicts can be emotionally draining, and meetings dealing with conflict can leave you
feeling wrung out and exhausted. Group conflict resolution is a very demanding process and sometimes you are not up to it. Under these
conditions is it often best for the facilitator to break the meeting or adjourn to another time with perhaps a homework assignment for each
individual to brainstorm all the pros and cons of the issue to bring back to the next meeting.
16.1 Some conflict resolution strategies
Begin conflict communication with "I" statements that reflect how you feel. The " I am feeling" statements create a group process
where individuals feelings are out front. For example, here are two ways to say the same thing: "I need to have the office enlarged to
hold meetings " and "The offices you guys designed are too small." In the first sentence, the individual is expressing his needs, which
can then be discussed and worked around. In the second sentence the individual could be construed as criticising others, who may
react defensively, and it is unclear what the individual needs are.
Learn to identify what is needed by another person and learn how to gracefully ask another person to define what they need.
A very key question in working with conflicts is "why?". Why do you feel so strongly about this? Why are you shouting? Why do you
have such angst over this issue? Why do you think that way? Learn to ask for clarification when an issue becomes a conflict.
Having someone within the group who is trained in mediation skills, or hiring an outside trained mediator can be very useful. The group
will need to decide how mediation is to be handled and under what circumstances it will be used. Setting up conflict mediation early is
important, so that a plan can be in place should a major conflict occur. Having an outside opinion can do wonders for a stuck process.
Determine whether the disagreement is over facts or the respective feelings about the facts. Ask questions to discover the underlying
assumptions, values, and attitudes. Separate feelings from facts by using the phrases like: "To me", "in my opinion", "it appears to
me". When people feel intensely about issues it is important to ask them: "Why do you feel so strongly about this?" Keep asking that
until the real issues emerge. Often the real issues are buried and the current issue in dispute is only the carrier for feelings left
unexpressed.
Don't make it personal. If you disagree about an idea or concept frame the discussion around the idea, not the person. Say: " I don't
agree with that idea", not, "your idea is stupid".
Try reversing the roles. Agree to argue the other side for 15 minutes and then express the other viewpoint as persuasively as you can.
This can be an effective way of keeping a single issue conflict from escalating into a larger conflict. If you do this with integrity you will
find that, amazingly enough, the other side has some validity.
Often conflicts come because of boxed thinking, the participants believe that there is only a limited solution. Conflict occurs when
people believe there is only one way. Break through happens when people discover there is a third way, a fourth way, a fifth way
undertake a thought shower.
Do a trial solution. Lets try this for 3 weeks and evaluate it. Often a group must make decisions without adequate knowledge or
experience. Doing a trial solution and then evaluating the results can often result in future changes and also can reassure reluctant
participants, since the decision is not permanent.
Do a deliberate defocusing by temporarily adjourning the meeting for two hours. Let people go get food, relax, gather in small groups
to talk or go for a walk. If time restraints make a two hour break not possible, take a five minute silent thinking break where the goal
is just to quietly reflect on the issue. Often this sort of change of atmosphere helps people think through an issue and come up with
ideas for resolution
If people get visibly mad, stop the discussion. If you can't discuss the issue without anger you need mediation. Get professional
arbitration help early in a conflict where real visible anger is present. If people get visibly angry, and if you take a "time-out" meeting
adjournment, make the time-out last at least one hour, and two hours is better. The hormones that anger releases take at least 90
minutes to dissipate and these hormones will not let the body be calm, no matter what.
If you are arguing about details or specifics, back up a step to a bigger concept. Sometimes people who wont agree about the details
can agree on a concept or goal. Then the details can be sorted and placed in relationship to the agreed upon concept or goal. It is often
a good idea to define and agree on goals first, then try and find agreement on details that support the goal.
Rather than try to find the right answer, throw out the bad answers, the things you agree wont work. This might narrow the focus and
also bring out something you hadnt thought of before.
Watch for you or the group putting someone in a untenable dominant position. Some people are leaders and take action, while others
wait and follow. If a leader oversteps their authority it might not be all their fault, especially if a group lets them take leadership in the
first place.
16.2 Assessing and controlling conflict.
Although many people and cultures assume conflict is bad, conflict is actually necessary to the healthy functioning of social groups, as it
provides a way for interests to be balanced and mutual needs met. If the utility of conflict is understood, then mechanisms can be developed
for allowing conflict to occur in a controlled and constructive way.
16.3 Individuals in Groups
In any situation where we have to meet other people, we are playing a particular role. In any given period we probably play a range of
different roles. Being aware of the role you - and others - are playing at a group meeting is an essential step towards being an effective group
member. Only if you know what role you are playing can you change and develop it into a more effective one; only when you know what roles
others are playing can you help them to become effective members in the same way.
You can learn what roles group members are playing by observing their personal and emotional behaviour. Some of the more common roles
of group members are:
(a) Facilitator
Generally the facilitator will have some position of authority - perhaps as the chairman of a meeting, or through his or her status as
departmental head or manager. The facilitator usually stays out of the main discussion, but makes it possible for every other member to
contribute by:
Asking directly for contributions from specific individuals;
Encouraging members in many ways while they are speaking; and
Asking questions or making statements which change the emphasis of the issue under discussion to ensure that it is discussed fully.
(b) Introvert
This person may have important ideas to contribute, but rarely does so. He will often appear isolated from the group, and needs careful
encouragement from a leader to contribute fully to the group.
(c) Extrovert
By contrast, this person will contribute freely and frequently, often in an ill-considered or poorly-supported way. Here the role of the facilitator
is to make sure that such people are restrained, so that others can make contributions.
(d) Innovator
Innovators need to be handled with care. They may produce brilliantly original insights, but may well find the handling of routine business
dull, and so lose contact with discussions. They need to be activated carefully.
(e) Senior Member
This is the person who has been a member of the group or organisation for a long time, and expects to be treated as such. He may appear
old-fashioned and cautious, especially when new ideas are being put forward. However, such members have a wealth of experience and good
sense to contribute, and so should be encouraged to take part in the meeting at all stages.
(f) The Rebel
A rebel will give the impression of disagreeing with everyone else almost as a matter of principle. However, he may have much to contribute
in this way, since established procedures usually benefit from cynical questioning. The facilitator must handle the rebels contributions
carefully and constructively.
(g) The Newcomer
Newcomers are often shy and unwilling to contribute. However, their views are often useful, so a good leader will ensure that the newcomer
is drawn into the discussion.
17.0 Leadership and Management Styles
The word leader does not mean the same as manager. Leadership is an additional quality or characteristic which some managers (and
some non-managers) may or may not have. To be a manager one simply attains a particular level in the organisation - it is a formal rank: the
leader is marked out by an ability to achieve results by his or her personal influence.
Definition
Leadership (in organisations) is the process by which the manager influences the activities of others in choosing and attaining organisational
objectives.
17.1 Leadership Styles
17.1.1 The Autocrat
The autocratic leader dominates team-members, using unilateralism to achieve a singular objective. This approach to leadership generally results in passive
resistance from team-members and requires continual pressure and direction from the leader in order to get things done. Generally, an authoritarian approach
is not a good way to get the best performance from a team.

There are, however, some instances where an autocratic style of leadership may not be inappropriate. Some situations may call for urgent action, and in these
cases an autocratic style of leadership may be best. In addition, most people are familiar with autocratic leadership and therefore have less trouble adopting
that style. Furthermore, in some situations, sub-ordinates may actually prefer an autocratic style.
17.1.2 The Laissez-Faire Manager
The Laissez-Faire manager exercises little control over his group, leaving them to sort out their roles and tackle their work, without participating in this
process himself. In general, this approach leaves the team floundering with little direction or motivation.
Again, there are situations where the Laissez-Faire approach can be effective. The Laissez-Faire technique is usually only appropriate when leading a team of
highly motivated and skilled people, who have produced excellent work in the past. Once a leader has established that his team is confident, capable and
motivated, it is often best to step back and let them get on with the task, since interfering can generate resentment and detract from their effectiveness. By
handing over ownership, a leader can empower his group to achieve their goals.
17.1.3 The Democrat
The democratic leader makes decisions by consulting his team, whilst still maintaining control of the group. The democratic leader allows his team to decide
how the task will be tackled and who will perform which task.

The democratic leader can be seen in two lights:

A good democratic leader encourages participation and delegates wisely, but never loses sight of the fact that he bears the crucial responsibility of leadership.
He values group discussion and input from his team and can be seen as drawing from a pool of his team members' strong points in order to obtain the best
performance from his team. He motivates his team by empowering them to direct themselves, and guides them with a loose reign.

However, the democrat can also be seen as being so unsure of himself and his relationship with his sub-ordinates that everything is a matter for group
discussion and decision. Clearly, this type of "leader" is not really leading at all.
17.2 Leadership Attitudes
One way of looking at different leadership styles is in terms of task orientation versus employee orientation.
Task Orientation or Directive Behaviour. This reflects how much a leader is concerned with the actual task at hand and ensuring that
those following him complete it.
Employee Orientation or Supportive Behaviour. This reflects how much a leader is concerned for the people around him, providing
support and encouragement for them.
The combination of these two effects lead to the following diagram:
This diagram can be used in two ways:
As a guide to how effective your leadership style is. Your general attitude to the leadership of the group will fall into one of these
categories.
As a guide to how best to lead different individuals using different styles to make the most efficient use of both their, and your, time
and talents.
1. Country Club Management
2. SUPPORTING
1. Team Management
2. COACHING
1. Impoverished Management
2. DELEGATING
1. Authority/Obedience Management
2. DIRECTING
17.3 Analysing Your Style
How do you lead your group? What is your attitude to both them and the task at hand?
Impoverished Management (low concern for the task, low concern for people). This style is characterised by minimal effort on your
part, just enough to get the job done and maintain the group structure.
"I'll just let them get on with it, I'm sure they'll do fine, they don't really want me interfering anyway"
Country Club Management (low concern for the task, high concern for people). You take good care of your group, ensuring a
comfortable, friendly atmosphere. You hope this will lead to the work getting done.
"It stands to reason, if they're happy they'll work harder and the work will take care of itself."
Authority/Obedience Management (high concern for task, low concern for people). You are probably a bit of a task master. The most
important thing is the work. You lead from behind by driving the group in front of you.
"We're here to work, the work needs to be done. If they're working hard enough they won't have time to feel unhappy, they're not here to
enjoy themselves."
Team Management (high concern for task, high concern for people). You see the completion of the task and the well being of the group
as interdependent through a common stake in the organisation's future. This leads to relationships built on trust and respect, and work
accomplishment from committed employees.
"We're in this together. We need to support and help each other to get this job done."
It is generally accepted that group leaders who have a Team Management style are the most effective, though this is not always the case.
17.4 Style Choice
If you have a group of widely differing levels of ability, confidence and commitment, you may want to lead them each with a different style.
Directing
A team member who has a lot of enthusiasm for the job but not much actual ability, for example a new start, will need to be directed. You
will not need to spend much time giving encouragement or coaxing them along. You will however have to tell them what to do next after they
complete every task, and how to do the tasks set.
Coaching
After being in the group for a while, somebody might begin to lose confidence and therefore motivation, as they still can't seem to do the
work they want to do. At this stage you will need to coach them along. You will still need to tell them what to do at virtually every point along
the way, while taking care to encourage them and praise them at every turn.
Supporting
Gradually the team member's technical ability will increase until they are at a stage where they can actually do everything required of them,
however they may still lack the confidence to actually do it off their own backs. You should no longer have to tell them what to do, although
they may think otherwise. You should seek their opinions on the next stage, and be seen to take notice of their ideas.
Delegating
A technically competent person's confidence will gradually grow until they feel able to work completely on their own. You should now be able
to delegate specific areas of work to them and feel little need to tell them either what to do or to praise them as frequently for doing it. The
time that you don't have to spend "leading" these members of the group can be spent with the less experienced group members, or on the
work that you need to do.
Page 1
Which of the following is an example of an Open question?
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1: When will actions be carried out
Response 1:
Jump 1: This page
Answer 2: Who will be carrying out such a task
Response 2:
Jump 2: This page
Answer 3: How will a task be approached
Response 3:
Jump 3: This page
Answer 4: All of these
Response 4:
Jump 4: Next page

CS2 - Common Skills

CS2: Training skills
Learning outcomes
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to:
Identify the principles of systematic training and the sequence of its
application from needs identification to evaluation
Design and present a training programme
Describe the effective planning, design and running of presentations
Minimum hours of tuition 3 hours.
Introduction
In recent times training has become an essential activity which can affect the
competitive edge of an organisation and its effectiveness in getting things done.
Most businesses appreciate that, the more their people can do, the more they
can achieve. To many, training is concerned with learning at the desk or going
on courses or seminars.
This study unit takes an overview of the training process, starting with a look at
how training needs are identified and moving on to ways in which training can
be implemented and then evaluated to ensure that it has been effective.
The Purpose of Training
In many ways the concept of safety training is a myth. Certainly the notion of
bolt-on training to accompany job-training is at best misguided. Training
which teaches employees how to perform tasks correctly should also teach
them how to perform those tasks safely. The old adage the right way to do the
job is the safe way to do the job still holds true. Therefore the Safety
Practitioner and the training manager should ensure that safety is built into the
training package at the identification of training needs stage. In this way,
safety is integrated into the quality and efficiency programme and not left
outside it, where money is not available during lean years and time is not
available during boom years.
There are of course times when safety training has to stand alone. During
induction training, for example, when new employees should be told of specific
safety procedures in the organisation: fire procedures, first-aid arrangements,
etc. But in general, the more safety training can be integrated into skills
training the better.
The aim of training is to secure a positive change in the behaviour and attitudes
of personnel. Therefore it is essential to identify the changes in behaviour
required before training commences and to set outcomes which can be
demonstrated after the training has been received. This approach allows the
success of the training to be measured and for evaluation and feedback on
success to be provided. It should always be remembered that learning involves
a process within the individual which results in a capacity for changed
performance related to experience.
Training is perhaps one of the key weapons in Health and Safety Management
as it can be used to motivate and change the behaviour of the people involved
in workplace activities. Its success depends on identifying training needs, and
providing and evaluating training aimed at satisfying those needs.
Basically, training programmes should be implemented under a manpower plan
which has identified needs, both present and future, on the demand side and
matched them to manpower resources on the supply side. The result of the
match is identification of the training gap which has to be bridged through a
mixture of training existing staff and recruitment of new staff with the
necessary skills.
From a health and safety viewpoint the primary purpose of training is to
eliminate or reduce human failings which result in accident behaviour
Advantages of Training
Most managers view training as desirable since it increases productivity and
reduces learning time. In addition, it improves quality and raises standards,
including health and safety.
From the human point we can see these additional reasons for training:
To enable new recruits to become competent and confident workers;
To achieve this with the least waste of time and resources;
To facilitate their integration into the social working group;
To assist workers who have to change their jobs within the company to
regain their economic and social status with the least delay.
There are a number of major benefits to be gained from the introduction of a
suitably designed scheme of organised learning which embodies a combination
of sound basic training and planned practical experience. The benefits include:
Recruitment of school leavers is improved; transition from school or previous
company to the new environment is made less unsettling; and the element of
personal challenge in a carefully graded training course induces employees to
try to match their talents to the demands of the job.
The best use is made of an employees time with the company during the
training period; training time is shortened and wastage of both employees and
material is reduced.
The quick, correct and safe method of doing the task is learnt from the
beginning and, as there is less risk of passing on bad and unsafe practices,
machinery and equipment are used more effectively.
If training is good there is less likelihood of a falling off of performance after
transfer to the appropriate activity department and employees will more quickly
reach and retain high standards of performance both quantitatively and
qualitatively.
When properly trained, employees tend to stay longer with their employer
and, as they are inclined to identify themselves more fully with the companys
interests, labour relations and labour turnover figures improve.
Further training in stages builds up versatility, ability to accept an increasing
degree of responsibility, and capacity to progress beyond the basic level.
A solid foundation is laid for retraining; this is increasingly important as
technology changes faster, requiring the retraining of employees in the new
skills required.
Safety training is of vital importance both to the company and employees,
particularly newcomers.
A newcomer could be run down by a fork-lift truck on the first day, or a fire
could break out soon after his arrival, so safety, accident prevention and fire
prevention should begin on the first morning with the immediate dangers of the
working environment and procedures to be followed in case of fire or accident.
Later sessions should progress to the joint responsibilities of management and
employees for safe working practices and give more detailed attention to the
causes and prevention of, say, fire.
Special attention should be given to the safety training needs of young people.
Young persons under the age of 18 are particularly vulnerable to accidents and
should be taught to act safely and obey safety rules from the very first day
they join the company.
All machinery which is dangerous is required to be effectively guarded, but
because of the vulnerability of young persons additional obligations exist in the
cases of certain machinery which experience has shown to be particularly
hazardous and which have been specified by a statutory regulation to be
dangerous. Young persons must be under the adequate supervision of someone
experienced who has a thorough knowledge of the machine and must be fully
instructed as to the dangers of the machine and precautions should be taken.
You should also pay attention to potentially hazardous situations which exist in
offices, laboratories and other non-production areas, including even toilets.
Training in correct attitudes is as necessary in these locations as in areas with
production machines.
1.0 Training principles
1.1 Training Cycle
Often training needs, or changes in behaviour, stem directly from the way in which an
employee carries out a certain task. Job analysis and job safety analysis may indicate
areas of work where performance could be improved through additional training.
Performance appraisal interviews are another means through which training needs can
be identified. In many cases, the initiative will come from the employee and training will
be requested to improve performance, reward and job satisfaction.
Training needs can also be identified as part of a manpower planning exercise in which
present and future trends, including safety needs, are matched against present
resources and a training gap is identified. A manpower planning exercise should be
ongoing and should take account of internal and external changes; for example the
introduction of cultural changes within an organisation, which may include the
development of a safety culture, or the adoption of a quality assurance approach based
upon BS 5750 or ISO 9000 or similar. Future training needs will follow a flatter
hierarchical structure which results from the loss of middle managers and supervisors;
consequently employees need to learn to solve their own problems. If those problems
include health, safety or environmental control, then training in minimum requirements
and good practice become essential. Again the manpower plan approach has identified a
training gap which will have to be filled through a training programme. Changes in the
legislative environment in which the organisation operates, for example through the
implementation of European Directives into Member State law, will also be reflected in
an organisations training needs. Therefore both internal and external factors can lead to
training needs.
Training should follow a systematic process. A framework known as the training cycle is
show in Figure 1

Figure 1: The Training Cycle
Careful analysis of the needs on which training should be based is the foundation of
effective training. If training provisions are not based on an analysis of needs, or the
analysis is inaccurate, then the chances of training being effective are substantially
reduced. The most important aspects of training needs analysis are as follows.

Training Gap
A concept which has been advanced in order to understand what is meant by training
needs is that of a training gap, as shown in the simple diagram below in Figure 2:

Figure 2: The Training Gap
The training gap is the difference between the standards which management wishes to
achieve and the standards which are being achieved. A training need is the amount of
training which would bring trainees to an expected standard.
2.0 Identifying training needs
What, Why and How
Are you charged with the task of having your employees trained but do not
know where to start? Consider performing a training needs assessment first.
Youll optimise the benefit to your employees while saving on the bottom line.
2.1 What is a training needs assessment?
A tool utilised to identify what educational courses or activities should be
provided to employees to improve their work productivity. Focus should be
placed on needs as opposed to desires.
For example, training money would be better spent on a new employee in the
accounting department who needs to learn Microsoft Excel for their job duties
as opposed to learning Microsoft Publisher which the employees wants but does
not need.
2.2 Why conduct a training needs assessment?
To pinpoint if training will make a difference in productivity and the bottom line.
To decide what specific training each employee needs and what will improve
their job performance.
To differentiate between the need for training and organizational issues.
How is a training needs assessment performed?
There are several techniques that can be utilised individually or in combination
with each other. More than one tool should be considered to get a better view
of the big picture, however, which tools are used should be left up to company.

1. Meet with management.
Since most supervisors are involved with the planning of projects and the
future of the company, they know what will be needed. They should be able to
communicate where their employees current abilities lie and what is needed to
get them to the next level for new projects on the horizon.
2. Meet with employees.
Discuss what struggles they may be facing from day-to-day and what would
make their job easier and more efficient. Remember to keep them focused on
what they need rather than what they want.

3. Conduct surveys.
Surveys are beneficial because many people can be polled in a short period of
time. Additionally, surveys provide employees with the opportunity to confess a
need on paper that they may be too embarrassed to admit needing in a face-
to-face meeting.
Surveys should take the form of a questionnaire and can include close-ended or
open-ended questions, or a series of both. Close-ended questions require the
respondent stay within certain perimeters set by the person who created the
survey. Being that the answers are limited, tabulating the data is simple. Open-
ended questions allow an employee to provide more feedback and introduce
new ideas that may not have been considered initially, although tallying the
results may be more difficult. A good option during the creation of a survey
would be to include a combination of both close-ended and open-ended
questions.
4. Conduct focus groups.
Focus groups allow for small group interaction, allowing the assessor to uncover
details about their target audience. Brainstorming is encouraged allowing for an
exchange of new ideas and a revelation of what training may be needed. They
should be at least ninety minutes long to initially break the ice and for
participants to become comfortable enough to express their thoughts.
Depending on time limits, focus groups can be held once or repeatedly.
5. Review company goals and mission statement.
A brief review of the companys past and where they are headed for the future
may reveal valuable information for training. A comparison should be made of
what employees are currently doing and what will be expected of them as the
company continues to grow and change.

Three things to consider:
Consider meeting with employees that are already successfully completing
tasks. You may uncover useful techniques that can be taught during training to
other employees.
Keep surveys brief. More employees will be willing to complete them and
tallying the results will be more manageable.
Good hand-written notes should be taken during a focus group and
consideration should be given to either audio taping or video taping the session
allowing it to be reviewed later for any details initially missed
A Needs Assessment is a systematic exploration of the way things are
and the way they should be. These "things" are usually associated with
organisational and/or individual performance
3. 0 Training Course Design
Most industrial and commercial training is systematic. It can take place either
on or off the job, or involve a combination of both approaches. Taking industry
and commerce overall, in terms of all employees at all levels most training
takes place on-the-job.
People may learn basic skills away from the job and they may learn how to
combine skills, but if the organisation believes in the value of training for any
reason, training will be seen as an on-going thing, not as something which
happens casually, but as a procedure which is carefully planned by monitoring
the performance of personnel.
3.1 Accidental (Unplanned) On-the-job
Unplanned, casual, on-the-job training used to be the most usual method of
training people.
Employees found out as they went along; they were put on a job, possibly with
someone who had done it before and they learnt by observation (what was said
was not always the best or safest way) and by trial and error. (Sitting next to
Nellie is the term used for this type of training.)
3.2 Incidental On-the-job Training
In this instance the individual may receive training or not, depending upon such
factors as the training policy of each individual supervisor, the priority of the
work and the necessity to get a specific order out quickly, etc. Records may
have been kept incidentally as to who had done.
3.3 Accidental Off-the-job Training
When we are going about our daily work we cannot help seeing other people
going about theirs. We are subjected to what might be known as unwitting or
subliminal learning; the way somebody else handles his knife and fork or sucks
his thumb or licks his fingers before he counts some papers. All such
experiences add up in our memories and we are reminded of them when we are
called upon to do a similar task or one which consists of a series of recognisably
similar skills.
We also experience reverse-learning in a similar way. We see a person
performing a movement which we consider ugly or wasteful; we unwittingly
determine not to include that motion in any of our own.
3.4 Incidental Off-the-job Training
How many times have you gone away on an external course or seminar and
returned with the opinion that, although you have not learnt anything new
about the Act, you have acquired some invaluable information on some new
safeguards which otherwise you might not have come across?
3.5 On-the-Job Training
(i) Advantages
It is more realistic; there is no gulf between theory and practice.
It takes place in the office, using real equipment, PCs, etc
The pressures under which the trainee must work are real. The
consequences of errors are also very real.
These advantages are considerable and, but for certain serious limitations, they
would be so overwhelming that no provision for off-the-job training would be
necessary.
(ii) Limitations
The consequences of errors made in training can be very serious. It is all
very well arguing that learning from mistakes is a useful experience,
but mistakes may be very costly in terms of financial loss or, if there is a
safety hazard, in terms of serious accidents.
Learning on-the-job can be very time-consuming if the trainee constantly
needs to refer for guidance to experienced staff or operating manuals.
3.6 Off-the-Job Training
(i) Advantages
The trainee is free from distractions and interruptions.
Mistakes can be analysed as they occur, without the adverse
consequences of mistakes made in carrying out real tasks.
Advantage can be taken of many techniques designed to improve
learning.
(ii) Limitations
It can become too remote from the particular needs of individuals.
There are limitations in the extent to which exercises carried out away
from the workplace can be a precise simulation of the work to be done.
Off-the-job training is needed in order to complement on-the-job training. It
has the following advantages: According to the balance between learning on-
the-job and off-the-job, decisions relating to the choice of training methods
must be made. These methods will be described more fully in the next section.
4. 0 TRAINING METHODS
Types of Courses
(a) Short Courses
These can be either internal or external, frequently of a specialised nature and
up to one weeks duration.
(b) College Courses
Attendance on these courses may be arranged in several ways:
(i) Day Release - Normally this is one day per week over one or more
academic sessions.
(ii) Evening - The opportunity to be released during working hours to attend
college is denied to many staff, who can attend only in the evenings.
(iii) Day/Evening - A compromise option offered by some colleges is to
arrange classes on an afternoon-plus- evening basis, which reduces the time
required for students to be absent from work.
(iv) Block Release - A further alternative is to arrange for attendance in
blocks of weeks, rather than on a day or half-day basis. Some employers are
more amenable to releasing staff on this basis, rather than on day-release over
a longer period.
(c) Distance Learning - The opportunity to attend classes of any sort is
denied entirely to many potential students, for a variety of reasons:
Relevant courses may not be offered by local colleges.
It may be impossible to arrange any form of release from work.
Travelling difficulties may be a problem if the student lives in a rural area.
Correspondence courses, offered on a distance-learning basis, have been
designed to meet the needs of such students, by providing written material and
postal tuition as an alternative to attending classes.
(d) Open Learning - Some larger companies provide an in-house open
learning centre, usually run by training specialists. Such a centre will usually be
equipped with distance learning and multi-media courses, available in print or
via a PC. The materials may be selected to meet specific training needs or may
be available to staff as part of their own personal development. Often, the
trainee will contract with the open learning manager to put in an agreed
number of hours of study in his or her own time as well as during work time.
Alternatively, open learning materials may be purchased for study at home or
as part of a group scheme.
The choice of various methods of training is another feature of training course
design. Some skill is required in identifying which method, or combination of
methods, is suited to a particular situation. Again there is a distinction between
on-the-job methods and off-the-job methods.
(e) E-learning This is a relatively new concept and offers student a flexible
and relatively paper free way to study. It allows students to receive and
transmit information quickly using email and websites and to have access to
other students via forums where ideas and information can be shared. This
reduces the feeling of isolation when studying from home or where the
individual is the only person studying a particular topic or course.
On-the-Job Methods
Learning on-the-job provides trainees with experience which is a combination of
work-based knowledge and the development of skills. As the trainee gains
experience, the range and complexity of tasks which he or she can undertake
without detailed guidance increases. This process of learning can be improved
by several means:
(a) Demonstration
A preliminary to much learning by experience is for an experienced instructor to
demonstrate to trainees how to carry out a particular task. Demonstration is an
essential preliminary to operating most machines and equipment.
(b) Coaching
A trainees understanding and speed of learning can be substantially improved
with effective coaching by an experienced instructor. Coaching is a term used
to define the process by which a trainee learns by carrying out tasks under
guidance from an experienced person. The instructor gives guidance and
feedback to the trainee, and provides encouragement and assistance in
overcoming difficulties.
A great deal of coaching is provided on-the-job and, as such, is hard to
distinguish from routine supervision. An ability to coach subordinates is a basic
supervisory skill, and staff who have supervisory responsibilities have a training
need to acquire coaching skills.
(c) Projects
Assigning to trainees the task of investigating a problem and analysing
potential solutions to that problem is a popular method of learning in the office.
A lot of knowledge of work practices and procedures can be gained; analytical
and problem-solving skills can be developed; and, in some cases the
opportunity to apply knowledge gained at college is available.
5. 0 Evaluation of training
The final stage in the training cycle is concerned with a review of the training,
for the purpose of assessing whether it has met the objectives and there are
various methods available depending on the objectives and the type of training
which has taken place.
(a) Examinations and formal assessment
This is a good way of assessing a students understanding, however the problem
is that it might show up failure. Nerves often play a big factor in someones
ability to perform under pressure and the most dedicated student who sails
through general course work can fall to pieces at the exam stage.
As human beings we all have limitations and often if we are to learn facts, we
need certain basic knowledge to build on. Age is a factor - it is easier to
memorise when you are young.
The use of a short pre-test and a final test, even when the results are not
communicated to the trainees, will give a good guide as to how effective the
instruction has been.
(b) Asking the trainees
At the end of a training course it is common practice to ask for feedback in the
form of a simple tick list to a variety of questions from the quality of the
training including visual aids to the accommodation and refreshments.
Some forms will give you space to put your additional comments for those who
care to take the time to do so.
One of the problems with this type of assessment is that quite often students
are keen to get out of the classroom door and do not pay proper attention to
the questions and give it the time it deserves.
When students do bother to add their own comments the answers given often
convey some element of personal preference, and even those who are very
satisfied with a course may feel that they have to find some fault. Consider
carefully how you will handle such comments.
(c) Performance appraisals
Some initial appraisal will help identify a training need. After attending a
training course, a review of the training undertaken should be planned and
carried out to see if the training meet the identified needs. If not then
appropriate action should be taken.
(d) Continuous assessment
This is usually only possible during a extended training. However it is a very
useful tool. It is better to be able to establish that you are making progress as
you go along and identify any problems which may occur and deal with them
early on.
6. 0 Delivering effective presentations
Introduction
Management is the art of getting things done. A Presentation is a fast and potentially
effective method of getting things done through other people. In managing any project,
presentations are used as a formal method for bringing people together to plan, monitor
and review its progress.

But let us look at this another way: what can a presentation do for you?

Firstly; it puts you on display. Your staff need to see evidence of decisive planning and
leadership so that they are confident in your position as their manager. They need to be
motivated and inspired to undertaking the tasks which you are presenting. Project
leaders from other sections need to be persuaded of the merits of your project and to
provide any necessary support. Senior management should be impressed by your skill and
ability so that they provide the resources so that you and your team can get the job
done.
Secondly; it allows you to ask questions and to initiate discussion. It may not be suitable
within the presentation formats of your company to hold a discussion during the
presentation itself but it does allow you to raise the issues, present the problems and at
least to establish who amongst the audience could provide valuable input to your
decision making.

Finally; presentations can be fun. They are your chance to speak your mind, to strut your
stuff and to tell the people what the world is really like. While you hold the stage, the
audience is bound by good manners to sit still and watch the performance.
6.1 The Objectives of Communication
The single most important observation is that the objective of communication is not the
transmission but the reception. The whole preparation, presentation and content of a
speech must therefore be geared not to the speaker but to the audience. The
presentation of a perfect project plan is a failure if the audience do not understand or
are not persuaded of its merits. A customers' tour is a waste of time if they leave without
realising the full worth of your product. The objective of communication is to make your
message understood and remembered.

The main problem with this objective is, of course, the people to whom you are talking.

The average human being has a very short attention span and a million other things to
think about. Your job in the presentation is to reach through this mental fog and to hold
the attention long enough to make your point.
6.2 The Plan
It is difficult to over estimate the importance of careful preparation. Five minutes on the
floor in front of senior management could decide the acceptance of a proposal of several
months duration for the manager and the whole team. With so much potentially at stake,
the presenter must concentrate not only upon the facts being presented but upon the
style, pace, tone and ultimately tactics which should be used. As a rule of thumb for an
average presentation, no less than 1 hour should be spent in preparation for 5 minutes of
talking.
Suppose you have a talk to give, where do you start?
6.3 Formulate your Objectives
One question is: how many different objectives can you achieve, in say, 30 minutes - and
the answer: not many. In the end it is far more productive to achieve one goal than to
blunder over several. The best approach is to isolate the essential objective and to list at
most two others which can be addressed providing they do not distract from the main
one. Focus is key. If you do not focus upon your objective, it is unlikely that the audience
will.
6.4 Identify the Audience
The next task is to consider the audience to determine how best to achieve your
objectives in the context of these people. Essentially this is done by identifying their
aims and objectives while attending your presentation. If you can somehow convince
them they are achieving those aims while at the same time achieving your own, you will
find a helpful and receptive audience. For instance, if you are seeking approval for a new
product plan from senior management it is useful to know and understand their main
objectives. If they are currently worried that their product range is out of date and old
fashioned, you would emphasise the innovative aspects of your new product; if they are
fearful about product diversification you would then emphasise how well your new
product fits within the existing catalogue.

This principal of matching the audience aims, however, goes beyond the simple
salesmanship of an idea - it is the simplest and most effective manner of obtaining their
attention at the beginning. If your opening remarks imply that you understand their
problem and that you have a solution, then they will be flattered at your attention and
attentive to your every word.

6.5 Structure
All speeches should have a definite structure or format; a talk without a structure is a
woolly mess. If you do not order your thoughts into a structured manner, the audience
will not be able to follow them. Having established the aim of your presentation you
should choose the most appropriate structure to achieve it.

However, the structure must not get in the way of the main message. If it is too
complex, too convoluted or simply too noticeable the audience will be distracted. If a
section is unnecessary to the achievement of your fundamental objectives, pluck it out.
6.5.1 Sequential Argument
One of the simplest structures is that of sequential argument which consists of a series of
linked statements ultimately leading to a conclusion. However, this simplicity can only
be achieved by careful and deliberate delineation between each section. One technique
is the use of frequent reminders to the audience of the main point which have proceeded
and explicit explanation of how the next topic will lead on from this.
6.5.2 Hierarchical Decomposition
In hierarchical decomposition the main topic is broken down into sub-topics and each
sub-topics into smaller topics until eventually everything is broken down into very small
basic units. In written communication this is a very powerful technique because it allows
the reader to re-order the presentation at will, and to return to omitted topics at a later
date. In verbal communication the audience is restricted to the order of the presenter
and the hierarchy should be kept simple reinforced. As with sequential argument it is
useful to summarise each section at its conclusion and to introduce each major new
section with a statement of how it lies in the hierarchical order.
6.5.3 Question Orientated
The aim of many presentations given by managers is to either explain a previous decision
or to seek approval for a plan of action. In these cases, the format can be question
orientated. The format is to introduce the problem and any relevant background, and
then to outline the various solutions to that problem listing the advantages and
disadvantages of each solution in turn. Finally, all possible options are summarised in
terms of their pro's and con's, and either the preferred solution is presented for
endorsement by the audience or a discussion is initiated leading to the decision. One
trick for obtaining the desired outcome is to establish during the presentation the
criteria by which the various options are to be judged; this alone should allow you to
obtain your desired outcome.
6.5.4 Pyramid
In a newspaper, the story is introduced in its entirety in a catchy first paragraph. The
next few paragraphs repeat the same information only giving further details to each
point. The next section repeats the entire story again, but developing certain themes
within each of the sub-points and again adding more information. This is repeated until
the reporter runs out of story. The editor then simply decides upon the newsworthiness
of the report and cuts from the bottom to the appropriate number of column inches.

There are two main advantages to this style for presentations. Firstly, it can increase the
audiences receptiveness to the main ideas. Since at every stage of the pyramid they have
all ready become familiar with the ideas and indeed know what to expect next. This
sense of deja vu can falsely give the impression that what they are hearing are their own
ideas. The second advantage is that the duration of the talk can be easily altered by
cutting the talk in exactly the same way as the newspaper editor might have done to the
news story. This degree of flexibility may be useful if the same presentation is to be used
several times in different situations.
6.5.5.The Meaty Sandwich
The simplest and most direct format remains the meaty sandwich. This is the simple
beginning-middle-end format in which the main meat of the exposition is contained in
the middle and is proceeded by an introduction and followed by a summary and
conclusion. This is really the appropriate format for all small sub-sections in all the
previous structures. If the talk is short enough, or the topic simple enough, it can indeed
form the entirity of the presentation.
The Beginning
It is imperative to plan your beginning carefully; there are five main elements:
Get their attention
Too often in a speech, the first few minutes of the presentation are lost while people
adjust their coats, drift in with coffee and finish the conversation they were having with
the person next to them. You only have a limited time and every minute is precious to
you so, from the beginning, make sure they pay attention.
Establish a theme
Basically, you need to start the audience thinking about the subject matter of your
presentation. This can be done by a statement of your main objective, unless for some
reason you wish to keep it hidden. They will each have some experience or opinions on
this and at the beginning you must make them bring that experience into their own
minds.
Present a structure
If you explain briefly at the beginning of a talk how it is to proceed, then the audience
will know what to expect. This can help to establish the theme and also provide
something concrete to hold their attention. Ultimately, it provides a sense of security in
the promise that this speech too will end.
Create a rapport
If you can win the audience over in the first minute, you will keep them for the
remainder. You should plan exactly how you wish to appear to them and use the
beginning to establish that relationship. You may be presenting yourself as their friend,
as an expert, perhaps even as a judge, but whatever role you choose you must establish
it at the very beginning.
6.6 Administration
When planning your speech/presentation you should make a note to find out if there are
any administrative details which need to be announced at the beginning. This is not
simply to make yourself popular with the people organising the session but also because
if these details are over looked the audience may become distracted as they wonder
what is going to happen next.
6.7 The Ending
One of the greatest mistakes is to tell the audience that this is going to be a summary
because at that moment they simply switch off. Indeed it is best that the ending comes
unexpectedly with that final vital phrase left hanging in the air and ringing round their
memories. Alternatively the ending can be a flourish, with the pace and voice leading the
audience through the final crescendo to the inevitable conclusion.
7. 0 Accommodation - Arranging the Room
If possible, visit the room in which you will make the presentation well in
advance. Determine seating (circle seating encourages interaction, rows of
seats discourages interaction, etc.) and determine how the visual aids you
choose will work. Consider lighting, space, even the temperature of the room.
Consider placing notepads and pencils at each seat if participants need to take
notes. Or, you may want to have glasses at each seat with a few pitchers of
water if the presentation is going to last more than half of an hour. If you do
this, make sure you allow time for toilet breaks.
While you do not need to memorise your entire presentation, make yourself
very, very familiar with it through several practice runs. Rehearse the
presentation in its entirety as often as you can before delivering it to a live
audience. The more you rehearse, the more confident you will be and the more
fluent you will seem to your audience - if you know your subject matter and
have adequately prepared, you will be able to deliver your message loud and
clear.
When in doubt or nervous, stay focused on your purpose helping your
audience understand your message. Direct your thoughts to the subject at
hand. The audience has come to hear your presentation and you will succeed!
8. 0 Visual Aids
Most people expect visual reinforcement for any verbal message being
delivered. While it would be unfair to blame television entirely for this, it is
useful to understand what the audience is accustomed to, for two reasons:
firstly, you can meet their expectations using the overhead projector, a slide
show, or even a video presentation; secondly, if you depart from the
framework of a square picture flashed before their eyes, and use a different
format, then that novelty will be most arresting. For instance, if you are
describing the four functions of a project manager then display the four "hats"
he/she must wear; if you are introducing the techniques of brainstorming then
brandish a fishing rod to "fish for" ideas.
With traditional visual aids however, there are a few rules which should be
followed to ensure they are used effectively. Most are common sense, and most
are commonly ignored. As with all elements of a speech, each different view-
foil should have a distinct purpose - and if it has no purpose it should be
removed. With that purpose firmly in mind you should design the view-foil for
that purpose. Some view-foils are there to reinforce the verbal message and so
to assist in recall; others are used to explain information which can be more
easily displayed than discussed: and some view-foils are designed simply for
entertainment and thus to pace the presentation.
If your view-foil is scruffy then your audience will notice that, and not what is
written upon it. Do not clutter a view-foil or it will confuse rather than assist.
Do not simply photocopy information if there is more data on the page than you
wish to present; in these cases, the data should be extracted before being
displayed.
Slide projectors, data projectors, video machines and computers should be
tested out beforehand to make sure they are operating correctly and that you
know how to use them.
Make sure you do not cram too much information onto any single visual. A
good rule of thumb to follow is to keep each visual to six lines or less. Also,
make sure any type or graphics are large enough the audience can see it
clearly (from all seats) and make sure the colours used are easy on the eyes,
taking into account the lighting.
A sad fact is that much of your authority will be judged by the quality of your
slides - you need to make sure that their design supports the style of your
message.
Overheads should be clearly marked and arranged in order beforehand. Flip
charts should be prepared in advance when possible. When used during the
presentation to take notes, make print large enough for all participants to see.
Remember - when using these various visuals, do not turn your back to the
audience. Position yourself so you can use the visuals while facing your
audience. Talk to the audience not the visual aid.
9.0 The Delivery
"The human body is truly fascinating - there are some I could watch all day" -
Anon
Whatever you say and whatever you show; it is you, yourself which will remain
the focus of the audience's attention. If you but strut and fret your hour upon
the stage and then are gone, no-one will remember what you said. The
presenter has the power both to kill the message and to enhance it a hundred
times beyond its worth. Your job as a manager is to use the potential of the
presentation to ensure that the audience is motivated and inspired rather than
disconcerted or distracted. There are five key facets of the human body which
deserve attention in presentation skills: the eyes, the voice, the expression, the
appearance, and how you stand.
9.1 The Eyes
Even when in casual conversation, your feelings of friendship and intimacy can be
evaluated by the intensity and duration of eye contact. During the presentation you
should use this to enhance your rapport with the audience by establishing eye contact
with each and every member of the audience as often as possible. For small groups this is
clearly possible but it can also be achieved in large auditoriums since the further the
audience is away from the presenter the harder it is to tell precisely where he or she is
looking. Thus by simply staring at a group of people at the back of a lecture theatre it is
possible to convince each of them individually that he or she is the object of your
attention. During presentations, try to hold your gaze fixed in specific directions for five
or six seconds at a time. Shortly after each change in position, a slight smile will
convince each person in that direction that you have seen and acknowledged them.
9.2 The Voice
After the eyes comes the voice, and the two most important aspects of the voice for the
public speaker are projection and variation. It is important to realise from the onset that
few people can take their ordinary conversation voice and put it on stage.

The main difference comes in the degree of feedback which you can expect from the
person to whom you are talking. In ordinary conversation you can see from the
expression, perhaps a subtle movement of the eye, when a word or phrase has been
missed or misunderstood. In front of an audience you have to make sure that this never
happens.

The simple advice is to slow down and to take your time. Remember the audience is
constrained by good manners not to interrupt you so there is no need to maintain a
constant flow of sound. A safe style is to be slightly louder and slightly slower than a fire-
side chat with slightly deaf aunt. As you get used to the sound, you can adjust it by
watching the audience.

A monotone speech is both boring and soporific, so it is important to try to vary the pitch
and speed of your presentation. At the very least, each new sub-section should be
proceeded by a pause and a change in tone to emphasise the delineation. If tonal
variation does not come to you naturally try making use of rhetorical questions
throughout your speech, since most British accents rise naturally at the end of a
question.
9.3 Expression
The audience watch your face. If you are looking listless or distracted then they will be
listless and distracted; if you are smiling, they will be wondering why and listen to find
out. In normal conversation your meaning is enhanced by facial reinforcement. Thus in a
speech you must compensate both for stage nerves and for the distance between yourself
and the audience. The message is quite simply: make sure that your facial expressions
are natural, only more so.
9.4 Appearance
There are many guides to management and presentation styles which lay heavy emphasis
upon the way you dress and in the last analysis this is a matter of personal choice. That
choice should however be deliberately made. When you are giving a presentation you
must dress for the audience, not for yourself; if they think you look out of place, then
you are.
9.5 Stance
When an actor initially learns a new character part, he or she will instinctively adopt a
distinct posture or stance to convey that character. It follows therefore that while you
are on stage, your stance and posture will convey a great deal about you. The least you
must do is make sure your stance does not convey boredom; at best, you can use your
whole body as a dynamic tool to reinforce your rapport with the audience.
The perennial problem is what to do with your hands. These must not wave aimlessly
through the air, or fiddle constantly with a pen, or (worst of all visually) juggle change in
your trouser pockets. The key is to keep your hands still, except when used in unison
with your speech. To train them initially, find a safe resting place which is comfortable
for you, and aim to return them there when any gesture is completed.
9.6 The Techniques of Speech
Every speaker has a set of "tricks of the trade" which he or she holds dear - the following
are a short selection of such advice taken from various sources.
9.7 Make an impression
Repeat, Repeat
The average audience is very busy: they have husbands or wives etc, etc - but repetition
makes them hear. The average audience is easily distracted, and their attention will slip
during the most important message of your speech - so repeat it. You don't necessarily
have to use the resonant tonal sounds of the repeated phrase, but simply make the point
again and again and again with different explanations and in different ways. The classic
advice of the Sergeant Major is: "First you tell 'em what you are going to tell 'em, then
you tell 'em, then you tell 'em what you told 'em!"
9.8 Draw a Sign
Research into teaching has yielded the following observation: "We found that
students who failed to get the point did so because they were not looking for
it". If the audience knows when to listen, they will. So tell them: the important
point is ...
9.9 Draw a Picture
The human brain is used to dealing with images, and this ability can be used to make the
message more memorable. This means using metaphors or analogies to express your
message. Thus a phrase like "we need to increase the market penetration before there
will be sufficient profits for a pay related bonus" becomes "we need a bigger slice of the
cake before the feast".
9.10 Jokes
The set piece joke can work very well, but it can also lead to disaster. You must
choose a joke which is apt, and one which will not offend any member of the
audience. This advice tends to rule out all racist, sexist or generally rude jokes.
If this seems to rule out all the jokes you can think of, then you should avoid
jokes in a speech.
Amusing asides are also useful in maintaining the attention of the audience,
and for relieving the tension of the speech. If this comes naturally to you, then
it is a useful tool for pacing your delivery to allow periods of relaxation in
between your sign-posted major points.
9.11 Plain Speech
Yes!Keep it simple.
9.12 Short and Sweet
One way to polish the presentation of the main point of your speech is to consider it
thus. The day before your presentation, you are called to the office of the divisional
manager; there you are introduced to the managing director and a representative of the
company's major share holder; "O.K." says the vice president "we hear you have got
something to say, we'll give you 30 seconds, GO". Can you do it?
If you can crystallise your thoughts and combine your main message with some
memorable phrase or imagery, and present them both in 30 seconds then you have either
the perfect ending or the basis for a fine presentation.
9.13 The Narrative
Everyone loves a story and stories can both instruct and convey a message: Zen
Philosophy is recorded in its stories, and Christianity was originally taught in parables. If
you can weave your message into a story or a personal anecdote, then you can have them
wanting to hear your every word - even if you have to make it up.
9.14 Rehearsal
There is no substitute for rehearsal. You can do it in front of a mirror, or to an empty
theatre. In both cases, you should accentuate your gestures and vocal projection so that
you get used to the sound and sight of yourself. Do not be put off by the mirror -
remember: you see a lot less of yourself than your friends do.
9.15 Relaxation
If you get nervous just before the show, either concentrate on controlling your breathing
or welcome the extra adrenaline. The good news is that the audience will never notice
your nerves nearly as much as you think. Similarly, if you dry-up in the middle - smile,
look at your notes, and take your time. The silence will seem long to you, but less so to
the audience.
9.16. Audience participation
Like any communication, a presentation needs to be planned carefully to suit
the needs of the audience. You should in particular consider how much
knowledge of the subject your listeners will already have, since they will easily
become bored, or even angry, if they feel that you are talking down to them.
Similarly, giving a presentation which is too complex can be just as ineffective,
since listeners feel resentful and will soon lose interest unless they can follow
what is going on.
Make sure that you find out who your audience are - that is, what level of
employees, with what kinds of working experience and knowledge - and plan
your presentation accordingly. Professional lecturers talk of knowing where to
pitch an address, meaning finding the right level of vocabulary and ideas for a
group, and you should seek to develop this kind of skill and judgment.
Consider what, if any, audience participation you want to achieve.
If you are delivering a speech it may be that a simple question and answer
session at the end of the presentation is all that is required. Make sure when
you outline the format for your presentation you inform the audience that there
will be time at the end of the presentation for questions. The alternative is for
you to invite questions as you go along. A great deal of control is required for
this to work well, as there is the potential to deviate if a question pre-empts
what you were going to say later on in the presentation. Timing can also tend
to slip as a result of too many questions!
If you plan to have an interactive presentation where you split your audience
up into groups, then careful planning of the accommodation is required. Make
sure adequate break out rooms are booked and that you nominate one person
in each group to keep track of the time and act as a scribe if required.
If you are going to supply handouts, consider at what stage to give these out.
Handouts given at the outset can lead to the audience reading ahead and
become bored or distracted. If you intend to supply handouts at the end of the
presentation, tell your audience so they know that they are not required to take
notes.
What-ever level of participation is required, you must ensure you remain in
control. If delivering a presentation to a large group you may want to consider
employing the services of a facilitator to ensure you stick to the original plan
and meet your objectives.
10.0 Conclusion
Once the presentation is over and you have calmed down, you should try to
honestly evaluate your performance. Either alone, or with the help of a friend in
the audience, decide what was the least successful aspect of your presentation
and resolve to concentrate on that point in the next talk you give.
If it is a problem associated with the preparation, then deal with it there;
if it is a problem with your delivery, write yourself a reminder note and put it in
front of you at the next talk.
Practice is only productive when you make a positive effort to improve - try it
11.0 Tips and Techniques
Tips to help make your presentation a great success:
Avoid too many statistics and confusing information in your presentation.
Instead, put this information in a handout for participants to refer to at a
later date.
If you forget your words, pause for a moment and remember your objective.
While the words may not come right back to you, this will help keep you on
track and may even help you to think of additional thoughts and ideas your
audience will benefit from hearing.
Visualize yourself succeeding.
Begin by breathing.
Before the presentation, focus on the needs of the audience.
Consider taking a public speaking course at a local college or university.
These are often times offered as night courses and are usually very
inexpensive, while providing you with important skills that will enhance
your confidence in this area.
Videotape yourself going through the presentation. All you need to do
this is a video camera and a tripod. Then, run through the video and
make changes according to your thoughts on the taped presentation.
Four Secrets
To top off your presentation, here are four secrets to holding a group in the
palm of your hand:
Tell stories
Use humour
Use quotes
Motivate with benefits
Page 1
An advantage of On-the-Job Training may be that t he pressures under which
the trainee must work are real. The consequences of errors are also very real.
True/False (HP)
Answer 1: True
Response 1:
Jump 1: Next page
Answer 2: False
Response 2:
Jump 2: This page

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