1

2
Estel Bradley Murdock
162 S. 500 E. #204
Provo, Utah 84606
coyr!"ht March 1##8
Nature's Way of Measuring
by Estel B. Murdock
$!%s!red &y Buck'!%!ster (uller)
Chapter One
The Isotropic ector Matri!
Measure'e%t dee%ds uo% your *ra'e o* re*ere%ce. Be!%" a sc!e%t!st, + a' very
ot!'!st!c, that !s, + ,a%t to ot!'!-e o% every 'easure'e%t, to use the s!'lest oss!&le
'ea%s. (or e.a'le, the shortest d!sta%ce &et,ee% t,o o!%ts !s a stra!"ht l!%e. +* your la%e !s
curved, the shortest d!sta%ce re/u!res you to "o outs!de the la%e. 0 tu%%el throu"h the Earth1s
crust !s stra!"hter tha% a ath alo%" the sur*ace $!* "eolo"y !s %ot co%s!dered).
2rad!t!o%al 'athe'at!cs !s &ased uo% the u%!t s/uare as the ot!'u' 'easure a%d calls
!t the s!'lest *or'. +t re/u!res each s!de to &e o* u%!t 'easure. 2here*ore, the d!a"o%al o* a
s/uare &eco'es 32. But !% real!ty, the tr!a%"le !s the s!'lest *or'.
+* the d!a"o%al o* the s/uare !s chose% to &e the cr!ter!a *or u%!ty !%stead o* the s!de, the%
,e ad'!t the tr!a%"le to &e the s!'lest *or' a%d the s!de o* the s/uare &eco'es 1432 $,h!ch !s
e/ual to $32)42 *or eole ,ho are u%co'*orta&le ,!th a% !rrat!o%al !% the de%o'!%ator.)
2he 'a!% /uest!o% + ,a%t to a%s,er !% th!s &ook !s ho, 'a%y e/u!lateral tr!a%"les or
tetrahedro%s !%stead o* ho, 'a%y s/uares or cu&es. 5hy6 +1ll a%s,er that /uest!o% &elo,. (!rst,
let 'e !%troduce you to Buck'!%!ster (uller1s !dea o* the +sotro!c 7ector Matr!..
3
2he Isotropic ector Matri! co'es
*ro' the closest ack!%" o* u%!t rad!us
sheres. Each shere ,!th!% the !sotro!c
vector 'atr!. has 12 surrou%d!%" sheres.
8o%%ect!%" the ce%ters o* each o* the 12
sheres to the ce%ter o* the %uclear shere
are 12 dou&le rad!! rad!at!%" *ro' the
%uclear shere. $9%e rad!us *ro' each
shere co%%ected to o%e rad!us *ro' the
%uclear shere.) Each a.!s !s searated &y 60
o
*ro' a% ad:ace%t a.!s. 2h!s a%"le o* 60
o
!s a
roerty o* the ad:ace%cy o* the sheres.
2hese rad!! *or' *our he.a"o%al la%es.
8o%%ect!%" the e%ds o* the rad!! to"ether ,!th
dou&le rad!! co%%ects each shere !%to a 'atr!..
S!%ce the rad!us o* a shere !s called a vector, th!s
'atr!. !s called a% +sotro!c 7ector Matr!.. 5!th
all th!rtee% sheres co%%ected at the!r ce%ters, ,e
*or' a cu&octahedro%,
,h!ch !s a cu&e ,!th !ts
cor%ers sl!ced o**. +t !s
!%tersected &y the *our
he.a"o%s. Buck'!%!ster
(uller called th!s the
ector E"uilibriu#.
The Natural Way to Measure
+* the d!a"o%al !s des!"%ated u%!ty *ro' the &e"!%%!%", the% the
Pytha"orea% 2heore' says the s!des &eco'e e/ual to 1432 or 3242. 2h!s !s
the cos 45
o
or the s!% 45
o
.
;o,, !* ,e use th!s d!a"o%al o* 1 u%!t as a rad!us o* a c!rcle, "e%eral!-!%"
the s/uare to &eco'e a recta%"le, ,e "et all the
a%"les &et,ee% 0
o
a%d #0
o
. 2here*ore, ,e "et all
the values o* s!% < a%d cos <. 2he d!a"o%al !s a
,hole %u'&er searated *ro' !rrat!o%al %u'&ers &y 45
o
.
2ak!%" th!s to a h!"her d!'e%s!o% !s a cu&e sho,!%" d!a"o%als
o% each s!de roduc!%" 5 tetrahedro%s o% the !%s!de. 2he d!a"o%als are
60
o
a,ay *ro' each other o% the !%s!de &ecause three s!de d!a"o%als
'ake a% e/u!lateral, e/u!a%"ular tr!a%"ular la%e ,!th !%s!de a%"les o*
4
60
o
, &ut these d!a"o%als are 45
o
a,ay *ro' the ed"es o* the cu&e.
2he 60
o
tr!a%"le !s at a 45
o


a%"le to the ed"e o* the cu&e, there*ore, the isotropic $ector
#atri! co!%c!des ,!th, &ut !s searated *ro' the cubic $ector #atri! &y 45
o
. 9%ly the
diagonals o* the cu&e1s *aces are set ,!th!% the !sotro!c vector 'atr!.=
(our
%
&
'
u%!t sheres ,!th!% the !sotro!c vector 'atr!. co'e
to"ether ,!th!% the cu&!c vector 'atr!. such that *our o* the cor%ers
correso%d to the ce%ters o* the sheres, a%d the cu&e1s *ace
d!a"o%als co!%c!de ,!th the shere1s rad!!, 'ak!%" the d!a"o%als o*
the s/uare s!des t,o u%!ts each, that !s, t,o oos!%" vectors.
2here*ore, each s/uare s!de o% the cu&e has a d!a"o%al o* 2, a%d each
ed"e o* the cu&e has a le%"th o* 32 . 2he area o* each o%e o* these
s/uares !s $32 )
2
> 2 trad!t!o%al u%!t s/uares. But *or our uroses, a
u%!t s/uare has a u%!t d!a"o%al ,!th s!des o* 32 .
2he trad!t!o%al area o* the cu&e !s $32 )
?
> 2.828428.
2he u%!t octahedro% !s 'ade u o* *our u%!t tetrahedro%s.
2here*ore, the volu'e o* the octahedro% !s 4 tetrahedro%s. 8ut t,o
o* these tetrahedro%s !% hal* to 'ake *our

(

@

tetrahedro%s, each
hav!%" a volu'e o*
%&
)
. 5he% *our (

@

tetrahedro%s are added to each
*ace o* the u%!t tetrahedro%, the s'allest cu&e !s created &ecause
4$
%&
)
) A 1 > ?, a% eas!er ,ay o* calculat!%" the s'allest cu&e tha%
us!%" the 32.

2he d!a"o%als o* the s!.
*aces o* a cu&e ,h!ch o%ly
l!%e u ,!th the !sotro!c
vector 'atr!. *or' t,o
!%terlac!%" tetrahedro%s. 2he
tetrahedro% !s there*ore 'ore
*u%da'e%tal tha% a cu&e *or
'easur!%" volu'e. 2ak!%"
o%e o* these tetrahedro%s a%d
add!%" the r!"ht k!%d o* tetrahedro% to each o%e o* the *our
*aces, !t takes *!ve tetrahedro%s to 'ake o%e cu&e.
8o'ar!%" th!s rat!o%al volu'e o* ? to the calculated volu'e us!%" the 32, ,e "et the
sy%er"et!cs co%vers!o% *actor o*
*
&
).')'+)'
> 1.06066 . Us!%" th!s co%vers!o% *actor o%
co%ve%t!o%al areas a%d volu'es, they are co%verted to rat!o%al areas a%d volu'es. 2h!s
co%vers!o% *actor o* 1.06066 > 3$#48) .
(or areas, 2 d!'e%s!o%s,3$#48) !s tr!a%"led to &eco'e $3$#48) )
2
>
,&
'
.
5
(or volu'es, ? d!'e%s!o%s, 3$#48) !s tratrahedro%ed to &eco'e $3$#48) )
?
> 1.1#?24?.
Bere are so'e e.a'les.
2he Creat Pyra'!d at C!-a has a volu'e o* 2.5 '!ll!o% cu&!c 'eters.
2.5 . 1.1#?24? > ?, that !s ? '!ll!o% tetrahedro%s.
2he 8halula Pyra'!d !% Me.!co has a
volu'e o* 4.45 '!ll!o% cu&!c 'eters. 4.45 .
1.1#?24? > 5 '!ll!o% tetrahedro%s.
2he %u'&ers &eco'e rat!o%al.
$2r!a%"led a%d tetrahedro%ed ,!ll &e e.la!%ed later, &e!%" e/u!vale%t ,!th s/uar!%" a%d
cu&!%".)
2he trad!t!o%al ,ay o* calculat!%" uses o%ly s/uares a%d cu&es, lock!%" 'athe'at!c!a%s
!%to us!%" !rrat!o%al %u'&ers to rov!de rec!se 'easure'e%ts. 2h!s !s true &ecause &oth the
s/uare a%d the cu&e are %ot u%!ts o* 'easure. 2hey are d!v!s!&le, so they have to 'ake u *or
th!s &y us!%" !rrat!o%al %u'&ers or arts o* s/uares or cu&es.

5hat ,e have here !s that the s/uare or the cu&e are %ot &as!c a%d *u%da'e%tal shaes
that *or' the &as!s o* a coord!%ate syste's. 2he &as!c shaes as ,e have see% are the tr!a%"le
a%d the tetrahedro%. Ce%eral coord!%ate syste's %eed to &e !%terreted o% the &as!s o* the
r!'ary a%d 'ost &as!c o* shaes, the tr!a%"le a%d tetrahedro% ,h!ch are !%d!v!s!&le.
Dou&l!%" the or!"!%al s/uare, ,e have 4
s'aller s/uares ,hose d!a"o%als roduce a% !%%er
s/uare ,!th u%!t s!des searated 45
o
*ro' the are%t
s/uare.
2ak!%" th!s !%to ? d!'e%s!o%s a%d *ollo,!%" the
u%!t d!a"o%als arou%d the cu&e, ,e *!%d !%s!de the cu&e 4 he.a"o%s,
each o%e o* ,h!ch !s !% a d!**ere%t coord!%ate syste' 45
o
a,ay *ro'
,hat the cu&e e.!sts !%. +% other ,ords, ,!th!% the #0
o
coord!%ate
syste', tur%ed at a% a%"le o* 45
o
, !s a 60
o
coord!%ate syste'.
Each u%!t he.a"o% !s d!v!ded !%to 6 u%!t tr!a%"les. 2he
s!des o* these tr!a%"les are the a.es o* the he.a"o%. 2hey
correso%d ,!th the three ., y, - a.es o* the #0
o
coord!%ate syste' ro:ected o%to a la%e. 0ll three &as!s
vectors ca% &e &rou"ht to"ether to *or' a tr!a%"le. 2h!s
*or's a coord!%ate syste' ,here
k > ! A :. 2h!s %e"ates the Pytha"orea% 2heore'. Ce%eral!-!%", - > . A y.
6
;otesE
Each ed"e o* th!s cu&octahedro% !s *or'ed
*ro' the dou&le vector rad!! o* t,o touch!%"
sheres, each vector oos!%" the other o%e.
0dd!%" u all the vectors results !% a -ero vector.
2here*ore, th!s cu&octahedro% !s %a'ed the
ector E"uilibriu#.
2h!s relat!o%sh! o* the 12 o!%ts o* co%tact arou%d a
shere a%d the 12 ce%ters o* the 12 surrou%d!%" sheres a%d
the 12 o!%ts o* co%tact &et,ee% the 7ector E/u!l!&r!u' a%d
!ts e%cas!%" s/uare are all &rou"ht to"ether &y rotat!%" each
o* the he.a"o%al la%es sl!c!%" throu"h the 7ector
E/u!l!&r!u' "ett!%" the *our "reat c!rcles o* a shere. 2h!s
uses the *our 'a:or a.es o* rotat!o% o* the 7ector E/u!l!&r!u'
$throu"h the 8 cor%ers o* the cu&e). Each c!rcle touches ?
other c!rcles. Each c!rcle has three o!%ts o* co%tact. 2hat !s ?
. 4 > 12. 2hat ce'e%ts the relat!o%sh!s. $0lso, the ?
d!'e%s!o%s o* the shere t!'es the 4 "reat c!rcles o* the
shere e/uals 12.)
7
Chapter T-o
olu#e
7olu'e has trad!t!o%ally &ee% 'easured us!%" the cu&e. ;
*
$; cu&ed) !s a cu&!c volu'e
a%d !s three ed"es o* a cu&e 'ult!l!ed to"ether. $Each ed"e &e!%" d!v!ded &y a% e/ual %u'&er.)
+* ,e 'easure volu'e us!%" the tetrahedro% as the &as!c u%!t o* 'easure, ;
*
$called ;
tetrahedro%ed) !s three ed"es o* the tetrahedro% 'ult!l!ed to"ether. D!v!d!%" each s!de o* the
cu&e !%to % s/uares, the cu&e !s d!v!ded !%to %
*
cu&es. D!v!d!%" the tetrahedro% !%to %
*
does %ot
,ork, *or the tetrahedro% a%d the cu&e do %ot have a o%e@to@o%e correso%de%ce.
(or a cu&e, (or a tetrahedro%,
% %
*
%
*

1 1 1
2 8 F
? 2F 26
4 64 52
5 125 10F
etc. etc. etc.
2he volu'e o* a cu&e a%d the volu'e o* a tetrahedro% !s d!**ere%t. 2he cu&e !s a% all
sace *!ller, &ut the tetrahedro% !s %ot. But co'&!%ed ,!th the octahedro% hav!%" a volu'e o* 4,
the co'&!%at!o% o* octahedro% a%d tetrahedro% ,!th a volu'e o* 1 *!lls all o* sace. So
cou%t!%" the octahedro%s !% each succeed!%" layer o* the tetrahedro% ,here each layer !s o* the
sa'e he!"ht, ,e "et the tr!a%"ular %u'&ers o* octahedro%s as 0, 1, ?, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, etc. 2he
cou%t o* the volu'es o* octahedro%s !% each layer added to the cou%t o* the volu'es o*
tetrahedro%s !% each succeed!%" layer "!ve the volu'e o* each layer o* a tetrahedro%E
tetrahedral volu'es A octahedral volu'es > 7olu'e o* 2etrahedro% layer
1 0 1 $e/ual to %
? 4 F tetrahedral
F 12 1# volu'es)
1? 24 ?F
21 40 61
etc. etc. etc.
so that the volu'e o* each succeed!%" tetrahedro% !s the *!rst lus the seco%d lus the th!rd, etc.
1 A F > 8 > 2
*
8 A 1# > 2F > ?
*
2F A ?F > 64 > 4
*
64 A 61 > 125 > 5
*
etc. etc.
8
;ot!ce that the l!st o* volu'es %o, correso%d ,!th the volu'es o* cu&es, so the add!t!o% o*
octahedro%s to tetrahedro%s "!ves a o%e@to@o%e correso%de%ce o* cu&es a%d tetrahedro%s.
2here*ore, a %u'&er % tetrahedro%ed, that !s, %
*
, correso%ds to a %u'&er cu&ed.

olu#e as the Tetrahedral .art
2he e/u!@a%"led, e/u!@
ed"ed tr!a%"le has three a.es *ro'
each cor%er to oos!te s!de d!v!d!%"
the tr!a%"le !%to 6 r!"ht tr!a%"les.
+% a u%!t tetrahedro%, these
a.es o% each o* the *aces o* the
tetrahedro% &eco'e la%es ,!th!% the
tetrahedro%, a%d they d!v!de the
tetrahedro% !%to 4 . 6 > 24 'odules, each o%e &e!%" called the
0@Gua%ta Module.
0 ,hole octahedro% has a volu'e o* 4. 148
th
o* that !s a volu'e o* (. Tak!%" a,ay a
/uarter o* a tetrahedro%, ,h!ch !s / volu'e, "!ves you a /uarter volu'e. D!v!d!%" that &y 6
"!ves you a 1424
th
volu'e. 8all that the B Gua%ta Module. 2he 0 a%d B Gua%ta Modules are
e/ual !% volu'e.
9
;e!ther the tetrahedro% %or the octahedro% are all sace
*!llers. +t takes &oth to *!ll all o* sace. 2hat !s ,hy to descr!&e
a%y art o* sace, you %eed a collect!o% o* 0 a%d B /ua%ta
'odules, 01s co'!%" *ro' tetrahedro%s, a%d B1s co'!%" *ro'
octahedro%s.
2ak!%" each o* the 20 e/u!lateral tr!a%"les o* the
sher!cal !cosahedro% $a% !cosahedro% dra,% o% the sur*ace o*
a shere) a%d d!v!d!%" the' !%to 6 r!"ht tr!a%"les, you "et 20 .
6 > 120 H8D $lo,est co''o% d!v!sor) tr!a%"les. 0%y *urther
su&d!v!s!o% !s %o lo%"er s!'!lar, thus the H8D 60 os!t!ve, 60
%e"at!ve tr!a%"les.
2ak!%" o%e o* the 0@Gua%ta Modules a%d u%*old!%" !t, you "et a% H8D tr!a%"le. 2he
H8D tr!a%"le !s
%&
%)0
th o* sur*ace area d!v!s!o% caused &y 15 "reat c!rcles o* the sher!cal
!cosahedro%.
olu#e of a 1phere
(or a u%!t shere, the rad!us &e!%" o%e, the co%ve%t!o%al volu'e !s 44? p r
*
> 4.188F#0
cu&es. Mult!ly!%" &y the sy%er"et!cs co%sta%t *or ? d!'e%s!o%s, I3$#48)J
*
, that !s, 4.188F#0 .
1.1#?24? > 4.##8425. 2hat !s 5 tetrahedro%s. +t has there*ore &eco'e rat!o%al a%d the %e,
*or'ula *or sher!cal volu'e !s 7 > 5r

*
. 0% eas!er ,ay o* "ett!%" the volu'e o* the u%!t
shere !s d!v!d!%" the sur*ace !%to 120 H8D tr!a%"les a%d e.te%d!%" the' to the ce%ter to *or'
120 tetrahedro%s, each hav!%" the volu'e o* a% 0 or B Gua%ta Module, each o%e hav!%" a
volu'e o*

1424
th
o* a u%!t tetrahedro%. 2here*ore,
120 .
%&
)+
> 5, the volu'e o* the u%!t shere.
2he volu'e o* the u%!t cu&e !s ?. 2ak!%" a,ay the 8 cor%ers, such that each !s
%
&
%2
th o* a
u%!t tetrahedro%, roduces the 7ector E/u!l!&r!u'. 8 .
%
&
%2
> ( , so the su' o* the cor%ers take%
a,ay !s ( o* a u%!t tetrahedro%, sho,!%" that the volu'e o* a u%!t or &as!c 7ector E/u!l!&r!u'
!s ? @ ( > 2 ( . 2here*ore, the volu'e o* a u%!t shere, &e!%" 5, !s the sa'e as the volu'e o*
t,o 7ector E/u!l!&r!u's a%d has the sa'e volu'e as 120 0 a%d B Gua%ta Modules. $2he
volu'e o* the rho'&!c dodecahedro% ca% &e *ou%d s!'!larly us!%" 0 a%d B Gua%ta Modules.)
0ll sy''etr!c *or's ca% &e 'easured s!'ly us!%" the tetrahedro% as the u%!t o*
'easure. 2h!s !s ,!thout the use o* p.
10
2here !s a rat!o !%volved !% the volu'e o* a shere.
+t !s 154?. +t co'es *ro' $12048)4$2448), 8 &ecause o*
the sher!cal octahedro% ,here there are 8 *aces. 2he
sher!cal r!"ht tr!a%"le ,!th!% the sher!cal e/u!lateral
tr!a%"le !s 14120
th
o* the sur*ace area. +% &oth the
sher!cal !cosahedro% a%d the sher!cal octahedro%,
there are 15 0 a%d B /ua%ta 'odules !% o%e o* the
sher!cal tr!a%"ular *aces.
0%other rat!o !s 2044 related to the sher!cal
cu&octahedro% 'ade u o* 60 0 a%d B Gua%ta
Modules. 2h!s also has to do ,!th the volu'e o* a
shere. $154?) . 4 > 60412 > $2044) . ?. 2here are 4
la%es !% the 7ector E/u!l!&r!u' a%d three a.es !%
each o* the 4. 2he 7ector E/u!l!&r!u' !s the key to the
reaso% ,hy the u%!t shere !s 5. 2he cu&octahedro% has 60 0 a%d B Gua%ta Modules. 60412 >
5.
2here !s a relat!o%sh! &et,ee% the !cosahedro%, the cu&octahedro%, a%d the
dodecahedro%. 2he cu&octahedro% a%d the !cosahedro% have the sa'e %u'&er o* verte.es,
,here the closest ack!%" o* sheres have the!r ce%ters. 2ak!%" out the ce%tral shere *ro' the
cu&octahedro%, !t co%tracts to a 'ore sy''etr!cal co%*!"urat!o%, the !cosahedro%, &ut the
%u'&er o* verte.es, ,h!ch !s 12, re'a!% co%sta%t. 2he dodecahedro% has 20 verte.es, &ut !t has
12 *aces. 2he sher!cal dodecahedro% thus has 12 e/ually saced ce%ters o% !ts sur*ace ,here
the verte.es o* the e%cased !cosahedro% touches the sur*ace, as does the cu&octahedro%. So the
relat!o%sh! o* each o* these sheres !s th!s 12 e/ually saced o!%ts. 2h!s o&v!ously co'es
*ro' the ,ay 12 sheres ack closely arou%d a ce%tral shere. 2hus co''o% de%o'!%ator o*
12.
3or#ation of the 4odecahedron
2ake 6 c!rcles surrou%d!%" o%e c!rcle a%d ush the' o%to the ce%ter c!rcle ,!th e/ual
*orce. 2he ce%ter c!rcle &eco'es a he.a"o%. Beeh!ves are the result o* the 'ost eco%o'!cal use
o* c!rcular sace. 2he dodecahedro% rerese%ts the 'ost eco%o'!cal use o* three d!'e%s!o%al
sace, a%d l!ke the cu&e !s a% all@sace *!ller. +* you take 12 so*t sheres surrou%d!%" a ce%tral
so*t shere a%d each outer shere !s ushed ,!th the sa'e *orce to,ards the ce%tral shere, a
dodecahedro% results.
11
1a#ple olu#es
2h!s chart sho,s so'e e.a'les o* the volu'es o* so'e sol!ds &ased o% the volu'e o*
the tetrahedro% as u%!ty.
SYMMETRICAL FORM
$&ased uo% the closest
ack!%" o* u%!t rad!us
sheres)
TETRA VOLUMES
$the u%!t o* volu'e &e!%" o%e
u%!t tetrahedro%)
A and B QUANTA
MODULES
$'ult!les o* 12 sheres
surrou%d!%" %uclear shere)
2etrahedro% 1 24 > 2 . 12
7ector E/u!l!&r!u' 2 K 60 > 5 . 12
8u&e ? F2 > 6 . 12
9ctahedro% 4 #6 > 8 . 12
;uclear Shere 5 120 > 10 . 12
Lho'&!c Dodecahedro% 6 144 > 12 . 12
0ll o* the a&ove sy''etr!cal *or's are o* the *or' Nr
*

,here ; !s the %u'&er o*
tetrahedro%s !% the volu'e o* the &as!c *or' a%d r !s the *re/ue%cy o* that *or'. (or e.a'le,
us!%" r as e/ual to 2%d *re/ue%cy, r
?
> 2
?
> 8E $*re/ue%cy as e.a%s!o% o* t!'e throu"h sace)
SYMMETRICAL FORM
;r
?
TETRA VOLUMES
r
?
$r > 2)
A and B
QUANTA MODULES
tetrahedro%
8
08 . 24 > 1#2 > 8 . 24
vector e/u!l!&r!u' 20 20 . 24 > 480 > 8 . 60
cu&e 24 24 . 24 > 5F6 > 8 . F2
octahedro% ?2 ?2 . 24 > F68 > 8 . #6
%uclear shere 40 40 . 24 > #60 > 8 . 120
rho'&!c dodecahedro% 48 48 . 24 > 1152 > 8 . 144
Le'e'&er that a% 0 or B /ua%ta 'odule !s 1424
th
volu'e.
2he %u'&er o* 0 a%d B /ua%ta 'odules are sho,% here as 'ult!les o* tetrahedro%s o*
*re/ue%cy 2 t!'es the %u'&er o* 0 a%d B /ua%ta 'odules !% the r!'ary *or's.
2he %u'&er o* 0 a%d B /ua%ta 'odules are also the sa'e %u'&er as !'orta%t a%"les
,!th a syste' o* a%"les, l!%es a%d la%es 'ak!%" u three d!'e%s!o%al *or's.
12
$*ro' Buck'!%!ster (uller1s Sy%er"et!cs)
0 co'ar!so% o* the e%d v!e,s o* the 0 a%d B Gua%ta Modules sho,s that they have
e/ual volu'es &y v!rtue o* the *act that they have e/ual &ase areas a%d !de%t!cal alt!tudes.
+t *ollo,s *ro' th!s that !* a l!%e, or!"!%at!%" at the ce%ter o* area o* tr!a%"ular &ase o* the
re"ular tetrahedro%, !s ro:ected throu"h the ae. o* the tetrahedro% to !%*!%!ty, !s su&d!v!ded
!%to e/ual !%cre'e%ts, !t ,!ll "!ve r!se to add!t!o%al Modules to !%*!%!ty. Each add!t!o%al
Module ,!ll have the sa'e volu'e as the or!"!%al 0 or B Module, a%d as the !%cre'e%tal l!%e
aroaches !%*!%!ty the Modules ,!ll te%d to &eco'e l!%es, &ut l!%es st!ll hav!%" the sa'e
volu'e as the or!"!%al 0 or B Module.
E%d v!e, sho,s Modules &eyo%d the B Module sho,% !% $B).
2he t,o d!screte 'e'&ers M a%d N ca% 'ove a%y,here alo%" the!r resect!ve a.es a%d
the volu'e o* the !rre"ular tetrahedro% re'a!%s co%sta%t. 2he other *our ed"es vary as re/u!red.
13
Chapter Three
5rea
Nou ca% dra, a% !%*!%!te %u'&er o* l!%es throu"h a s!%"le o!%t, &ut you ca% o%ly dra, a
s!%"le l!%e throu"h t,o o!%ts.
Dra,!%" o%e l!%e throu"h a%y t,o o!%ts, you ca% o%ly dra, three l!%es throu"h three
o!%ts.
But !* you try to dra, all the l!%es you ca% throu"h a "rou o* *our o!%ts us!%" the
ostulate o* dra,!%" o%e l!%e throu"h a%y t,o o!%ts, you ca%%ot dra, a%y less tha% s!. l!%es,
14
a%d there*ore, dra,!%" a s!'le s/uare !s out o* the /uest!o%. Dra,!%" o%e l!%e throu"h t,o
o!%ts at a t!'e a'o%" a "rou o* *our o!%ts, "!ves you t,o d!a"o%als as ,ell the s!des o* a
s/uare. 2he% there !s a% add!t!o%al *!*th o!%t. 2hat !s &ecause the ostulate stated says that you
have to !%clude the l!%es &et,ee% the cor%er o!%ts. 2here*ore, you ca%%ot s!'ly dra, *our
l!%es throu"h *our o!%ts. Nou ,!%d u ,!th *our tr!a%"les, the s!'lest la%ar *!"ure, !%stead o*
a s!'le s/uare.
The 6e!agonal .lane
2he 7ector E/u!l!&r!u' !s a 4@d!'e%s!o%al
'a%!*old. +t e.!sts 45
o
*ro' a% e%clos!%" cu&e. +t ca% &e
sl!ced *our ,ays to roduce 4 d!**ere%t la%es a%d has 4
a.es, each a.!s &e!%" cola%ar ,!th each o* the 4 la%es.
Each o%e o* these la%es !s a he.a"o%. 2he he.a"o% has
three a.es, each o%e dra,% *ro' cor%er to oos!te cor%er,
all three 'eet!%" !% the ce%ter a%d *or'!%" s!. e/u!a%"ular
e/u!lateral tr!a%"les. Each o%e o* these he.a"o%s !% the
7ector E/u!l!&r!u' !s a ?@d!'e%s!o%al 'a%!*old ro:ected
o%to a la%e *or 2@d!'e%s!o%al 'easure'e%t.
2he he.a"o% rerese%ts
a cu&e ,!th !ts ., y, a%d -
a.es. Each o!%t ,!th!% the he.a"o% !s P$., y, -) a%d !s *ou%d
&y tak!%" a 60
o
ortho"o%al le" *ro' each o* the three a.es.
(!rst, there are three areas to deal ,!thE $., y, -), $@ ., @ y, -),
a%d $., @ y, @ -). 2hese ca% &e d!v!ded !%to se.ta%tsE $., y, -),
$y, -, .), $-, @ ., @ y), $@ ., @ y, -), $@ y, @ -, .), a%d $@ -, ., @ y).
+t 'ust &e re'e'&ered that each a.!s e.te%ds a,ay *ro' the
ce%tral o!%t called the or!"!% o* the he.a"o%. (or e.a'le, a
l!%e -
l
arallel to the - a.!s ass!%" throu"h the or!"!% e.te%ds
*ro' the or!"!% to the e%d o* the y a%d . a.es to *or' a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. 2h!s l!%e -
l
!s st!ll
co%s!dered to &e the - a.!s. +% l!ke 'a%%er, each o!%t !%s!de the he.a"o% has a% ., y a%d - a.!s
ass!%" throu"h !t.
P$., y, -) !% the $., y, -) se.ta%t !s sho,% o% the - s!de o* a%
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ,!th a% . a.!s e.te%d!%" *ro' the y s!de, a%d a y a.!s
e.te%d!%" *ro' the . s!de. So *or each se.ta%t, o%ly t,o coord!%ates a%d
o%e s!de o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le !s %eeded to deter'!%e a o!%t.
0 he.a"o% rerese%ts o%e cycle o* s!.. 9%e s!.th o* the he.a"o% !s
the 60
o
tr!a%"le ,e ,a%t to deal ,!th !% th!s chater.
Each and E$ery Triangle 6as a One7To7One Correspondence -ith a 20
o
Triangle
D!v!de the s!des o* a% e/u!a%"ular, e/u!lateral tr!a%"le !%to % e/ual l!%e se"'e%ts. 2ake
15
a%other ar&!trary tr!a%"le cover!%" the sa'e area as the *!rst tr!a%"le ,!th ar&!trary s!des a%d
!%ter%al a%"les. Each s!de o* the seco%d tr!a%"le ca% &e d!v!ded !%to % e/ual l!%e se"'e%ts. 2he
le%"th o* the l!%e se"'e%ts o% o%e s!de o* the tr!a%"le does %ot have to 'atch the le%"th o* the
l!%e se"'e%ts o% a%y other s!de o* the tr!a%"le as lo%" as they are the sa'e %u'&er o* l!%e
se"'e%ts. 2he% each s!de o* the seco%d tr!a%"le has a o%e@to@o%e correso%de%ce ,!th a
correso%d!%" s!de o* the *!rst tr!a%"le. 2here*ore, a%y tr!a%"le ca% &e rerese%ted &y a%
e/u!a%"ular, e/u!lateral tr!a%"le hav!%" the sa'e area. D!v!d!%" each tr!a%"le !%to s'aller
tr!a%"les &y co%%ect!%" the se"'e%t e%ds o* o%e s!de to the se"'e%t e%ds o* the oos!te s!de
us!%" arallel l!%es $each s!de hav!%" t,o oos!te s!des), the% the %u'&er o* s'aller tr!a%"les
!% o%e tr!a%"le !s e/ual to the %u'&er o* s'aller tr!a%"les !% the other tr!a%"le. 0%y ar&!trary
tr!a%"le !s there*ore &ut a d!stort!o% o* a% e/u!a%"ular, e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. 2h!s 'ay &e
adva%ta"eous &y s!'l!*y!%" the solv!%" o* tr!a%"ular ro&le's. 9%e such ro&le' !s the
rerese%tat!o% o* the tr!a%"l!%" o* a %u'&er &y a%y tr!a%"le.
Triangling a Nu#ber
2r!a%"les are 'ore &as!c *or 'easure'e%t tha% are s/uares &ecause the tr!a%"le !s the
'ost s!'le o* the oly"o%s. 0%y %u'&er % s/uared %
)

> % . %. +% ;ature1s 5ay o* Measur!%",
!t !s called % tr!a%"led, &ecause !t !s the 'ult!l!cat!o% o* t,o s!des o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le
!%stead o* the t,o s!des o* a s/uare. D!v!d!%" all s!des o* a s/uare &y % a%d co%%ect!%" each
o!%t to !ts oos!te o!%t ,!th a l!%e, the s/uare !s d!v!ded !%to %
)
$s/uared) s/uares. +* the
s!des o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le are d!v!ded &y %, a%d each o!%t !s co%%ected to !ts t,o oos!te
o!%ts $at 60
o
a%"les) ,!th a l!%e, the tr!a%"le !s d!v!ded !%to %
)
$tr!a%"led) tr!a%"les. 2he
%u'&er % has &ee% tr!a%"led.
The 5rea of a Triangle
2he s/uare o* a %u'&er %, %
)
, has a o%e@to@o%e
correso%de%ce ,!th the tr!a%"le o* the %u'&er %, %
)
. D!v!d!%" a
s/uare !%to %
)
s!'!lar s/uares, !s the sa'e %u'&er ,he% you
d!v!de a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le !%to %
)
s!'!lar tr!a%"les. +% the
*!"ure, 4
)
> 16 tr!a%"les. 2he tr!a%"le o* a %u'&er !s the area o*
a% e/u!a%"ular e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. 2h!s ca% &e "e%eral!-ed !%to
a%y tr!a%"le. 0lso, !* %' !s the area o* a%y recta%"le, the% K %' !s
the area o* a%y tr!a%"le ,here % !s the &ase a%d ' !s the he!"ht o*
the tr!a%"le. But !* ,e su&st!tute the !rre"ular tr!a%"le ,!th !ts
e/u!vale%t area e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, tak!%" % as the d!v!sor o* a%y
s!de, the% ( %' O %
)
. ( %' !s !% s/uares, &ut %
)
!s !% tr!a%"les. So
the area o* a%y tr!a%"le ca% &e e.ressed as %
)
.
3inding the Triangular 8oot of a Nu#ber
16
Het a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le &e d!v!ded !%to %
)
s!'!lar tr!a%"les. By the de*!%!t!o% o*
tr!a%"l!%" a %u'&er %, each s!de o* the tr!a%"le !s d!v!ded !%to % arts. 2here*ore, the tr!a%"ular
root 3$%
)
) > %. ;o, !* t > %
)
, the% 9t > %. 2he tr!a%"ular root o* t !s e/ual to %, ,here t !s the
%u'&er o* s!'!lar tr!a%"les ,!th!% a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ,!th s!des 'easur!%" % u%!ts. 2he
tr!a%"ular root &eco'es the scale o* a%y tr!a%"le.
The E"uation of a Triangle
0 vector !s a d!rected l!%e se"'e%t a%d ,!ll &e rerese%ted as a &old
*aced letter, *or e.a'le a, b, c or !, y, :. 2he add!t!o% o* t,o vectors ! a%d
y !s ! A y > :. 2h!s !s also the e/uat!o% o* a tr!a%"le. 2h!s e/uat!o% ca% &e
used to *!%d a%y o!%t o% the l!%e se"'e%t P:P. +% a% e/u!a%"ular, e/u!lateral
tr!a%"le, dra, a l!%e arallel to P!; *ro' Py; to a o!%t P o% P:P. 2hat "!ves the
coord!%ate .. Dra, a l!%e arallel to Py; *ro' P!; to the o!%t P o% P:P. 2hat
"!ves the coord!%ate y. . A y > -, ,here - !s the le%"th P:P . 2he reaso% th!s
!s so !s that &oth . a%d y are s!des o* s'aller e/u!a%"ular, e/u!lateral tr!a%"les ,!th!% the lar"er
tr!a%"le ,!th o%e s!de co%"rue%t to a%d as art o* :, the s!de o* the lar"er tr!a%"le. 2he l!%e
se"'e%t o% : a&ove P !s co%"rue%t to ., a%d the l!%e se"'e%t o% : &elo, P !s co%"rue%t to y.
2hese t,o l!%e se"'e%ts ca% there*ore &e called . a%d y a%d add u to -, or the le%"th P:P. $2h!s
,!ll ,ork ,!th a%y tr!a%"le a%d !s called "e%eral!-!%" the coord!%ates.)
Is < an I#aginary Nu#ber=
+% order to talk a&out 2@d!'e%s!o%al 'easure'e%t, ,e 'ust *!rst talk a&out !'a"!%ary
%u'&ers. +% ;ature1s ,ay o* 'easur!%" there !s %o !'a"!%ary %u'&ers. 2rad!t!o%ally, 9$@1) !s
"!ve% the sy'&ol !, a%d a% !'a"!%ary %u'&er - > a A !&. $So'e authors use :.) But the %u'&er
a A !& ca% &e rerese%ted as the %u'&er a A & or as the ordered a!r $a, &) or $., y) ,h!ch !s so
s!'!lar to - > . A y that all re*ere%ces to !'a"!%ary %u'&ers a A !& ,!ll &e re*erred to *ro' %o,
o% as a A & or . A y, &oth o* ,h!ch !s the !'a"!%ary %u'&er - or the coord!%ate - or a o!%t $.,
y) o% the l!%e -. +* ., y, a%d - are u%!t vectors, the% c- > a. A &y or cP
-
> aP
.
A &P
y
$the -, ., y arts
o* a %u'&er) are also relace'e%ts o* the !'a"!%ary %u'&er - > a A !&.
2he lo"ar!th'!c rerese%tat!o% o* a A !& !s re
iq
. S!%ce ,e are rerese%t!%" a A !& as a A &,
the% re
iq
ca% &e relaced ,!th re
q
. 5he% q > wt, the% a A & > re
wt
a%d !s a vector rotat!%" !% a
cou%terclock,!se rotat!o% ,!th a% a%"ular veloc!ty o* w . (or add!t!o%, a A & !s used, a%d *or
'ult!l!cat!o%, re
q
!s used so the e.o%e%ts o%ly %eed to &e added.
2he co'le. %u'&er a A & ca% also &e ,r!tte% as $cos q A s!% q )
,here a > cos q a%d & > s!% q . 0lso, e
q
> $cos q A s!% q ) a%d there*ore,
re
q
> r$cos q A s!% q ). 2he co%:u"ate o* - !s @ y @ ., a%d the co%:u"ate o*
@ - !s y A .. 0 co'le. %u'&er !s de*!%ed as the e%do!%t o* a%y vector,
a%d a co'le. la%e, a%y la%e !% ,h!ch a vector !s dra,% *ro' the or!"!%
out to the -@a.!s. +* you lot a co'le. %u'&er or a vector !% the co'le.
la%e $ !% other ,ords, a la%e !% ,h!ch a vector !s dra,%), the% r ,!ll &e
17
the d!sta%ce *ro' the or!"!% to the o!%t o% the - a.!s a%d q ,!ll &e the a%"le the vector 'akes
,!th the .@a.!s.
4eMoi$re's 3or#ula
%
DeMo!vre1s *or'ula !s the *ollo,!%"E
$8os$q) A !S!%$q))
n
> 8os$%q) A !S!%$%q) ,here 0
o
Q q Q #0
o
.
Us!%" a var!at!o% o* th!s *or'ula, let us use
$8os$q) A S!%$q))
n
> 8os$%q) A S!%$%q) ,here 0
o
R q Q 60
o
.
2h!s *or'ula !s use*ul ,he% you have a co'le. %u'&er a%d ,a%t to ra!se !t to so'e
o,er ,!thout do!%" a lot o* ,ork.
5r!te the co'le. %u'&er re
q
as r8os$q)ArS!%$q) a%d ra!se !t to a o,er %.
Esse%t!ally ,hat you are do!%" !s tak!%" a co'le. %u'&er o* the *or'
1@2ake% *ro' Doctor Be%,ay, 2he Math (oru' at httE44'ath*oru'.or"4dr.'ath4
a A &, a%d
co%vert!%" !t to the *or'
re
q
,
ra!s!%" !t to a o,er !% that *or', the% co%vert!%" &ack to the *!rst *or'. 9&serveE
$r8os$q) A rS!%$q))
n
> $r$8os$q) A S!%$q))
n

> $r
n
)$8os$q) A S!%$q))
n

> $r
n
)$e
q
)
n

> $r
n
)$e
n
q
)
> $r
n
)$8os$%q) A S!%$%q))
9* course k%o,!%" DeMo!vre1s *or'ula allo,s us to "o stra!"ht *ro'
$r$8os$q) A S!%$q))
n

to
$r
n
)$8os$%q) A S!%$%q)).
Tetrahedral 8oots of Nu#bers as .lanes
%>)
+t ,!ll &e *ou%d that the ?@d!'e%s!o%al 'a%!*old o* a 60
o
coord!%ate syste' ca% &e
o&ta!%ed *ro' a #0
o
coord!%ate syste' us!%" cu&!c roots a%d tra%slated !%to tetrahedral roots o*
a syste'.
1@2ake% *ro' Doctor 0%tho%y, 2he Math (oru' at RhttE44'ath*oru'.or"4dr.'ath4S
2@2he tr!"o%o'etry here !s &ased uo% the he.a"o% a%d a 60
o
cycle.
18
+* .
*
> ;, ,here ; !s so'e e.ress!o% $,h!ch could &e a co%sta%t), the% you have a
th!rd de"ree e/uat!o%, so there 'ust &e three roots.
Suose -
*
> 8, - &e!%" a co'le. %u'&er. ;o, tak!%" the tetrahedral root o* each
s!de $as !* each ed"e o* the tetrahedro% ,!th volu'e o* 8 !s d!v!ded !%to 2) you have - > 2,
ho,ever, there are t,o other tetrahedral roots *or th!s e/uat!o%.
Het -
*
> 8$1 A 0).
$Le'e'&er that 0
o
R q Q 60
o
)
But s!%ce 8os$6k) > 1 a%d S!%$6k) > 0 ,here k !s a%y !%te"er, ,e could ,r!te the
e/uat!o% as
-
*
> 8$8os$6k) A S!%$6k)).
2ake the tetrahedral root o* &oth s!des, a%d use DeMo!vre1s theore' ,h!ch sho,s thatE

- > I8$8os$6k) A S!%$6k))J
%&*

- > I8
%&*
$8os$64?k) A S!%$64?k))J
- > 2I8os$2k) A S!%$2k)J
Hett!%" k > 0, 1, 2,

k>0 "!ves -
%
> 2I$8os$0) A S!%$0)J
> 2$1 A 0) > 2$1, 0)
> 2P
.
$the o%e real root alo%" the .@a.!s)
k>1 "!ves -
)
> 2$8os$2) A S!%$2)) I2 !s 14?
rd
o* a cycle o* s!..J
> 2$@ 1 A 1) > 2$@ 1, 1)
> 2P
y
$alo%" the y@a.!s)
k>2 "!ves -
*
> 2$8os$4) A S!%$4)) I4 !s 24?
rd
1s o* a cycle o* s!..J
> 2$@ 1 @ 1) > 2$@ 1, @ 1)
> 2P
-
$alo%" the -@a.!s)
So, !* -
*
> 8, ,e have the three roots o* 2P
.
, 2P
y
a%d 2P
-
, each 2 &e!%" o% o%e o* the three
a.es. +* ,e "!ve k 'ore values, ?, 4, 5, T ,e s!'ly reeat the three roots already *ou%d.
Het1s do th!s over a"a!%, e.cet th!s t!'e, us!%" !'a"!%ary %u'&ers. (!rst, ,e use o%e
hal* o* a u%!t e/u!a%"ular, e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. 2he he!"ht !s $9?)42, a%d the &ase !s (. Us!%"
the Pytha"orea% 2heore', the hyote%use the% !s,
(((3)/2)
2
+ (1/2)
2
) = 1.
So, !* -
*
> 1, the% -
*
> $@ ( A4@ $$9?)42))
&ecause hal* the vert!cal le%"th &et,ee% 1P
y
a%d 1P
-
!s 9?42, a%d
the hor!-o%tal le%"th &et,ee% that l!%e a%d the !'a"!%ary a.!s !s
19
(. 2he%, !* -
*
> 8, ,e "et
-
*
> @ 2 A4@ 29? .
2he 2P
y
co'o%e%t !s A 29?, a%d the 2P
-
co'o%e%t !s @ 29?, ,!th the . co'o%e%t as 2. $2he
2P
@ -
co'o%e%t ,ould &e A 29?U the 2P
@ y
co'o%e%t ,ould &e @ 29?, ,!th the @ . co'o%e%t as
@ 2.)
2he u%!t vectors o* ., y, a%d - *or' a &as!s *or the 60
o
coord!%ate syste'.
The Interface Bet-een the ,0
o
coordinate syste# and the 20
o
coordinate syste#
Le*err!%" to the 60
o
., y, - tr!a%"le to the r!"ht, !% the #0
o
coord!%ate syste' s!% 60
o
>
$9?)42 a%d !s the he!"ht o* the y coord!%ate sho,% !% the tetrahedral
solut!o% o* -
*
> 1 to the le*t as y1. cos
60
o
> ( a%d !s sho,% as .
1
. 2he solut!o%s
o* -
*
> 1 are sho,% as y, @ -, a%d .
o
. +%
the 60
o
coord!%ate syste', @ - > 2.
1
> 1
as sho,% !% the *!"ure to the lo,er r!"ht.
+% the #0
o
coord!%ate syste', the y@a.!s
!s ere%d!cular to the .@a.!s, &ut !% the
60
o
coord!%ate syste', the y@a.!s !s at
60
o
to the .@a.!s. 0% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le e.te%ds *ro' the e%do!%t o* r, the s!des o* ,h!ch !s y
,!th the he!"ht &e!%" y1. 8all th!s the y tr!a%"le. 2he . tr!a%"le s!ts o% to o* that, the s!des o*
,h!ch are .
o
. 2he s!des o* the . a%d y tr!a%"les e%close a arallelo"ra' !% ,h!ch r !s the
d!a"o%al. 2he a%"le o* r !s q a%d cha%"es as r !s rotated clock,!se or cou%terclock,!se.
H!ke,!se, the oos!te a%"le f also cha%"es as r rotates. 2he 120
o
a%"le &et,ee% q a%d f
re'a!%s a co%sta%t as r rotates u or do,% &ecause the ad:ace%t 60
o
a%"le re'a!%s co%sta%t.
;o, a vector *ro' the or!"!% o* th!s #0
o
coord!%ate syste' has a% e%d@o!%t $., y). 5e ca% use
th!s e%d@o!%t $., y) to re*er to a vector. +* ,e de%ote th!s e%d@o!%t as a co'le. value o* the
tetrahedral root o* a %u'&er, a%d re'e'&er!%" that a vector reta!%s !ts or!"!%al values dur!%" a
tra%slat!o%, !% other ,ords, !t ca% &e 'oved a%y,here as lo%" as the le%"th a%d a%"le re'a!%
co%sta%t, these ? co'le. values as vectors ca% &e tra%slated to &eco'e the s!des o* a%
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. +% the a&ove *!"ure, y > 3 $y1
2
A .
1
2
) ,h!ch !s 3$$?3*@&)@
)
A $142)
)
) > 1 !%
the #0
o
coord!%ate syste', a%d P @ -P > .
o
A y !% the 60
o
coord!%ate syste'. +* PyP > 1, the% P @ -P
> 1 &y the sa'e reaso% us!%" the Pytha"orea% theore', a%d P.
o
P > 1 &y reaso% o* the solut!o% to
-
*
> 1, ,h!ch co%verts the #0
o
coord!%ate syste' !%to the 60
o
coord!%ate syste' a%d v!sa
versa. 2he y coord!%ate !s the key to th!s tra%s!t!o%. 2h!s !s sho,% as you
o&ta!% the 60
o
coord!%ate syste' *ro' the solut!o% o* -
?
> 1.
+* you rerese%t the three roots o* -
*
A 1 o% a #0
o
coord!%ate syste'
that has real values alo%" the . a.!s a%d !'a"!%ary values alo%" the y a.!s,
the three roots ,!ll aear as the three sokes o* a ,heel, ,!th the co'le.
V-W values ly!%" o% a c!rcle o* a u%!t rad!us. 9%e root ,!ll l!e alo%" the
20
os!t!ve . a.!s, a%d the other t,o at A120
o
a%d @ 120
o
to the . value o% the . a.!s. So the
roots are sy''etr!cally saced rou%d the c!rcle. +% *act th!s !s al,ays the ,ay that tetrahedral
roots o* a real %u'&er ,!ll look. +* you take the tetrahedral root o* a% !'a"!%ary %u'&er, say !,
the% you st!ll "et three sokes &ut they ,!ll &e rotated to l!e alo%" the 60
o
, 180
o
, a%d the ?00
o
l!%es o% the u%!t c!rcle. St!ll, each o* the a.es are 120
o
aart *ro' each other.

becomes
2here*ore, the tetrahedral roots o* a %u'&er ca% &e rerese%ted as a tr!a%"le hav!%" three
a.es ., y, a%d - hav!%" a cou%terclock,!se rotat!o%, ,h!ch ,!ll &e de*!%ed as a &!vector later
o%. 5 nu#ber tetrahedroned beco#es a bi$ector. Us!%" the tetrahedral roots ,e ca% create a
60
o
coord!%ate syste'. 2he tetrahedral roots o* 1 "!ves us a u%!t tr!a%"le, the% the roots o* 2 a%d
the% ?, etc., "!ve us a scale alo%" the y a%d . a.!s ,!th the - a.!s &eco'!%" lo%"er a%d lo%"er as
!t stes a,ay *ro' the or!"!% $,here the . a%d y a.es touch). 2he tetrahedral roots o* 1 &eco'e
the &as!s *or the 60
o
coord!%ate syste'. +% other ,ords, *or the ., y a%d - a.!s, the &ases are 1P
.
,
1P
y
, a%d 1P
-
, a%d *or the @ y, @ ., a%d @ - a.es the &ases &eco'e @1P
@ .
, @1P
@y
, a%d @1P
@ -
.
Ce%eral!-!%", let these vectors o* ., y, a%d - &e o%ly hal* o* the
a.es o* a he.a"o%. 2hey have the a%"les o* 0
o
, 120
o
a%d 240
o
. 2he%
the other a.es @ y, @ ., a%d @ - are at 60
o
, 180
o
a%d ?00
o
resect!vely.
2h!s syste' o* vectors *or' a &as!s *or a%d de*!%es the 60
o
coord!%ate
syste'. 2hese a.es *or' a he.a"o%. +t &eco'es a ro:ect!o% o* the .,
y, -, #0
o
coord!%ate syste' o%to a% !'a"!%ary la%e 'ade u o* s!.
vectors, three os!t!ve a%d three %e"at!ve. 2hese vectors ca% &e
tra%slated !%to t,o &!vectors, each "o!%" !% oos!te d!rect!o%s, the .,
y, - "o!%" !% the cou%terclock,!se d!rect!o%, a%d the @ y, @ ., @ - "o!%" !% the clock,!se
d!rect!o% a%d &e!%" a co%:u"ate o* the *!rst. 2he resulta%t d!rect!o% ,!ll the% &e %ull, sho,!%"
the resulta%t vectors o* the coord!%ate syste' are %ull a%d stat!c.
T-o 4ifferent Types of Coordinate 5!es
21
0t th!s o!%t, !t 'ay &e co%*us!%", &ecause the
a&ove coord!%ate a.es !s %ot the o%e +1ve &ee% us!%"
thus *ar. (or co'utat!o%al uroses a%d ,he% !t !s
des!red to seak o%ly o* the os!t!ve sace ,!th!% the
60
o
coord!%ate syste', ,e take the 'odulus *or' o* the
., y a%d - a.es a&ove to the le*t to *or' a tr!a%"le
,hose &ase vectors are l!%early dee%de%t. +% other
,ords, - > . A y . 5e ,!ll su&se/ue%tly use the *or' - > . A y u%less ,e
are talk!%" a&out &!vectors. 2he% ,e ,!ll use the *or' o% the r!"ht. $+t 'ay &e re'e'&ered that
: > ! A y !s the e/uat!o% o* a tr!a%"le, a%d - > . A y "!ves the . a%d y coord!%ates.)
1ynergetics Coordinates
%
Sy%er"et!cs coord!%ates are a set o*
tr!a%"ular coord!%ates set ,!th!% a% e/u!lateral
tr!a%"le ,here each coord!%ate !s located o%
the s!de o* the tr!a%"le. 0%y o!%t $., y, -)
,!th!% the tr!a%"le ca% &e located &y the use o*
these coord!%ates. Each coord!%ate !s located
120
o
*ro' the other t,o coord!%ates. 2h!s !s a
ro:ect!o% o* the #0
o
coord!%ate syste' !%to a
60
o
coord!%ate syste'.
2h!s coord!%ate syste' ca% &e e.te%ded !%to a ,!der la%e 'ade u o*
e/u!lateral tr!a%"les.
2hese coord!%ates ca% &e e.te%ded
to 4 d!'e%s!o%s $., y, -, t) ,!th!% a
tetrahedro% ,here 4 la%es !%tersect at
o%e o!%t.
2he vert!ces o* the tr!a%"le are "e%erally $a,&,c) ,here a%y
t,o o* the coord!%ates are e/ual to 0, v!-. $a, 0, 0), $0, &, 0), a%d $0, 0, c).
2hese are "e%erated &y 'ov!%" the !%s!de o!%t to each o%e o* the
vert!ces. 2h!s roerty also holds ,he% the coord!%ates are "e%eral!-ed
to 4 a%d h!"her d!'e%s!o%s.
22
2he su' o* the coord!%ates Pa A & A cP !s
e/ual to o%e o* the s!des o* the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le.
$;oteE Pa A & A cP !s e/ual to a%y o%e o* the l!%es
*ro' the '!ddle o* a s!de to the oos!te verte.. +t
!s also e/ual to the "e%eral coord!%ate x > c, a
co%sta%t, &ut all stra!"ht l!%es *ro' a%y s!de o* the
tr!a%"le e%d!%" u at the oos!te verte. are are
!%terreted as hav!%" e/ual le%"th a%d are arallel,
:ust as all l!%es "o!%" throu"h &oth oles o* a
shere are arallel. 2h!s !s also &ecause ,e are
deal!%" ,!th rat!os. 2here !s a o%eXtoXo%e
correso%de%ce o* the area o* a% e/u!lateral
tr!a%"le to the e/ual area o* a s/uare. So all $olar)
arallel l!%es !% the tr!a%"le are roort!o%al to the
set o* arallel l!%es ,!th!% a s/uare o* the sa'e
area.
1 httE44'ath,orld.,ol*ra'.co'4Sy%er"et!cs8oord!%ates.ht'l
0s the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le !s a 'e'&er o* a he.a"o%, the le%"th o* a%y o%e s!de o*
the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le !s e/ual to the rad!us o* the c!rcle e%clos!%" that he.a"o%.
Triangular Coordinates
)
Sy%er"et!cs coord!%ates ca% &e "e%eral!-ed !%to
,hat !s called 2r!a%"ular coord!%ates.
$;oteE 2he e/u!lateral tr!a%"le has a o%eXtoXo%e
correso%de%ce ,!th the "e%eral!-ed tr!a%"le.)
2he o!%t P !%s!de the tr!a%"le 0B8 !s a% ordered
tr!le o* %u'&ers, each o* ,h!ch !s roort!o%al to the
d!sta%ces *ro' P ere%d!cular to each o%e o* the
s!des o* the tr!a%"le. 2h!s tr!le o* %u'&ers are the
coord!%ates o* P a%d are k%o,% as e!ther
ho'o"e%eous coord!%ates or
tr!l!%ears &y Plucker !% 18?5 a%d de%oted &y YEZE[ or
$Y,Z,[). 9%ly the rat!o o* the d!sta%ces are s!"%!*!ca%t
a%d are o&ta!%ed &y 'ult!ly!%" a "!ve% tr!let YEZE[ &y a%y %o%X-ero co%sta%t \. 2here*ore,
YEZE[ >S \YE\ZE\[.
(or s!'l!c!ty, the three oly"o% vert!ces 0, B, a%d 8 o* a tr!a%"le are co''o%ly ,r!tte% as
1E0E0, 0E1E0, a%d 0E0E1, resect!vely.
$;oteE that ,ould &e *or a u%!t tr!a%"le. Ce%erally, they ,ould &y .E0E0, 0EyE0, a%d 0E0E-. )
Trilinear 5rea
2r!l!%ear coord!%ates ca% &e %or'al!-ed so that they "!ve the actual d!rected d!sta%ces
23
*ro' P to each o* the s!des. 2o er*or' the
%or'al!-at!o%, let the o!%t P have tr!l!%ear coord!%ates
YEZE[ a%d l!e at d!sta%ces a1, &1, a%d c1 *ro' the s!des B8,
08, a%d 0B, resect!vely. 2he% the d!sta%ces a1>kY,
&1>kZ, a%d c1>k[ ca% &e *ou%d &y ,r!t!%" ]a *or the area
o* ]BP8, a%d s!'!larly *or ]& a%d ]c. 5e the% have
] > ]a A ]& A ]c
> 142a1a A 142&1& A 142c1c $!% other ,ords, ] > 142h&)
> 142$kYa A kZ& A k[c)
> 142k$aY A &Z A c[).
So k > $2])4$aY A &Z A c[),
,here ] !s the area o* ]0B8 a%d a, &, a%d c are the le%"ths o* !ts s!des $^!'&erl!%" 1##8, .
26@2F). 2o o&ta!% tr!l!%ear coord!%ates "!v!%" the actual d!sta%ces, take k > 1, so ,e have the
coord!%ates a1E&1Ec1. $;oteE *or a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, coord!%ates are auto'at!cally a1E&1Ec1.)
2 httE44'ath,orld.,ol*ra'.co'42r!l!%ear8oord!%ates.ht'l
2hese %or'al!-ed tr!l!%ear coord!%ates are k%o,% as e.act tr!l!%ear coord!%ates.
2he tr!l!%ear coord!%ates o* the l!%e
u. A vy A ,- > 0
are
uEvE, > a d0 E & dB E c d8,
,here d! !s the o!%t@l!%e d!sta%ce *ro' verte. ! to the l!%e.
2he ho'o"e%eous &aryce%tr!c coord!%ates correso%d!%" to tr!l!%ear coord!%ates YEZE[ are $aY,
&Z, c[), a%d the tr!l!%ear coord!%ates correso%d!%" to ho'o"e%eous &aryce%tr!c coord!%ates $t
1
,
t
2
, t
?
) are t
1
4aEt
2
4&Et
?
4c.
+'orta%t o!%ts YEZE[ o* a tr!a%"le are called tr!a%"le
ce%ters, a%d the vector *u%ct!o%s descr!&!%" the locat!o%
o* the o!%ts !% ter's o* s!de le%"th, a%"les, or &oth, are
called tr!a%"le ce%ter *u%ct!o%s *$a, &, c). S!%ce &y
sy''etry, tr!a%"le ce%ter *u%ct!o%s are o* the *or'
*$a, &, c)>*$a, &, c)E*$&, c, a)E*$c, a, &),
!t !s co''o% to call the scalar *u%ct!o% *$a,&,c) _the_
tr!a%"le ce%ter *u%ct!o%. ;ote also that s!de le%"ths a%d
a%"les are !%terco%vert!&le throu"h the la, o* cos!%es,
so a tr!a%"le ce%ter *u%ct!o% 'ay &e "!ve% !% ter's o* s!de le%"ths, a%"les, or &oth. 2r!l!%ear
coord!%ates *or so'e co''o% tr!a%"le ce%ters are su''ar!-ed !% the *ollo,!%" ta&le, ,here 0,
24
B, a%d 8 are the a%"les at the correso%d!%" vert!ces a%d a, &, a%d c are the oos!te s!de
le%"ths. Bere, the %or'al!-at!o%s have &ee% chose% to "!ve a s!'le *or'.
triangle center triangle center function
c!rcu'ce%ter 9 cos0
de Ho%"cha's o!%t 8os0 @ cosBcos8
e/ual detour o!%t sec$1420)cos$142B)cos$1428) A 1
(euer&ach o!%t ( 1 @ cos$B @ 8)
!%ce%ter + 1
!soer!'etr!c o!%t sec$1420)cos$142B)cos$1428) @ 1
He'o!%e o!%t H a
%!%e@o!%t ce%ter ; cos$B @ 8)
orthoce%ter B cosBcos8
tr!a%"le ce%tro!d C csc0, 14a
Trilinear 1idelines
+% tr!l!%ear coord!%ates, the coord!%ates o* the vert!ces are 1E0E0 $0), 0E1E0 $B), a%d 0E0E1 $8).
E.te%s!o%s alo%" the s!del!%es &y a d!sta%ce d have tr!l!%ears as !llustrated a&ove.
Trilinear Coordinate 1ides
2r!l!%ear coord!%ates o* o!%ts *ract!o%al d!sta%ces ka, k&, a%d kc alo%" the s!del!%es are "!ve%
!% the a&ove *!"ure, ,here k!1 > 1 @ k!.
0 o!%t located a *ract!o% k o* the d!sta%ce alo%" the s!del!%e 08 *ro' 0 to 8 has tr!l!%ear
coord!%ates $1 @ k)4aE0Ek4c.
Trilinear Coordinates
25
2o deter'!%e the co%vers!o% o* tr!l!%ear to 8artes!a% coord!%ates, or!e%t the tr!a%"le ,!th the
B8 a.!s arallel to the .@a.!s a%d ,!th !ts !%ce%ter at the or!"!%, as !llustrated a&ove. 2he%
. > $kZ @ r A $kY @ r) cos8) 4 $s!%8)
y > kY @ r,
,here
r > $2]) 4 $a A & A c),
!s the !%rad!us, ] !s the tr!a%"le area, a%d
k > $2]) 4 $aY A &Z A c[)
$^!'&erl!%" 1##8, . ?1@??).
More "e%erally, to co%vert tr!l!%ear coord!%ates to a vector os!t!o% *or a "!ve% tr!a%"le
sec!*!ed &y the .@ a%d y@coord!%ates o* !ts a.es, !ck t,o u%!t vectors alo%" the s!des. (or
!%sta%ce, !ck
a > Ia
1
U a
2
J
c > Ic
1
U c
2
J,
,here these are the u%!t vectors B8 a%d 0B. 0ssu'e the tr!a%"le has &ee% la&eled such that 0
> .
1
!s the uer r!"ht'ost oly"o% verte. a%d 8 > .
2
. 2he% the vectors o&ta!%ed &y travel!%" la
a%d lc alo%" the s!des a%d the% !%,ard ere%d!cular to the' \st 'eet
I.
1
U y
1
J A l cIc
1
U c
2
J @ k[Ic
2
U @ c
1
J > I.
2
U y
2
J A l aIa
1
U a
2
J @ kYIa
2
U @ a
1
J.
Solv!%" the t,o e/uat!o%s
.
1
A lc c
1
@ k[c
2
> .
2
A la a
1
@ kYa
2
y
1
A lc c
2
A k[c
1
> y
2
A la a
2
A kY a
1
,
"!ves
la > $kY$a
1
c1
1
A a
2
c
2
) @ [k$c
1
2
Ac
2
2
) A c
2
$.
1
@ .
2
) A c
1
$y
2
@ y
1
))4$a
1
c
2
@ a
2
c
1
)
lc > $kY$a
1
2
Aa
2
2
) @ [k$a
1
c
1
A a
2
c
2
) A a
2
$.
1
@ .
2
) A a1$y
2
@ y
1
))4$a
1
c
2
@ a
2
c
1
).
But a a%d c are u%!t vectors, so
la > $kY$a
1
c
1
A a
2
c
2
) @ [k A c
2
$.
1
@ .
2
) A c
1
$y
2
@ y
1
))4$a
1
c
2
@ a
2
c
1
)
lc > $kY @ [k$a
1
c
1
A a
2
c
2
) A a
2
$.
1
@ .
2
) A a
1
$y
2
@ y
1
))4$a
1
c
2
@ a
2
c
1
).
0%d the vector coord!%ates o* the o!%t YEZE[ are the%
. > .
1
A lcIc
1
U c
2
J @ k[Ic
2
U @ c
1
J.
5 1i#pler Way of Booking 5t Trilinears
(!rst, there !s a o%eXtoXo%e correso%de%ce &et,ee%
"e%eral tr!a%"les a%d e/u!lateral tr!a%"les. Ce%eral tr!a%"les are
,ared e/u!lateral tr!a%"les. 2he coord!%ates o* P are $., y, -),
a%d the coord!%ates o* the vert!ces are $., 0, 0), $0, y, 0), a%d $0,
0, -). 2hese are o!%ts P ,he% take% to the vert!ces. Each o*
these coord!%ates o* P ca% &e tra%s*erred to a% e/u!lateral
tr!a%"le, a%d the rat!os re'a!% !%var!a%ts.
+* s!de 0B !s d!v!ded !%to kc a%d k1c,
26
B8 !s d!v!ded !%to ka a%d k1a,
80 !s d!v!ded !%to k& a%d k1&,
&y the l!%es a1, &1 a%d c1 "o!%" *ro' a verte. to the oos!te l!%e,
let kc > . a%d k1c > -,
ka > . a%d k1a > y,
a%d k& > y, a%d k1& > -,
the%, a > . A y, & > y A -, a%d c > . A -.
2he su' P. A y A -P > a%y s!de or l!%e "o!%" *ro' a verte. to !ts oos!te s!de. 2h!s !s so
&ecause each s!de o* a "e%eral tr!a%"le !s d!v!ded !%to the sa'e %u'&er % !%tervals, a%d ,e are
deal!%" ,!th rat!os, %ot the actual 'easure'e%ts ,h!ch !%volve s!%s, cos!%s, etc.
5he% ,ork!%" ,!th a "e%eral!-ed tr!a%"le, d!v!de the s!des !%to % !%tervals a%d use a%
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ,!th the sa'e d!v!s!o%s o% !ts s!des. +% other ,ords, 'ake all 'easure'e%ts
as !* the "e%eral tr!a%"le !s a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le.
(or 2 d!'e%s!o%s, a%y d!sta%ce !s o%ly c > a A &.
(or ? d!'e%s!o%s, t > $a A & A c) @ $a1 A &1 A c1).
t > $a @ a1) A $& @ &1) A $c @ c1).
The Traditional Way of Measuring the 5rea of a Circle
2he oly"o% ca% &e &roke% do,% !%to % !sosceles tr!a%"les $,here % !s
the %u'&er o* s!des), such as the o%e sho,% o% the r!"ht.
+% th!s tr!a%"le
s !s the s!de le%"th o* the oly"o%
r !s the rad!us o* the oly"o% a%d the c!rcle
h !s the he!"ht o* the tr!a%"le.
2he area o* the tr!a%"le !s hal* the &ase t!'es he!"ht or
2here are % tr!a%"les !% the oly"o% so
2h!s ca% &e rearra%"ed to &e
2he ter' %s !s the er!'eter o* the oly"o% $le%"th o* a s!de, t!'es the
%u'&er o* s!des). 0s the oly"o% "ets to look 'ore a%d 'ore l!ke a c!rcle,
th!s value aroaches the c!rcle c!rcu'*ere%ce, ,h!ch !s 2`r. So, su&st!tut!%"
2`r *or %sE
0lso, as the %u'&er o* s!des !%creases, the tr!a%"le "ets %arro,er a%d %arro,er, a%d so ,he% s
aroaches -ero, h a%d r &eco'e the sa'e le%"th. So su&st!tut!%" r *or hE
27
Learra%"!%" th!s, ,e "et
.
*ro'$httE44,,,.'athoe%re*.co'4c!rcleareader!ve.ht'l)
The Natural Way of Measuring a Circle
+* th!s he.a"o% 4coord!%ate syste' !s c!rcu'scr!&ed ,here each
cor%er o* the he.a"o% touches the er!'eter o* a c!rcle, ,e ca% "et r!d o* `
also. 2he he.a"o% rov!des 6 chords that d!v!des the c!rcle !%to 6 arcs.
+%stead o* try!%" to lay the rad!us o* the c!rcle out across !ts c!rcu'*ere%ce
,here !t covers a% !%co'lete %u'&er o* t!'es, !t !s 'ore lo"!cal to :ust d!v!de the c!rcle !%to 6
to descr!&e a cycle or a art o* a cycle. 2here*ore, the tr!"o%o'etr!c *u%ct!o%s do %ot dee%d
uo% `, &ut uo% a rat!o%al %u'&er. 0% e.a'le has &ee% "!ve% o* us!%" o%e "eo'etr!c shae
to calculate the volu'e o* a%other "eo'etr!c shae. +t 'ay &e oss!&le to do that ,!th other
shaes such as the c!rcle a%d shere. 2he secret !s to use the u%!t tr!a%"le or the u%!t
tetrahedro%.
2he trad!t!o%al ,ay o* 'easur!%" the area o* a c!rcle !s to use ` . (or a u%!t c!rcle, r > 1,
the co%ve%t!o%al area !s `r
2
or ` > ?.1415#. Mult!ly!%" th!s &y the sy%er"et!cs co%sta%t *or 2
d!'e%s!o%s, ?.1415# . #48 > ? K s/uares. 2hat1s cha%"!%" !t *ro' !rrat!o%al to rat!o%al. 2he
area o* a u%!t e/u!lateral tr!a%"le $each s!de !s e/ual to o%e) !s K h& > K . $3?)42 . 1 > $3?)44
> .4??01? s/uares4tr!a%"le. 2o cha%"e the ? K s/uares to tr!a%"ular u%!ts, take the rec!rocal o*
.4??01? s/uares4tr!a%"le, ,h!ch !s 2.?0#401 tr!a%"les4s/uare.
Mult!ly!%" the u%!t c!rcle o* ?.1415# s/uares &y 2.?0#401 tr!a%"les4s/uare, ,e "et
F.2551#F or F a e/u!lateral tr!a%"les. $Mult!ly .2551#F &y 16 or ?2 a%d you "et a.) 1o each
unit circle is C / triangles. 2he sace &et,ee% the 6 chords o* the he.a"o% e%cased &y the
c!rcle a%d the 6 arcs o* the c!rcle over the he.a"o% !s F a @ 6 > 1 a e/u!lateral tr!a%"les.
5rea A C / r
)
triangles *or a%y c!rcle.
2here !s no D !%volved=
2he c!rcu'*ere%ce o* a u%!t c!rcle !s de*!%ed as 6 arc le%"ths, &e!%" &ased uo% the
chords o* the !%scr!&ed he.a"o% !%stead o* o% p . 2he *or'ula *or th!s c!rcu'*ere%ce !s 2pr.
9%e arc le%"th !s e/ual to 2 p r&6. 5he% r > 1, 2 p r&6 > 1.04F1#F. Mult!ly!%" that &y the
co%vers!o% *actor o* 1.06066, ,e "et a% arc le%"th o* 1.110F20 or :ust 1. So let p = 3, a%d,
"e%erally seak!%", o%e arc ,!ll &e 1r so the c!rcu'*ere%ce ,!ll &e 6r arcs.
+t has &ee% d!scovered that each c!rcle has F a e/u!lateral tr!a%"les %o 'atter ,hat the
rad!us !s e/ual to. 0 c!rcle1s area o* the %e.t h!"her !%te"ral rad!us or *re/ue%cy !s :ust r
)
. F a.
Bere are so'e e.a'les.
28
Circle
of
8adius 8 or
3re"uency
5rea in 1"uares
of One
E"uilateral
Triangle in the
6e!agon
E
Nu#ber of
Fnit E"uilateral
Triangles in One
1i!th of the
6e!agon
Nu#ber of
E"uilateral
Triangles
in a Circle
E"uals
5rea in Fnit
E"uilateral
Triangles
L > 1 44 1
2
> 1 . F a > F a
L > 2
2
2
> 4 .
F a > 2# b
L > ? # 44
?
2

> # .
F a > 65 a
L > 4 4 4
2

> 16 .
F a > 116
#
bsur*ace area o* u%!t shere $4 "reat u%!t c!rcles are used to *!%d the sur*ace o* the shere)
#sur*ace area o* shere ,!th r > 2
E
Each 'a:or tr!a%"le !% a he.a"o% !s sl!t !%to r
)
u%!t tr!a%"les. 2hese are the tr!a%"ular
%u'&ers.
2he tr!a%"ular area o* a c!rcle d!v!ded &y !ts rad!us tr!a%"led r
)
"!ves you the %u'&er o*
e/u!lateral tr!a%"les ,!th!% the c!rcle, ,h!ch !s al,ays F a. 2hat !s, there are al,ays r
)
o* the'.
So the %e, e/uat!o% o* the area o* a c!rcle ,!thout us!%" p !s 0
c!rcle
> C ar
)
tr!a%"les.
+t !s %ota&le that the rad!us tr!a%"led !s the %u'&er o* u%!t e/u!lateral tr!a%"les or u%!t
areas !%s!de o%e s!.th o* the he.a"o% !%scr!&ed &y the u%!t c!rcle &ecause that !s the de*!%!t!o%
o* tr!a%"l!%" a %u'&er or the tr!a%"ular root o* a %u'&er &e!%" the area.

Us!%" ;ature1s 5ay o* Measur!%", the u%!t o* 'easure *or area !s o%ly o%e u%!t
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le.
1urface 5rea of a 1phere
S!%ce the sur*ace area o* a u%!t shere !s 4 "reat c!rcles t!'es the area o* o%e o* the "reat
c!rcles, 4 . F a > 2# !s the sur*ace area o* a u%!t shere !% e/u!lateral tr!a%"les. 2he% the
sur*ace area o* a%y shere !s 2#r
)
.
The 8elationship Bet-een .eri#eter and 5rea
2he tr!a%"le co'es !% 'a%y shaes a%d s!-es, yet each tr!a%"le has a% area, a er!'eter,
a%d a he!"ht. (or a%y "!ve% area, a tr!a%"le ca% &e stretched hor!-o%tally, vert!cally, or
d!a"o%ally a%d kee the sa'e area. 9%ly the shae !s cha%"ed. 2here*ore, a%y tr!a%"le ,!th a
"!ve% area ca% &e rerese%ted &y a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le hav!%" the sa'e area. D!v!d!%" each
s!de o* that e/u!lateral tr!a%"le !%to . e/ual se"'e%ts, .
2
!s e/ual to the area s o* the tr!a%"le
a%d the tr!a%"ular root 3s o* the area s !s e/ual to the %u'&er .. 5he% each o!%t o* d!v!s!o%
&et,ee% each se"'e%t o% o%e s!de o* the tr!a%"le !s co%%ected to !ts correso%d!%" o!%t !%
stra!"ht l!%es to each oos!te s!de $a%d th!s !s do%e *or each s!de), the area s o* the tr!a%"le !s
d!v!ded !%to .
2
s!'!lar e/u!lateral tr!a%"les. 2here*ore, the er!'eter o* the e/u!lateral
29
tr!a%"le !s e/ual to three t!'es the tr!a%"ular root o* the area s o* the tr!a%"le, !.e. > ? 3..
2here &e!%" a o%e@to@o%e correso%de%ce &et,ee% the o!%ts o% the er!'eter o* the
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le to a%y other tr!a%"le, the er!'eter o* any tr!a%"le !s e/ual to three t!'es the
tr!a%"ular root o* the area o* that tr!a%"le.
2h!s relat!o%sh! &et,ee% the area o* the tr!a%"le a%d !ts er!'eter ca% &e e.te%ded to all
oly"o%s re"ular a%d !rre"ular. Each oly"o% ca% &e d!v!ded !%to tr!a%"les. Le"ular oly"o%s,
!%to s!'!lar tr!a%"les. So *ro' a s!%"le tr!a%"le ,!th a er!'eter o* > ? 3s, "o!%" out,ard
*ro' the ce%ter o* a%y oly"o% to the er!'eter,
*or a s/uare, > 43s,
*or a e%ta"o%, > 53s,
*or a he.a"o%, > 63s,
a%d so o% *or a%y re"ular oly"o% o* % s!des, > %3s.
2h!s !s talk!%" a&out the %u'&er o* d!v!s!o%s . > 3s o% each s!de o* the oly"o% a%d %ot
the le%"th o* each d!v!s!o%, so > %..
Guadratic E"uations A 5reas
8o'let!%" the s/uare !s o%e ,ay to solve /uadrat!c e/uat!o%s. 2h!s ,as do%e a%c!e%tly
&y the Creeks !% a rocess o* !%creas!%" the area o* a s/uare &y add!%" u%!t ,!dth recta%"les to
t,o s!des o* the s/uare !% such a ,ay that the overla!%" recta%"les created a s'aller s/uare
co%%ected to the cor%er o* the or!"!%al s/uare.

(or e.a'le, the result!%" /uadrat!c e/uat!o% y > $. A 4)
2
co'es *ro'
y > .
2
A 8. A 16. Start!%" ,!th the or!"!%al s/uare, .
2
, ,e add 2$4.)1s or t,o recta%"les
,!th the d!'e%s!o%s o* 4 a%d ., that !s, add!%" the *our recta%"les ,!th d!'e%s!o%s o* 1 a%d . to
t,o s!des o* the s/uare such that they overla !% a s/uare hav!%" the area o* 16 u%!t s/uares.
2hus, the result!%" s/uare has a% area o* 16, result!%" !% the e/uat!o%
.
2

A 8. A 16 > 0.
;o, the e/uat!o% ca% &e solved *or .. But th!s e/uat!o% ,as o&ta!%ed &y co'let!%" the s/uare
30
o* a%other e/uat!o%,
y > .
2

A 8. or
.
2

A 8. @ y > 0.
0dd!%" y to &oth s!des a%d add!%" the s/uare o* ( 8 to &oth s!des, that !s, 4
2
> 16,
.
2

A 8. A 16 > y A 16, a%d solv!%" *or ., Ce%eral!-!%" th!s,
$. A 4)
2

> y A 16, a.
2
A &. A c > 0 d!v!de &y a
. A 4 > A4@ 3$y A 16) .
2
A &.4a A c4a > 0 add &
2
44a
2
to &oth s!des
. > @ 4 A4@ 3$y A 16) .
2
A &.4a A &
2
44a
2
> &
2
44a
2
@ c4a
Proo*E .
2
A 8. A 16 > $. A 4)
2
$. A &42a)
2
> &
2
44a
2
@ c4a
. A &42a > A4@ 3$&
2
44a
2
@ c4a )
. > @ &42a A4@ 3I$&
2
@ 4ac )44a
2
J
. > I@ & A4@ 3$&
2
@ 4ac )J42a

2he Ce%eral e/uat!o% .
2
A 2.y A y
2
> 0 rerese%ts add!%" a s'aller s/uare y
2
shar!%" the
sa'e d!a"o%al as the lar"er s/uare .
2
,here the 2.y rerese%ts the recta%"les added to the s!de
a%d &otto' o* the lar"er s/uare overla!%" to *or' the y
2
.
The 5rea of a .arallelogra#
+% the #0
o
coord!%ate syste', the area o* a arallelo"ra' !s the &ase t!'es the he!"ht, o%e
&e!%" ere%d!cular to the other. +% the 60
o
coord!%ate syste', the he!"ht a%d the &ase are
ortho"o%al, so the area o* a arallelo"ra' !s .y ,h!ch !s a 'ult!le o* the area y
)
. +% *act,
.y > 2%y
2
. 0dd y
2
to &oth s!des.
.y A y
2
> 2%y
2
A

y
2
,
,h!ch !s a hor!-o%tal se"'e%t o* a tr!a%"le, ].
2
, so
].
2
> 2%y
2
A

y
2
, a%d
].
2
> y
2
$2% A 1).
2he al"or!th'!c 'ethod uses the tr!a%"ular %u'&ers to co'e u ,!th the area o* a
arallelo"ra'.
$.
1
> .) >S y
2
,
$.
2
> 2.) >S ?y
2
,
$.
?
> ?.) >S 5y
2
,
E E E
$.
%
> %.) >S y
2
$2% @ 1), &ut the%,
$.
%A1
> .$% A 1)) >S y
2
$2% A 1). ;o,,
].
2
> y
2
$2% A 1), &ut su&tract o%e y
2
, a%d you "et
.y > ].
2
@ y
2
, so
.y > y
2
$2% A 1) @ y
2
, a%d
.y > 2%y
2
.
31
Co#pleting the Triangle
Start!%" ,!th the "e%eral e/uat!o% 0.
)
A B. A 8 > 0, d!v!de &oth s!des &y 0 to "et
.
)
A B.40 A 840 > 0, the% su&tract 840 *ro' &oth s!des
.
)
A B.40 > @ 840
2he% let B.40 > y
)
a%d @ 840>^, so ,e have .
)
A y
)
> ^.
+% order to co'lete the tr!a%"le, %ote
that a arallelo"ra' 'ust &e added to the
volu'es .
)
a%d y
2
, add!%" !t to &oth s!des o*
the e/uat!o%. 8all th!s volu'e P. So %o, ,e
have .
)
A P A y
)
> ^ A P.
But .
)
A P A y
)
> $. A y)
)
, so ,e have
$. A y)
)
> ^ A P, a%d
. A y > 3$^ A P). Solv!%" *or .,
. > @ y A4@ 3$^ A P)
Hett!%" ^ > .
)
A y
)
, a%d P > .y, %ote that 3$^ A P) > 3$ .
)
A .y

A y
)
) ,here .
)
A .y

A y
)

> $. A y)
)
> -
)
so that 3-
)
> - > . A y ,h!ch ,e are ,ell *a'!l!ar ,!th &y %o,.
0lso, . ca% &e solved *ro' 3$^ A P).
3$^ A P) > 3$P @ 840) U P > .y a%d ^ > @ 840.
- > 3$.y @ 840)
-
)
> .y @ 840
.y > 840 A -
)
. > $840 A -
)
@&y
(or a%y /uadrat!c e/uat!o% . > @ y A4@ 3$^ A .y), . > @ y A4@ 3$^ A 2%y
2
). 0lso, . > @ y A4@ -.
;o, that + have "!ve% a lo"!cal solut!o%, let 'e "!ve a 'ore ract!cal solut!o%. +%stead o*
add!%" a arallelo"ra' to &oth s!des o* the "e%eral e/uat!o% .
)
A B.40 > @ 840, let y > B40
a%d add y
)
to &oth s!des. So, start!%" ,!th 0.
)
A B. A 8 > 0, d!v!de &oth s!des &y 0 to "et
.
)
A B.40 A 840 > 0, the% su&tract 840 *ro' &oth s!des.
.
)
A B.40 > @ 840 ;o, add y
)
to &oth s!des.
.
)
A .y A y
)
> y
)
@ 840. Het @ 840> k.
+% the #0
o
coord!%ate syste', $. A y)
)
> .
)
A 2.y A y
)
, &ut !% the 60
o
coord!%ate syste',
$. A y)
)
> .
)
A .y A y
)
, so
$. A y)
)
> y
)
A k,
. A y > A4@ 3$y
)
A k),
. > @ y A4@ 3$y
)
A k), the%
. > @ B40 A4@ 3$B
)
40
)
@ 840)
. > @ B40 A4@ 3I$B
)
@ 08)40
)
J
. > I@ B A4@ 3$B
)
@ 08)J40
32
+% the #0
o
coord!%ate syste', . > I@ B A4@ 3$B
)
@ 408)J420, so ,e ca% see that us!%" a
60
o
coord!%ate syste' does s!'l!*y eve% the /uadrat!c e/uat!o%. 2h!s !s &ecause o* a d!**ere%t
,ay o* 'ult!ly!%" &!%o'!als. +%stead o* $. A y)
)
> .. A .y A y. A yy, !% the 60
o
coord!%ate
syste', $. A y)
)
> .. A .y A yy. 0"a!%, !t !s &ecause .
)
, y
)
are co%s!dered e/u!lateral tr!a%"les,
a%d .y !s a arallelo"ra' ,here . a%d y are 60
o
aart a%d are ortho"o%al. So there you have !t.
Co#paring a Triangle to a 1"uare
5e ca% use a s/uare such that o%e s!de - > . A y,
d!v!d!%" the le%"th - !%to t,o other le%"ths . a%d y, ,e ca%
have a rerese%tat!o% o* area us!%" .y.
2he area -
2
> .- A .y A y
2
.
2h!s s/uare a%d the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le have o%e s!de
that !s a% e/u!vale%ce relat!o% o* - > . A y. 2hat !s, they &oth
rerese%t th!s sa'e e/uat!o%. But o%ly t,o areas ,!th!% the
s/uare have a% e/u!vale%t area ,!th!% the tr!a%"le, !.e., .y a%d
y
2
.
.- O .
2
, .y > .y, a%d y
2
> y
2
.
The Bino#ial
Het1s %o, talk a&out the &!%o'!al $. A y)
2
. Le'e'&er that
- > . A y, so
$. A y)
2
> -
2
, a%d tak!%" the tr!a%"ular root o* &oth s!des,
- >

3$ -
2
)
2he tr!a%"ular root o* a% area !s a l!%e. So !* a &!%o'!al !s a% area, the tr!a%"ular root o* !t
!s a l!%e. 2here*ore, tak!%" the tr!a%"ular root o* a %u'&er !s cha%"!%" !t *ro' a% area to a l!%e,
,hether !t !s $. A y)
2
or $.y)
2
. 2hus, tak!%" a% ord!%ary seco%d de"ree e/uat!o% rerese%t!%"
so'eth!%" !% t,o d!'e%s!o%s, tak!%" the tr!a%"ular root cha%"es !t to o%e d!'e%s!o%. +t ,ould
see' that a s!'!lar oerat!o% o% three d!'e%s!o%s such as a cu&e ,ould *latte% the three
d!'e%s!o%s !%to t,oXd!'e%s!o%al sace such as a he.a"o% ,h!ch has s!. e/u!lateral tr!a%"les
,!th a.es ., y, a%d -. 2he three a.es !%s!de a he.a"o% rerese%t the three sac!al d!'e%s!o%s o*
the cu&e.
8ha%"!%" the s!"%s o* the &!%o'!al ,!ll "!ve you three
d!v!s!o%s o* the he.a"o%.
Nou ca% access the
$., y, -) d!v!s!o% !% the $. A y)
2
a%d $y A -)
2
&!%o'!als, the
$@ ., @ y, -) d!v!s!o% !% the $- @ .)
2
a%d $@ . @ y)
2
&!%o'!als, a%d the
$., y, @ -) d!v!s!o% !% the $@ y @ -)
2
a%d $. @ -)
2
&!%o'!als. 2ak!%"
33
the tr!a%"ular root o* a &!%o'!al !s the e/u!vale%t o* cha%"!%" t,o d!'e%s!o%s !%to o%e o* the
d!'e%s!o%s o* three d!'e%s!o%al sace. 2hus,
- > 3$. A y)
2

. > 3$y A -)
2
@ y > 3$- @ .)
2

- > 3$@ . @ y)
2

@ . > 3$@ y @ -)
2

y > 3$. @ -)
2

Bino#ial Theore#
2he &!%o'!al theore' states that

,here > 8$%, % @ .) > $%=4$% @ .)=.=),
or e/u!vale%tly, .
But accord!%" to the de*!%!t!o% $. A y)
2
> .
2
A .y A y
2
, ,here % > 2 a%d . > 1, the
&!%o'!al theore' *or the 60
o
coord!%ate syste' &eco'es $a A &)
%
> a
% @ .
&
.
.
(or % > 1 a%d . > 0, $a A &)
%
> a.
(or % > 2 a%d . > 1, $a A &)
%
> a
2
A a& A &
2
.
34
Chapter 3our
Binear Measure#ent

To-ards a 3or#ula for 4istance
C!ve% a%y l!%e - *ro' o!%t a to o!%t &, that l!%e ca% &e d!v!ded !%to t,o se"'e%ts . a%d
y. De*!%e the le%"th o* the l!%e to &e -. 2here*ore, the d!sta%ce *ro' a to & 'ust &e - > . A y.
2h!s !s the *or'ula *or d!sta%ce !% !ts s!'lest *or'.
2o rove !t, let us use the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. Ha&el the s!des ., y, a%d -. 2ake a l!%e .
0

*ro' y to - arallel to . a%d take a l!%e y
0
*ro' the !%tersect!o% o* .
0
a%d - to . arallel to y.
Because .
0
a%d y
0
*or' t,o other e/u!lateral tr!a%"les ,!th!% the
e%co'ass!%" e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, !% ,h!ch o%e tr!a%"le has all s!des e/ual
to .
0
a%d the other e/u!lateral tr!a%"le has all s!des e/ual to y
0
, - !s
there*ore d!v!ded !%to t,o se"'e%ts .
0
a%d y
0
o% each s!de o* a o!%t P$.
0
,
y
0
) o% l!%e -. 2he t,o l!%e se"'e%ts .
0
a%d y
0
add u to *or' -, so that .
0
A
y
0
> -. .
0
a%d y
0
are called the coord!%ates o* P o% -.
5e 'ust there*ore co%clude that *or a%y l!%e se"'e%t - *ro' a to &,
hav!%" a o!%t P, the d!sta%ce *ro' a to & !s - > . A y ,here . !s the d!sta%ce *ro' P to a, a%d y
!s the d!sta%ce *ro' P to &.
2heore'E the coord!%ates o* a%y o!%t P o% a l!%e - stretch!%" *ro' a to & are the t,o l!%e
se"'e%ts .
0
a%d y
0
, the d!v!s!o%s o* that l!%e a&ove a%d &elo, o!%t P$ .
0
, y
0
).
De*!%!t!o%E a o!%t o% a%y l!%e - !% a la%e !s des!"%ated as P$ .
0
, y
0
).
8orollaryE the t,o d!'e%s!o%al coord!%ates o* a%y o!%t P o% a l!%e - ,he% - !s a s!de o*
a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le !s the l!%e .
0
arallel to . *ro' y to P a%d the l!%e y
0
arallel to y *ro' P
to ..
Binear 4ependence

2he "ather!%" o* all l!%es arallel to each o* the s!des o*
a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le *or's a "r!d o* .Xl!%es $arallel to the .X
a.!s), yXl!%es $arallel to the yXa.!s), a%d the -Xl!%es $arallel to
the -Xa.!s. 2he% each o!%t ,!th!% the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le !s
,here each .X, yX, a%d -Xl!%e cross. 2h!s *or's a l!%ear sace !%
,h!ch the co'o%e%ts are l!%early dee%de%t as - > . A y. 0%y
vector !s a co'&!%at!o% o* the other t,o.
0%other ,ay to de*!%e a o!%t o% a la%e, let -4c > a. A &y. (or a%y d!v!sor c, there are
%u'&ers a a%d & such that - !s the s!de o* a%y s!-ed e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. c > 14a or 14&. +% other
,ords, c > 14a as & aroaches 0 a%d c > 14& as a aroaches 0. c as a co%sta%t &eco'es a A & .
0s a !%creases to,ards c, & has to decrease to,ards 0, a%d as & !%creases to,ards c, a has to
35
decrease to,ards 0. c roduces all the ra%"es o* - hav!%" a o!%t P$., y), a%d thus, all o!%ts
,!th!% the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le *ro' - S 0 to - R c .
Binear Independence
2here are three l!%es ,!th!% a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, . > k, y > k, - > k, ,here k !s e/ual to
a co%sta%t. 2o "e%eral!-e, . > a, y > &, - > c.
9ther stra!"ht l!%es ,!th!% a 60
o
coord!%ate syste' deals ,!th the e/uat!o%s x > 'd A k.
2here are s!.E
. > &y A k, . > c- A k, y > c- A k, a%d
y > a. A k, - > a. A k, - > &y A k.

2hese e/uat!o%s also *or' a l!%ear sace ,h!ch !s de*!%ed as *lat, as the l!%es they create
co'e to"ether a%d co'lete the e/u!vale%ce o* e/u!lateral tr!a%"les a%d *or' the &as!s *or
!sotro!c syste's.
Each l!%e *ro' o%e s!de to the oos!te cor%er, that !s, x > 'd A k, are de*!%ed as arallel,
a%d ,he% all three sets o* l!%es, each "rou *ro' each s!de o* the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, co%ver"e,
each three l!%es co%ver"e o% the o!%t P$.,y,-).
2he 'ost &as!c l!%es !%s!de a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le are the l!%es ,h!ch e.te%d *ro' a
cor%er to the oos!te s!de. 2he e/uat!o%s o* these l!%es are x > /d , ,here / !s a rat!o%al
%u'&er. +% art!cular,
- > &y, . > c-, a%d y > a..
0s d re'a!%s co%sta%t, a%d / !%creases, x !%creases, a%d as / decreases, x decreases.
2hese "e%eral e/uat!o%s de*!%e a l!%ear sace *or three
d!'e%s!o%s, that !s, ,!th!% a la%e. 5he% these e/uat!o%s are
solved s!'ulta%eously, you have a o!%t P$., y, -) $or the
coord!%ates) !% a l!%ear sace. $;oteE ,he% *our coord!%ates are
used, ,e have a l!%ear sace@t!'e.) 2h!s l!%ear sace !s
rerese%tat!ve o* or !s !so'etr!c to the #0
o
coord!%ate syste'
ro:ected o%to a 60
o
coord!%ate syste'. 0dd!%" each e/uat!o%
,e co'e u ,!th - A . A y > &y A c- A a. Ak or
2. A 2y A 2- > a A & A c A k or
. A y A - > K $a A & A c A k).
36
;o, !* x are three vectors, the% d !s a 'atr!.. 5e have M A N A e > K Ia A b A c A kJ $,here
each letter rerese%ts a colu'%). Each vector !s !%dee%de%t *ro' the other t,o a%d are
ortho"o%al. 2here*ore, a%y o%e vector ca%%ot &e a l!%ear co'&!%at!o% o* the other t,o a%d ,e
have a l!%ear !%dee%de%t vector sace.
2o rove that the l!%es x > /d *or' a l!%ear !%dee%de%t vector sace ,e o%ly have to
rove that these l!%es are ortho"o%al a%d that the vectors !% th!s sace arallel to these l!%es are
thus ortho"o%al.
(!rst, a%y a%d every set o* vectors !s called a!r,!se ortho"o%al !* each a!r!%" o* the' !s
ortho"o%al. Such a set !s called a% ortho"o%al set a%d a%y t,o %o%-ero vectors !% that set !s
al,ays l!%early !%dee%de%t. +* you have three vectors a%d a%y t,o o* the' are ortho"o%al,
the% the three o* the' *or' a% ortho"o%al set a%d *or' a &as!c l!%early !%dee%de%t vector
sace.
Seco%d, !* every o!%t ,!th!% the sace !s de*!%ed &y three ortho"o%al l!%es !%tersect!%", a%d !t
!s true that every o!%t ,!th!% the sace o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le has three ortho"o%al l!%es
x > /d ru%%!%" throu"h the', the% all the vectors ,!th!% that sace that are arallel to these
l!%es x > /d ,!th!% th!s e/u!lateral tr!a%"le are ortho"o%al a%d thus *or' a l!%early !%dee%de%t
vector sace.
The length of the lines x A "H
;o,, *ro' the or!"!% 9 $,here . a%d y co'e to"ether), dra, a l!%e r
to the o!%t P o% -. 0s the a%"le < &et,ee% r a%d . aroaches 0
o
, r a%d .
0

aroach . a%d as < aroaches 60
o
, r a%d y
0
aroach y. 8all .
0
a%d y
0
the
co'o%e%ts o* r such that the d!sta%ce r *ro' 9 to P !s
r > 142 $.
0
4cos < A y
0
4s!% <)
,h!ch !s the avera"e o* t,o tr!"o%o'etr!c *u%ct!o%s.
Het r s,!%" do,% to . creat!%" a% arc s. (ro' the !%tersect!o% o* s
a%d ., dra, a l!%e l arallel to -. 2he result!%" tr!a%"le thus has s!des the
le%"th o* r. 0s P sl!des do,% s, the coord!%ate .
0
!%creases to the s!-e o* r,
a%d the coord!%ate y
0
decreases to -ero a%d r > .
0
. 0s P sl!des u a%other
arc s1 to the to o* l , the coord!%ate y
0
!%creases to the s!-e o* r, a%d the
coord!%ate .
0
decreases to -ero a%d r > y
0
. 2hese act!o%s ca% &e !%terreted
as .
0
&e!%" co'ared to cos < a%d y
0
&e!%" co'ared to the s!% <. (ro'
tr!"o%o'etry ,e have . > r cos < a%d y > r s!% <, a%d s!%ce r > l, l > .4cos < or l > y4s!% <. But
these t,o /ua%t!t!es are %ot e.act, so ,e take the avera"e o* the t,o to *!%d the le%"th o* l. 2h!s
"!ves us the e/uat!o% o*
r > 142 $.
0
4cos < A y
0
4s!% <).
Het r &e the &ase o* a%other e/u!lateral tr!a%"le that has s!des .1, y1, a%d -1. Lotat!%" r
crosses -1. 5here r a%d -1 cross, there e.!sts a o!%t P$., y) ,!th coord!%ates . a%d y d!v!d!%" -1
37
!%to t,o se"'e%ts . a%d y. S!%ce -1 !s co%"rue%t ,!th l a%d !s !% *act e/ual to l, a%d -1 > . A y,
the% r > . A y. 2here*ore, a%y l!%e - or a%y rotated l!%e r > . A y. But the o!%t P$., y) !s
al,ays o% l a%d %ot o% the curve s.
S!%ce r > l a%d !* l > .

A y > -1, *or a rotat!%" r, ,here . a%d y are the se"'e%ts o* l as r
cuts a%d d!v!des l, .4.
0
> y4y
0
.
;oteE the ere%d!cular d!sta%ce &et,ee% -1 a%d - !s -1 @ $ cos < s!% <) 4 2.
Bength of an 5rbitrary Bine 1eg#ent
(or a% ar&!trary l!%e se"'e%t l dra,% at a%y a%"le a%d ,hose
or!"!% !s ,!th!% the tr!a%"le, ,e dra, a l!%e -
0
throu"h the lo,er e%d o*
l a%d -
1
at the other e%d o* l arallel to -
0
. l d!v!des -
0
!%to $.
1
@

.
0
)
a%d $y
1
@

y
0
) a%d d!v!des -
1
!%to $.
1
@

.
0
) a%d $y
1
@

y
0
). So -
0
a%d -
1
are
%ot o%ly arallel, &ut P -
0
P > P -
1
P. $.
1
@

.
0
) a%d $y
1
@

y
0
) e.te%ded
stra!"ht across to -
1
creates a arallelo"ra' ,!th s!des $.
1
@

.
0
) o% to
a%d &otto' a%d $y
1
@

y
0
) o% each s!de ,!th l as the d!a"o%al. 2he uer
s!de o* the arallelo"ra' $.
1
@

.
0
) !s the &otto' o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ,hose r!"ht s!de !s the
uer se"'e%t o* -
1
, a%d the r!"ht s!de o* the arallelo"ra' $y
1
@

y
0
) !s the le*t s!de o* a%
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ,hose r!"ht s!de !s the &otto' se"'e%t o* -
1
. 2h!s -
1
!s the r!"ht s!de o* a%
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ,!th l at the lo,er le*t cor%er. 2he other e%d o* l !s P$.
1
, y
1
).
2he le%"th o* l ca% &e treated as a vector. 2he s!des $.
1
@

.
0
) a%d $y
1
@

y
0
) o* the
arallelo"ra' ca% &e added such that
$.
1
@

.
0
) A $y
1
@

y
0
) > u A v > l.
0lso, $.
1
@

.
0
) A $y
1
@

y
0
) ca% &e treated as the coord!%ates o* the o!%t P$.
1
, y
1
) such that
$.
1
@

.
0
) A $y
1
@

y
0
) > . A y > -
1
>S r.
;ot!ce that -
1
!s lo%"er tha% l a%d !s the sa'e s!-e as a vector r co!%c!de%t ,!th l .
5he% r !s e/ual to the ed"e o* the !%clos!%" e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, the% r overlas - as r
rotates throu"h a% arc e%clos!%" the chord -. But ,he% r > P.
1
@

.
0
P A Py
1
@

y
0
P, the% r !s the
rad!us o* a c!rcle, *or as !t !%cludes &oth os!t!ve a%d %e"at!ve values o* . a%d y, !t "oes &eyo%d
the &arr!ers o* the three a.es o* the he.a"o%al la%e.

38
8elationship Bet-een Bength and 5rea
+ had a% e!ha%y. +s there a arallel to the Pytha"orea% 2heore' !% the 60
o
8oord!%ate
Syste'6 Dra,!%" a% a%"led l!%e ,!th!% the e/u!lateral e/u!a%"ular tr!a%"le, + ,a%ted to k%o,
!ts le%"th. + %ot!ced the d!**ere%t tr!a%"les a%d the!r relat!o%sh!s ,!th the arallelo"ra' !%
clos!%" the l!%e.
39
+ have already co'e u ,!th the !dea that a%y l!%e se"'e%t - > . A y, ,here . a%d y are
the coord!%ates o* a%y o!%t o% -. 2he% *or a%y rotated l!%e ,!th!% the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, r >
142 $.
0
4cos < A y
0
4s!% <). Measur!%" the l!%e + dre,, + ca'e u ,!th ? 1#4?2 !%ches. ;e.t, +
'easured the t,o s!des o* the arallelo"ra' to "et ? !%ches a%d 1 !%ch. Us!%" the Pytha"orea%
2heore', 3$?
2
A 1
2
) > 3$10). 2hat does%1t ,ork. But ,hat + do k%o, !s that
- > . A y, a%d
-
2
> $. A y)
2
, &ut
$. A y)
2
> .
2
A .y A y
2
.
9%e o* the 'a!% !deas o* the 60
o
8oord!%ate Syste' !s that the tr!a%"le o* the s!de o* the
tr!a%"le !s the area o* the tr!a%"le. So !* + k%o, the area o* the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ,hose s!de !s
the l!%e + dre,, + ca% take the tr!a%"ular root o* the area a%d "et the le%"th o* the l!%e. S!%ce - !s
the le%"th o* the l!%e, -
2
!s the area o* the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ,hose s!de !s -, a%d &y the a&ove
e/uat!o%s, -
2
> .
2
A .y A y
2
. 2here*ore, the le%"th o* the l!%e r > 3$.
2
A .y A y
2
). + lu""ed !%
the values o* . a%d y a%d ca'e u ,!th r > 3$?
2
A ?
!
1 A 1
2
) > 3$1?) > ? 1#4?2 !%ches. 7o!la= +t
,orks accord!%" to 'y ruler 'easure'e%ts.
Bength of the 4iagonal in the .arallelogra#
2he le%"th o* a%y l!%e r ,!th!% a%
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ca% &e *ou%d us!%"
the k%o,led"e that the le%"th o* a l!%e
- > . A y. Dra, a arallelo"ra' ,!th!%
a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le so that !ts to s!de
!s . a%d !ts le*t or r!"ht s!de !s y. Dra, a
d!a"o%al r *ro' the lo,er le*t cor%er to
the uer r!"ht cor%er. 2he% dra, a%
!%verted e/u!lateral tr!a%"le M,
overla!%" the arallelo"ra' shar!%"
the sa'e l!%e .. 2h!s roduces a%
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le y !% the le*t s!de o*
the arallelo"ra'. Bav!%" do%e th!s,
there are o%ly 4 e/u!lateral tr!a%"les,
each hav!%" a% area o* .
2
, d!v!d!%" the
sace ,!th!%" the 'a:or e/u!lateral tr!a%"le e. 8all the tr!a%"le
'ade u o* the arallelo"ra', .
2
, a%d y
2
, e1. 2he le*t s!de o*
tr!a%"le M cuts the d!a"o%al r at o!%t P$r
1
, r
2
), d!v!d!%" !t !%to
r
1
a%d r
2
a%d also cuts the &otto' . o* the arallelo"ra' !%to .
1
a%d .
2
.
(!rst, r cuts the le*t s!de o* y !%to y
1
a%d y
2
at o!%t P$r
1
,
r
2
) a%d the l!%e - o% e1 !%to . a%d y. r d!v!des the l!%e y a%d !ts
arallel - !%to roort!o%ate le%"ths, so y
1
!s roort!o%al to .,
40
a%d y
2
!s roort!o%al to y. 2h!s !s &ecause the tr!a%"le y a%d the tr!a%"le e1 are &oth
e/u!lateral tr!a%"les, shar!%" a% a%"le $the le*t ha%d cor%er), ,here all the a%"les ,!th!% each
tr!a%"le are e/ual. +% other ,ords, there e.!sts a% %u'&er % such that . > %
y
1
a%d y > % y
2
. ;u'&er % !s the co%sta%t o* roort!o%al!ty. 2here*ore, - >
%$y
1
A y
2
) or - > %y. +* y > 1, the% % > -.
Seco%d, dra, a l!%e y1 arallel to y such that y1 > 1. 5here r cuts y1, y1
!s d!v!ded !%to y1
1
a%d y1
2
. 2hese t,o le%"ths are roort!o%al to y
1
a%d y
2

a%d . a%d y. Because o* the de*!%!t!o% o* s!%e a%d cos!%e, y1
1
> cos q a%d
y1
2
> s!% q !* y1
1
S y1
2
.
2h!rdly, ,e k%o, that r > 3$ .
2
A .y A y
2
), ,here . a%d y are the s!des o* the
arallelo"ra' a%d r > 142 $r
1
4 cos < A r
2
4 s!% <) or r
1
> r cos < a%d r
2
> r s!% <.
(ourth, :ust as the coord!%ates . a%d y o* o!%t P$., y) are the d!v!s!o%s o* -, a%d the
coord!%ates r
1
a%d r
2
o* the o!%t P$r
1
, r
2
) are the d!v!s!o%s o* r, the le%"th o* r !s der!ved the
sa'e ,ay as the le%"th o* - > . A y. 2hus, r > r
1
A r
2
.
(!*th, the art!al s!de o* the arallelo"ra' .
1
> y, &oth &e!%" the s!des o* the e/u!lateral
tr!a%"le y. 2r!a%"les $., y
1
, r
1
) a%d $y, y
2
, r
2
) are roort!o%al a%d e/u!vale%t &ecause ,he% t,o
l!%es !%tersect, the oos!te a%"les j are e/ualU ,he% a l!%e !%tersects t,o arallel l!%es, the
oos!te a%"les < are e/ual, a%d . 4 y
1
> .
1
4 y
2
. 2here*ore, r
1
4 r
2
> . 4 y, r
1
a%d r
2
hav!%" the
sa'e roort!o%al!ty as . a%d y. 2h!s 'ea%s that r
1
y > r
2
.. But the% r
1
% y
2
> r
2
% y
1
a%d
r
1
4 % y
1


> r
2
4 % y
2
. 2he ara'etr!c e/uat!o%s that "!ve the sa'e 'ea%!%" are r
1
> % y
1
a%d
r
2
> % y
2
. 5e ca% say that % > r, y
1
> cos <, a%d y
2
> s!% <.
2here*ore, the coord!%ates o* a%y o!%t P$r
1
, r
2
) o% r !s P$ r cos <, r s!% <), ,here
r > 3$ .
2
A .y A y
2
). So k%o,!%" the coord!%ates o* P$., y) a%d the a%"le &et,ee% . a%d r, ,e
ca% k%o, r a%d a%d the coord!%ates o* P$r
1
, r
2
).
So. ^%o,!%" the . a%d y coord!%ates o* the o!%ts o* the l!%e se"'e%t - ,e ca% k%o, the
le%"th o* the l!%e se"'e%t r three d!**ere%t ,ays.
1. - > . A y a%d r > r
1
A r
2
2.
r > 142 $r
1
4 cos < A r
2
4 s!% <) a%d r
1
>

r cos q a%d r
2
> r s!% q.
?. r > 3$.
2
A .y A y
2
).
4ot .roduct
Because o* the use o* e/u!lateral tr!a%"les, the ortho"o%al ro:ect!o% o* o%e l!%e o%to
a%other, or o%e vector o%to a%other, the to vector ! &e!%" ro:ected o%to the &otto' vector r, !t
&eco'es the le%"th o* the &otto' vector r. By tr!al a%d error, + *ou%d th!s to &e
41
P!P PrP ta% < > !
.
r > PrP.
The 4iagonal in a .arallelogra#
2he d!a"o%al ,!th!% a arallelo"ra' *ro' lo,er le*t to uer r!"ht ,!th!% a% e/u!lateral
tr!a%"le has !ts lar"est le%"th e/ual to the s!de o* the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. 2he to o* the
arallelo"ra' !s .
0
, a%d as the d!a"o%al r sl!des do,% the s!de -, .
0
a%d r &eco'e e/ual to ..
Le'e'&er the al"or!th'!c 'ethod uses the tr!a%"ular
%u'&ers to co'e u ,!th the area o* a arallelo"ra'6 Het y
2
&e a
u%!t o* area ,!th!% the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, a%d
.
%
> 3$y
2
).
$.
1
> .) >S y
2
,
$.
2
> 2.) >S ?y
2
,
$.
?
> ?.) >S 5y
2
,
E E E
$.
%
> %.) >S y
2
$2% @ 1), &ut the%,
$.
%A1
> .$% A 1)) >S y
2
$2% A 1).
;o,, ].
2
> y
2
$2% A 1), &ut su&tract o%e y
2
, a%d you "et
.y > ].
2
@ y
2
, so
.y > y
2
$2% A 1) @ y
2
, a%d
.y > 2%y
2
.
+ have &ee% say!%" that tak!%" the tr!a%"ular root o* a%
area "!ves you a l!%e. 2he% !s !t true that *ro'
].
2
> y
2
$2% A 1), . > y3$2% A 1),
"!v!%" the le%"th o* d!a"o%al r as r aroaches .6 0s
d!a"o%al r s,ees do,% the - a.es, the tr!a%"ular %u'&er %.
aroaches the tr!a%"ular %u'&er .$% A 1) ,!th the %e.t
tr!a%"ular %u'&er as %. A .$% A 1) > 2%. A . > .$2%A1)
,h!ch !s the %u'&er o* e/u!lateral tr!a%"les ,!th!% the
arallelo"ra' "!ve% &y .y > y
2
$2% A 1) @ y
2
so that
r >S 2% A 1as y
2
aroaches -ero.
7olu'e &eco'es s/u!shed !%to a l!%e, so 2% A 1 !s the "reatest le%"th r ca% atta!%, ,here % >
0, 1, 2, ?, T , t. +% the sl!ce ].
2
o* .
2
at the &otto' o* the tr!a%"le .y- that !%cludes the
arallelo"ra' .y a%d the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le y
2
, there are $2% A 1) y
2
1s a%d $2% A 1) .

1s !% r as r
aroaches .. +% other ,ords, r >S ].
2
as r >S ., &eco'!%" t,oXd!'e%s!o%al. ].
2
&eco'es very
th!%, &eco'!%" d.
2
.
Het1s start ,!th the $2% A 1) y
2
1s. 2ake the *!rst y
2
a%d take the tr!a%"ular root o* !t. 2ake
the %e.t y
2
a%d do the sa'e o% do,% the l!%e. (or a% ever e.a%d!%" tr!a%"le, there are $2% A
1)y
2
1s alo%" the &otto' o* the tr!a%"le. 0dd!%" u all the l!ttle volu'es ,!th!% the tr!a%"le, a%d
tak!%" the tr!a%"ular root,
.
2
> y
1
2
A ?y
2
2
A 5y
?
2
A T A $2% A 1)y
%
2
>S y
1
A y
2
3? A y
?
35A T A y3$2% A 1) > ..
42
Hook!%" at each sl!ce s!%"ly,
].
2
> y
1
2
AI y
1
> .
].
2
> ?y
2
2
AI y
2
3? > .
].
2
> 5y
?
2
AI y
?
35 > .
E E E
].
2
> $2% A 1)y
%
2
AI y3$2% A 1) > .
2h!s !s %ot reaso%a&le. +%tu!t!vely, the $2% A 1) should %ot &e u%der the root s!"%. 5!th!%
y3$2% A 1), % ,ould have to !%crease at a% alar'!%" rate *or th!s e.ress!o% to *or' all o* the
tr!a%"ular %u'&ers. 0*ter tak!%" the tr!a%"ular root o* each y
2
!% ].
2
, all the y1s are added u
to create . as y
2
reduces to -ero, that !s, as r s,!%"s do,% to &e arallel to ..
2here*ore, y
1
2
A y
2
2
A y
?
2
A T A $2% A 1)y
%
2
>S y$2% A 1) > ., that !s, $2% A 1) y1s. $Pro%ou%ced
V,!se.W)
I;ot!ce that the a'ou%t o* .1s o% to o* the sl!ce ].
2
!s %., a%d o% the &otto' !s %. A 1.
0dd these to"ether a%d ,e "et the %u'&er o* e/u!lateral tr!a%"les !% the sl!ceE %. A $%. A 1) >
2%. A . > .$2%A1). S!%ce ,e are talk!%" a&out u%!t .1s a%d u%!t y1s, .$2% A 1) > y$2% A 1).
E.a'le, 1 A 2 > ?, 2 A ? > 5, ? A 4 > F, 4 A 5 > #, etc. as % > 0, 1, 2, ?, T , t. 2h!s !s called
tr!a%"ular %u'&ers.J
2here !s a "e%eral r!%c!le here. +t has to do ,!th *actor!%". 2ake a% e.ress!o% 7
2
a%d
*actor out a% .
2
such that ;.
2
> 7
2
*or a%y e.ress!o% ;. ;o, take the tr!a%"ular root o* &oth
s!des so that .3; > 7. 2hat !s the trad!t!o%al ,ay o* do!%" !t. My o&:ect!o% !s that th!s does%1t
,ork !% a 60
o
coord!%ate syste'. (or a%y e.ress!o% ;.
2
> 7
2
, tak!%" the tr!a%"ular root o* &oth
s!des ,e have ;. > 7. 2he ; !s %ever ut u%der the root s!"%. +t !s !%dee%de%t *ro' the
oerat!o% o* tak!%" the tr!a%"ular root. So hav!%" a volu'e 7
2
, a%d tak!%" !ts tr!a%"ular root,
'ak!%" !t a l!%e 7, ,e have a le%"th ;. "!v!%" the %u'&er o* u%!t .1s. +* !t ,ere 3; .1s, !t
,ould &e too co'l!cated to *!t !% ,!th a 60
o
coord!%ate syste' !% that % f ; ,ould have to
!%crease at a% alar'!%" rate, sk!!%" so'e sl!ces o* the tr!a%"le, to create all o* the tr!a%"ular
%u'&ers. But ;. rov!des the r!"ht order as !% the e.a'le a&ove.
5pproaching an 5lgebra of the 20
o
Coordinate 1yste#
5e have so'e really !'orta%t d!scover!es erta!%!%" to the al"e&ra o* a 60
o
coord!%ate
syste'.
1. . A y > - as the d!sta%ce e/uat!o% !%stead o*

-

> 3$.
2
A y
2
),
2. . > 3$.
2
), sho,!%" that the tr!a%"ular root o* a% area !s a l!%e,
?. 0 arallelo"ra' !s treated as a recta%"le .y ,he% !ts !%ter%al a%"les are 60
o
a%d
120
o
,
4. $. A y)
2
> .
2
A .y A y
2
a%d %ot .
2
A 2.y A y
2
&ecause a tr!a%"le !s 142 a s/uare,
a%d
5. +* .
2
!s a *actor o* 7
2
, ;.
2
> 7
2
, the%

;. > 7.
;oteE +* y
n
2
> y
2
4$2% A 1) a%d y
n
2
I$% A 1)4$2% A 1) A %4$2% A 1)J > y
2
> ].
2
the% let ( &e called a
43
(our!er, so that ( > ].
2
@ y
n
2
$%4$2% A 1))
;oteE all the tr!a%"les ,!th!% the 'a:or tr!a%"le are cou%ted us!%" tr!a%"ular %u'&ers. 2h!s
leads to &e!%" a% a%alo" *or har'o%!cs o* a str!%". 2h!s leads to the ortho"o%al!ty o* s!% a%d
cos!%e *u%ct!o%s. 2h!s leads to the &as!s vectors o* the 60
o
coord!%ate syste'.
1i#plifying Mathe#atics
5!th these !deas !% '!%d, ,e ca% &u!ld a *ou%dat!o% *or s!'l!*y!%" 'athe'at!cs.
$+ *!"ured th!s out o% 'y o,% ,!thout co%sult!%" a te.t &ook. 0*ter,ard, + re'e'&ered see!%"
the e/uat!o% . > r cos <. + had to rove to 'ysel* that th!s e/uat!o% ,as true. But !t !s true *or a
60
o
coord!%ate syste' as ,ell as a #0
o
coord!%ate syste'. +t !s a% !%var!a%t &et,ee% these t,o
coord!%ate syste's. 2hat !s ,hat + love a&out 'athe'at!cs ,he% + *!%d so'eth!%" l!ke th!s.)
2he rad!us o* a c!rcle &eco'es r > a. A &y so there !s %o %eed *or the Pytha"orea%
2heore'. Nou have to choose your coord!%ate syste' care*ully to s!'l!*y 'ath.
Nou ca% see *ro' the a&ove that the $2k A 1) !s a tr!a%"ular %u'&er. 2he (our!er Ser!es
see's to *!t r!"ht !%to the 60
o
coord!%ate syste'.
44
*ro'E httE44e%.,!k!ed!a.or"4,!k!4(our!ergser!es
Con$ersion Bet-een ,0
o
and 20
o
Coordinates
9verlay a 60
o
coord!%ate syste' over a #0
o
coord!%ate syste' such
that they &oth share the sa'e or!"!% at 9 a%d vector r. 8hoose a%y o!%t
P$., y) at the e%d o* r. Dra, a l!%e . *ro' the N@a.!s to P a%d a%other l!%e
y *ro' the M@a.!s to P. Dra, a l!%e e *ro' the M@a.!s throu"h P such that
the a%"le &et,ee% e a%d M !s 60
o
. 8all y1 the d!sta%ce alo%" e *ro' the M@
a.!s to P. 0ssu'!%" that e !s the r!"ht s!de o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ,!th a
&ase alo%" the M@a.!s, the% let .1 > - @ y1 alo%" the le%"th o* - a&ove P.
2he le%"th o* a%y s!de o* th!s e/u!lateral tr!a%"le !s - > .1 A y1 &y de*!%!t!o% o* a% e/u!lateral
tr!a%"le. S!%ce .1 'ay &e u%k%o,%, - ca% &e *ou%d a%other ,ay. 0 r!"ht tr!a%"le !s created &y y
a%d y1 hav!%" a &ase .11 ,here .11 > y1 cos 60
o
. 2o o&ta!% - s!'ly add . A .11. So, !% order to
co%vert &et,ee% a #0
o
coord!%ate syste' a%d a 60
o
coord!%ate syste', o%e has to k%o, the .
a%d y coord!%ates o* P. 2he% y1 ca% &e calculated us!%" y, .11 ca% &e calculated us!%" y1, a%d
the% - > . A .11 a%d .1 > - @ y1. +* the le%"th o* - !s k%o,% &e*oreha%d, the calculat!o%s s!'l!*y,
a%d - ca% &e ar&!trar!ly as lo%" as P$., y) !s o% -.
+* - !s k%o,%, the% us!%" the de*!%!t!o% o* the tr!"o%o'etr!c *u%ct!o%, y > r s!% <, !t ca% &e
see% that y1 > y4s!% 60
o
a%d the% .1 > - @ y1

.
+* - !s %ot k%o,%, the%
y1 > y4s!% 60
o
, .11 > y1 cos 60
o
, . A .11 > -, a%d the% .1 > - @ y1.

.ara#etric E"uations
Us!%" the l!%es *ro' the cor%ers out to the oos!te s!des,
. > -4c, y > .4c, or - > y4c, the% the le%"th o* these l!%es areE
. > r cos <, $cos < !s the . coord!%ate !% the u%!t tr!a%"le)
y > r s!% <, $ s!% < !s the y coord!%ate !% the u%!t tr!a%"le) a%d
- > r sec <, ,here sec < !s the - coord!%ate !% the u%!t tr!a%"le.
2hese s!. e/uat!o% co%st!tute the ara'etr!c e/uat!o%s o* a l!%e.
Bength of a Bine
0dd!%" these e/uat!o%s, ,e ca% co'e u ,!th a "e%eral!-ed e/uat!o% *or r.
+* r > .4cos < or r > y4s!% <, the% add!%" these t,o e/uat!o%s,
2r > .4cos < A y4s!% <, a%d
r > K$ .4cos < A y4s!% < ).
Ce%eral!-!%",
2r > I$.
1
@

.
0
)

&

cos <J A I$y
1
@

y
0
)

4 s!% <J, such that
r > K $ I$.
1
@

.
0
)

&

cos <J A I$y
1
@

y
0
)

4

s!% <J ), a%d *or three d!'e%s!o%s,
r > 14? $ I$.
1
@

.
0
)

&

cos <J A I$y
1
@

y
0
)

4

s!% <J A I$-
1
@ -
0
) 4 sec < J ).
45
1hape of a Bine
2he shae o* a l!%e !s "!ve% &y us!%" the e/uat!o%s *or co%sta%t l!%es cross!%" a s!%"le
o!%t P$., y,-),
. > c,
y > c,
- > c,
a%d add!%" these e/uat!o%s to "et so'e curve
. A y A - @ ?c > 0, or "e%eral!-!%",
a. A &y A c- @ k > 0.
P$., y, -) !s a o!%t o* !%tersect!o% o* the three a&ove l!%es o% a%y curve that ca% &e
dra,% ,!th!% the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le as a co'&!%at!o% o* .1s y1s a%d -1s to roduce the l!%es
%ecessary to that o!%t. 2h!s !s the sa'e r!%c!le as a e% o% a "rah 'ach!%e.
The 4istance 3or#ula
+%stead o*, as !% a #0
o
coord!%ate syste' ,here the d!sta%ce *or'ula !s
d > 9 I$.
1
@

.
0
)
2
A $y
1
@

y
0
)
2
J,
the d!sta%ce *or'ula *or the s!de o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le or rad!us o* !ts arc !s
d > . A y.
(or a rotated l!%e !%s!de a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, or *or that art o* the rad!us o* a% arc that !s
!%s!de the tr!a%"le,
d > x 4 tr!"
x
< ,here 0
o
R q Q 60
o
, or *ro' the ara'etr!c e/uat!o%s,
d > K $ .

&

cos < A y

4

s!% < ) ,h!ch !s a% avera"e o* t,o l!%es.
;oteE us!%" all three coord!%ates, d > 14? $ .

&

cos < A y

4

s!% < A - 4 sec <).
;o, ,!th the k%o,led"e ,e have !% . A y > -, ,e k%o, that - !s a s!de o* a% e/u!lateral
tr!a%"le a%d -
2
!s the area o* that tr!a%"le. ;o, ,!th!% that area, the tr!a%"le !s d!v!ded !%to a%
.
2
, a y
2
, a%d .y, a arallelo"ra'. So -
2
> .
2
A .y A y
2
, a%d - > 9$.
2
A .y A y
2
). +t1s %ot the
Pytha"orea% 2heore', &ut !t does "!ve a% accurate descr!t!o% o* a le%"th o* a l!%e ,!th!%" a
60
o
coord!%ate syste'.
The Bength of r
0%y l!%e r has a le%"th o* . A y. 5!th!% a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le 0B8 ,!th s!des M, N, a%d
e, dra, a l!%e r *ro' 9 to the oos!te s!de e. H!%e r !s the &ase o* a%other e/u!lateral tr!a%"le
01B81 a%d !s a rad!us dra,!%" out a% arc s. S,!%" a coy o* r do,% to M so that r co!%c!des
,!th M. (ro' the e%do!%t o* r, dra, a l!%e l arallel to e u to N. H!%e l co'letes a%other
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le 011B811. 2he tr!a%"le 01B81 there*or !s o%ly the tr!a%"le 011B811 rotated at a%
a%"le o* q.
e1 > e11, r > M11, a%d N1 > N11 &y de*!%!t!o%. Dra, a l!%e r' *ro' 9 to e1 ,here tr!a%"les
46
01B81 a%d 011B811 !%tersect at o!%t P$.,y). Because e1 crosses e11,
roduc!%" a%"les f a%d f1, the a%"les f a%d f1 are e/ual.
Lad!us r1 d!v!des e1 !%to .1 a%d y1 a%d e11 !%to .11
a%d y11.
0ll a%"les o* e/u!lateral tr!a%"les are e/ual, so a
a%d b are e/ual &y de*!%!t!o%.
S!%ce e1 > e11, y1 & .1 > .11& y11.
2he d!sta%ce &et,ee% l a%d e !s r
s
. 2he d!sta%ce
&et,ee% the t,o arcs s a%d s1 o* ,h!ch &oth e.te%d *ro'
M11 to N11 !s also r
s
.
0%"le a !s 'ade u o* s!des y1 a%d r
s
a%d a%"le b !s 'ade u o* s!des .11 a%d r
s
.
Because y1 & .1 > .11& y11 a%d a > b a%d f > f1, the% the tr!a%"les 01011P$.,y) a%d 8 18 11
P$.,y) are co%"rue%t.
2he tr!a%"les 01011P$.,y) a%d 8 18 11 P$.,y) are &oth shorte%ed &y s!des r
s
. 5e ca% call the
s!de oos!te f, y
s
.
Because a > b a%d f > f1 a%d y
s
> r
s
, the% y1 > .11.
+* y1 > .11 a%d e1 > e11, the% .1 > y11.
By de*!%!t!o%, e11 > M11 > e1 > r.
2here*ore, r > .1 A y1 > .11 A y11.
Ce%erally seak!%" the%, a%y l!%e se"'e%t ,!th!% a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, %o 'atter at ,hat
a%"le !t lays, &e !t l or r, ca% &e de*!%ed &y - > . A y.
5ngles
Start!%" ,!th a% e/u!a%"ular, e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, let
there &e a vector e.te%d!%" *ro' the lo,er le*t cor%er throu"h
the oos!te s!de such that the vector1s le%"th !s the sa'e as that
o* a%y s!de o* the tr!a%"le.
Le*err!%" to the *!"ure to the le*t, at the o!%t C, the le%"th o*
the vector r A ! J y. But at the o!%t B, the *ull le%"th o* r > K
$ .

&

cos < A y

4

s!% < ). $+% the *!"ure, % > y.)
2he *!"ure to the r!"ht sho,s a he.a"o%. +t rerese%ts the
47
cycle o* the c!rcle &ased uo% the chords o* the he.a"o% !%stead o* the rat!o ` o* the
c!rcu'*ere%ce to the d!a'eter. Us!%" a u%!t tr!a%"le ,here each s!de !s o%e u%!t, a%d there*ore,
each chord !s o%e u%!t, the c!rcu'*ere%ce o* the c!rcle !s d!v!ded !%to 6 arts. Het o%e rotat!o%
o* r, &e"!%%!%" a%d e%d!%" at the .@a.!s, sta%d *or o%e cycle. Each chord rerese%ts 146
th
o* a
cycle. 2he% !t !s lo"!cal to kee that d!v!s!o% o* 6 a%d d!v!de each chord !%to 6 e/ual arts or
14?6
th
o* the he.a"o%. 2he% there ,ould &e ?6 d!v!s!o%s o* the c!rcle. +* there are the% 10
d!v!s!o%s &et,ee% each 14?6
th
'ark, there ,!ll &e ?60 d!v!s!o%s arou%d the he.a"o%. E.te%d!%"
those d!v!s!o%s to the e%clos!%" c!rcle, the c!rcle the% rece!ves ?60 d!v!s!o%s. 2he a%"le < ca%
&e rerese%ted &y these d!v!s!o%s &e!%" ro:ected o%to the c!rcle, ,h!ch ,ould &e ?60
o
.
D!v!s!o%s o% the he.a"o% ,ould &e ?60 rad!a%s. Us!%" rad!a%s, lar"er d!v!s!o%s ,ould &e !%
ter's o* %4?6, a%d s'aller d!v!s!o%s, %4?60.
2he tr!"o%o'etr!c *u%ct!o%s are de*!%ed as *ollo,sE
s!% < > y4-
cos < > .4-
ta% < > y4.
cot < > .4y,
a%d < > ta%
@ %
y4. ,here y ,!ll al,ays &e !% d!v!s!o%s o* %4?6 or %4?60.
0 tr!"o%o'etr!c ta&le ,!th!% the u%!t tr!a%"le o* the he.a"o% us!%" rad!a% 'easure s
&ased uo% 14?6
th
o* a cycle a%d 14?60
th
o* a cycleE
s Sin s Cos s Tan s
0 0 1 0
14?60, 14?6 14?60, 14?6 ?5#4?60, ?54?6 14?5#, 14?5
14180, 1418 14180, 1418 1F#4180, 1F418 141F#, 141F
14120, 1412 14120, 1412 11#4120, 11412 1411#, 1411
14#0, 14# 14#0, 14# 8#4#0, 84# 148#, 148
14F2, 54?6 14F2, 54?6 F14F2, ?14?6 14F1, 54?1
1460, 146 1460, 146 5#460, 546 145#, 145
F4?60, F4?6 F4?60, F4?6 ?5?4?60, 2#4?6 F4?5?, F42#
1445, 24# 1445, 24# 44445, F4# 1444, 24F
1440, 144 1440, 144 ?#440, ?44 14?#, 14?
14?6, 5418 14?6, 5418 ?54?6, 1?418 14?5, 541?
14?0, 14? 14?0, 14? 2#4?0, 24? 142#, 142
1420, 142 1420, 142 1#420, 142 141#, 1
1410, 1 1410, 1 #410, 0 14#, A1
;ote that !% the 2a%"e%t colu'% a&ove all the de%o'!%ators are o%e less tha% the de%o'!%ators
!% the s colu'%, a%d also !% the 2a%"e%t colu'%, the %u'erator added to the de%o'!%ator
e/uals the de%o'!%ator !% the s colu'%. 0lso, look at the lace'e%t o* the %!%es a%d 'ult!les
48
o* %!%e.
?6 b 14?60 se"'e%ts > 1410 $s!% 6
o
)
18 b 14?60 se"'e%ts > 1420 $s!% ?
o
)
12 b 14?60 se"'e%ts > 14?0 $s!% 2
o
), 5 b 14?0 > 146, a%d the% 6 b 146 > 1
10 b 14?60 se"'e%ts > 14?6, a%d the% 6 b 14?6 se"'e%ts > 146. 2he% 6 b 146 se"'e%ts > 1 u%!t
0# b 14?60 se"'e%ts > 1440
08 b 14?60 se"'e%ts > 1445
0F does %ot ,ork. +t does %ot d!v!de eve%ly !%to ?60.
06 b 14?60 se"'e%ts > 1460 $s!%e 1
o
), 10 b 1460 > 146, the% 6 b 146 > 1 u%!t.
05 b 14?60 se"'e%ts > 14F2, 6 b 14F2 > 1412 $s!% 5
o
), 2 b 1412 > 146, the% 6 b 146 > 1 u%!t.
04 b 14?60 se"'e%ts > 14#0
0? b 14?60 se"'e%ts > 14120, 2 b 14120 > 1460, 10 b 1460 > 146, the% 6 b 146 > 1 u%!t.
02 b 14?60 se"'e%ts > 14180, ? b 14180 > 1460, 10 b 1460 > 146, the% 6 b 146 > 1 u%!t.
$;ot!ce that the 6 !% $s!% 6
o
) t!'es 6 !s ?6, the ? !% $s!% ?
o
) t!'es 6 !s 18, etc. sho,!%" a
relat!o%sh! o* 6 to de"ree 'easure a%d the %u'&ers 'ult!ly!%" 14?60.)
Sett!%" o%e se"'e%t o* a chord or rad!a% to 14?60
th
, o%ly 2, ?, 5, 6, 10 or 12 se"'e%ts roduce a
rat!o%al 'ult!le o* the 6 sect!o%s o* a he.a"o%. $2hat !s, u%der the cou%t o* ?6.)
2he d!v!sors o* ?60 !%clude all the d!"!ts e.cet F, &ut o%ly 6 a%d 60 d!v!de ?60 !% a sy''etry
that the other d!"!ts do%1t. 2h!s !s &ecause ?6 > 6
2
.
?6042 > 180, ?60420 > 18U ?604? > 120, ?604?0 > 12U ?6044 > #0, ?60440 > #U ?6045 > F2,
?60450 > F.2U ?6046 > 60, ?60460 > 6U ?6048 > 45, ?60480 > 4.5U ?604# > 40, ?604#0 > 4.
2he o%ly d!v!sor here that creates sy''etry !s 6 &ecause .46 > 60 a%d .460 > 6 ,here the 6 a%d
the 60 are !%tercha%"ea&le a%d there are %o other d!"!ts you ca% do th!s ,!th. 2here*ore, !t
see's 'ore %atural to d!v!de the c!rcu'*ere%ce o* a c!rcle !%to 6 sect!o%s, or 'ult!les o* 6.
2here are 12 b ?0
o
se"'e%ts !% a c!rcle a%d 5 b F2
o
se"'e%ts !% a
c!rcle. Every ?0
o
!s d!v!ded !%to 5 b 6
o
. +* the c!rcle !s d!v!ded !%to
12
o
se"'e%ts, every 5
th
se"'e%t !s 60
o
. Bal* o* each 12
o
se"'e%t
,ould &e 6
o
. So d!v!d!%" the c!rcle !%to 6 de"ree se"'e%ts, you "et
the %u'&ers 5, 6, 12, ?6, 60, F2, a%d ?60, "ett!%" 'ult!les o* 2, ?,
a%d 5.

;e.t, look at the tr!"o%o'etr!c *u%ct!o%s us!%" de"rees. 2h!s
tr!"o%o'etr!c ta&le !s &ased o% a u%!t tr!a%"le ,!th!% a u%!t he.a"o%.
2he de"rees o* a c!rcle are ro:ected o%to the e a.!s o* the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. Each coord!%ate
a!r o* the ro:ected o!%ts the% correso%d to a de"ree. 5hat !s l!sted &elo, !s e!ther .4- or y4-
,here - !s the rad!us o* the c!rcle e%co'ass!%" a he.a"o%. 2here*ore, the tr!"o%o'etr!c
*u%ct!o%s are &ased uo% the chords o* the c!rcle !%stead o* the arcs o* the c!rcle.
q Sin q Cos q Tan q
49
0
o
0.0000000 1.000000 0.0000000
5
o
0.1015625 0.#06250 0.11206#0
10
o
0.18F5000 0.812500 0.2?0F6#...
15
o
0.2F?4?F5 0.F?4?F5 0.?F2?404
20
o
0.?515625 0.656250 0.5?5F14?
25
o
0.4218F50 0.5F81250 0.F2#F2#F
?0
o
0.5000000 0.5000000 1
?5
o
0.5F81250 0.4218F50 1.?F0?F0
40
o
0.656250 0.?515625 1.8666...
45
o
0.F?4?F5 0.2F?4?F5 2.685F14
50
o
0.812500 0.18F5000 4.????...
55
o
0.#06250 0.1015625 8.#2?0FF
60
o
1.000000 0.0000
K
Sec q > S!% q or 8os q &ecause a seca%t !s the chord u%der%eath the arc. +% other ,ords, Sec q
> . A y ,h!ch !s the - coord!%ate. $Errors 'ay &e due to co'uter calculat!o%s.) $U%derl!%ed
se"'e%ts are to &e reeated.)
4irected Bine 1eg#ents or ectors
+* r !s treated as a vector, the% r > $.
1
@

.
0
) A $y
1
@

y
0
). 2h!s
a"rees ,!th the de*!%!t!o% o* a vector, that !s, v > !$cos <) A :$s!% <)
,here v !s a u%!t vector. Mult!ly!%" &oth s!des o* the e/uat!o% &y a
co%sta%t c, ,here u > cv, u > c!$cos <) A c:$s!% <). +* . > c! $cos <)
a%d y > c: $s!% <), the% u > . A y . $+t 'ust &e re'e'&ered that the
tr!"o%o'etr!c *u%ct!o%s used here are &ased uo% the 60
o
coord!%ate
syste', so the %u'&ers ,!ll &e d!**ere%t.)
+* < S 60
o
, the% l !s &e!%" rotated !%to the %e.t se.ta%t, a%d the
calculat!o%s o* le%"th are s!'!lar, a%d !s s!'!lar *or each o* the s!. se.ta%ts.
0%other l!%e, rad!us r, ca% &e co%s!dered hav!%" the sa'e le%"th o* a%y s!de o* a%
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. 5he% !t !s rotated &et,ee% 0
o
to 60
o
the% r !%tersects e at a%y o!%t P

. 2he
coord!%ates o* P are the co'o%e%ts . a%d y o* r such that . A y > e, a%d . A y > r s!%ce r > M >
N > e .
2o add r
1
a%d r
2
,
r
1
> .
1
A y
1
, a%d
r
2
> .
2
A y
2
, so
50
r
1
A r
2
> .
1
A y
1
A .
2
A y
2
> $ .
1
A .
2
) A $ y
1
A y
2
) ,h!ch adds u to a lar"er tr!a%"le.
r
1
@ r
2
> $.
1
A y
1
) @ $.
2
A y
2
) > $ .
1
@ .
2
) A $ y
1
@ y
2
) ,h!ch !s a decrease !% the tr!a%"le.
Hook!%" at the rev!ous *!"ure, you ca% see that -
0
>

.
0
A

y
0
&ut .
0
a%d

y
0
are
co'o%e%ts o* -
1
. See!%" that
-
1
> .
0
A $.
1
@

.
0
) A y
0
A $y
1
@

y
0
) the%,
r > -
1
@ -
0
> .
0
A $.
1
@

.
0
) @ .
0
A y
0
A $y
1
@

y
0
) @

y
0
a%d,
r > -
1
@ -
0
> $.
1
@

.
0
) A $y
1
@

y
0
) so,
r > -
1
@ -
0
.
5he% r !s rotated outs!de the tr!a%"le
d > r
1
A r
2
> $ .
1
A .
2
) A $ y
1
A y
2
) or,
d > r
1
@ r
2


> $ .
1
@ .
2
) A $ y
1
@ y
2
) or,
d > r > -
1
@ -
0
.
+* the vector r > . A y, a%d
s!% < > y4r a%d
cos < > .4r, the%
cos < A s!% < > $. A y)4r. 2here*ore,
cos < A s!% < > 1.
Solv!%" *or $. A y), ,e have, $. A y) > r$cos < A s!% <). 2here*ore,
- > r$cos < A s!% <).
Het s > $. A y), so a%y vector s > r$cos < A s!% <). 0%other ,ay o* ,r!t!%" s !s re

,here
e

A $cos < A s!% <). So the vector s > re

.
$cos < A s!% <) ca% &e rerese%ted &y the ordered a!r $., y). 2here*ore, at each o* the s!.
a.es o* the he.a"o%, at r > %, cos < a%d s!% < are relaced &yE
*or the .@a.!s, $1, 0),
y@a.!s, $0, 1),
-@a.!s,A$0, 0),
@ .@a.!s, $@1, 0),
@ y@a.!s, $0, @1), a%d
@ -@a.!s, @$0, 0).
+* a th!rd %u'&er ,ere !%cluded !%to the ordered a!r to 'ake a% ordered tr!let, the% a 4
th
@a.!s ,ould &e rerese%ted thuslyE $., y, -) a%d ,ould &e !%s!de a tetrahedra%.
The difference bet-een a $ector and a scalar
0 vector r ca% &e e.te%ded o%ly !% o%e ,ay, a%d that !s to &e 'ult!l!ed &y a scalar a,
thus, ar. 0lthou"h t,o vectors ca% &e added to 'ake a lo%"er vector, the or!"!%al vectors are
%ot e.te%ded. 2he o%ly ,ay a scalar ca% &e e.te%ded !s to have so'eth!%" added to !t, thus, . A
w. +% d!scuss!%" the co%!c sect!o%s, + ,!ll deal ,!th the e.te%s!o%s o* &oth vectors a%d scalars.
51
The Conic 1ections
Coordinate 1yste# and Bines
2ake a%y *!%!te l!%e H hav!%" e%ds 0 a%d B. D!v!de !t !%to a%y t,o sect!o%s . a%d y. 2he
o!%t o* d!v!s!o% !s P$., y), the sect!o%s o* the l!%e &e!%" the coord!%ates o* the o!%t. Bave the
le%"th o* H &e - such that - > . A y. P %o, descr!&es a%y o!%t o% the l!%e H ,!th . a%d y the
coord!%ates.
Het H &e e.a%ded !%to a la%e such that H !s o%e s!de o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le 0B8
,here 8 !s a o!%t oos!te H > 0B > -
0
. Het . as ,ell as y &e e.a%ded such that . as ,ell as y
!s the s!de o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le co%"rue%t ,!th
tr!a%"le 0B8. Het 08 > y
0
a%d 8B > .
0
. 2he &ase o*
the tr!a%"le 0y
0
P, the tr!a%"le e.a%ded *ro' . o% H,
!s arallel to .
0
a%d !s e/ual to . a%d !s called the .
coord!%ate. 2he s!de o* the tr!a%"le PB.
0
arallel to
y
0
!s e/ual to y a%d !s e/ual to the y coord!%ate.
Het there &e arallel l!%es -
0
, -
1
, -
2
, T -
%
desce%d!%" do,% to o!%t 8 !% the tr!a%"le 0B8
,here -
0
> H. 2he% dra, a l!%e l *ro' -
% @ 1
to -
%

d!v!d!%" -
% @ 1
a%d -
%
!%to .
% @ 1
a%d y
% @ 1
a%d .
%
a%d y
%

resect!vely. 2he e%do!%ts o* l are $.
% @ 1
, y
% @ 1
) o% -
%
@ 1
a%d $.
%
, y
%
) o% -
%
.
2he le%"th r o* l!%e l ca% &e thou"ht o* as a vector. Le'e'&er that r > $ .
% @ 1
A .
%
) A $ y
% @
1
A y
%
) > . A y, ,!th $., y) as the e%do!%t. 2he %or' o* r, PrP > .
%
A y
%
.
The Circle
+* r !s held co%sta%t a%d a%d the e%do!%t o* r, $.
%
, y
%
), re'a!%s attached to all -
%
desce%d!%" do,% to,ards o!%t 8, the% r &eco'es the rad!us o* a c!rcle. +* -
%
asses throu"h
the c!rcle, there !s a%other o!%t $.
%
1 , y
%
1) oos!te $.
%
, y
%
) o% -
%
such that $.
%
1 , y
%
1) !s also the
e%do!%t o* r. $.
%
1 , y
%
1)!s the co%:u"ate o* $., y).
(or a% ar&!trary l!%e se"'e%t r !% the '!ddle o* the tr!a%"le, ,e dra,
a l!%e -
0
throu"h the lo,er e%d o* r a%d -
1
at the other e%d o* r. r d!v!des -
0
!%to $.
1
@

.
0
) a%d $y
1
@

y
0
). $y
1
@

y
0
) e.te%ded stra!"ht across to -
1
a%d $.
1
@

.
0
) e.te%ded u to -
1
creates a arallelo"ra' ,!th s!des $.
1
@

.
0
) o% to a%d
&otto' a%d $y
1
@

y
0
) o% each s!de ,!th r as the d!a"o%al.
2he le%"th o* r ca% &e treated as a vector. 2he s!des $.
1
@

.
0
) a%d $y
1
@

y
0
) o* the
arallelo"ra' are the co'o%e%ts o* r a%d ca% &e added such that
52
r > $.
1
@

.
0
) A $y
1
@

y
0
) > . A y .
2o "e%eral!-e th!s so'e,hat to !%clude %e"at!ve %u'&ers !% . a%d y, !% other ,ords,
us!%" the ,hole la%e, ,h!ch !s a he.a"o%, let r > P.
1
@

.
0
P A Py
1
@

y
0
P as the e/uat!o% o* a c!rcle.
7ector add!t!o% !s as s!'le as P.
1
@

.
0
P A Py
1
@

y
0
P > $., y) >S - > . A y ,here . a%d y are
coord!%ates.
;oteE .
1
A

.
0
> . a%d y
1
A

y
0
> y.
2h!s !s a "eo'etr!c add!t!o% a%d descr!&es a c!rcle as r rotates a%d re'a!%s co%sta%t. 2he
o!%ts $., y) are o% the curve o* the c!rcle. 2he c!rcle !s descr!&ed "eo'etr!cally as r > . A y.
The Ellipse and .ro$ing the 4istance 3or#ula

0 c!rcle !s de*!%ed as a% ell!se ,here the d!sta%ce c *ro' the *ocus to the ce%ter !s e/ual
to 0. 2he d!sta%ce *ro' the ce%ter out to a o!%t B o% the ell!se !s a. 2he d!sta%ce *ro' a *ocus
out to a o!%t P !s d. S!%ce there are t,o *oc!, (
1
$ @ c, 0) a%d (
2
$c, 0), there are t,o d!sta%ces, d
1
a%d d
2
, out to the sa'e o!%t P$., y). 2he su' o* the d!sta%ces d
1
> P(
1
, PP a%d d
2
> P(
2
, PP !s
e/ual to so'e co%sta%t. 5he% P !s at B o% the !'a"e to the le*t, the% d
1
A d
2
!s e/ual to that
sa'e co%sta%t. 2here*ore, $a A c) A $a @ c) > 2a !s that co%sta%t.
But ,he% P !s %ot at B, d
1
> $. @ c) A y, a%d d
2
> $. A c) A y, so $. @ c) A y A $. A c) A y
> 2a. S!%ce . @ c a%d . A c are al,ays cha%"!%" relat!ve to the sa'e y, let . @ c > .
1
a%d . A c >
.
2
. 2he% the e/uat!o% *or a% ell!se &eco'es
.
1
A .
2
A 2y > 2a. 2h!s &eco'es
y > a @ $ .
1
A .
2
)42.
2he "e%eral e/uat!o% &eco'es 2. A 2y > 2a or . A y > a. 0s c &eco'es -ero, a &eco'es
rad!us r, so the e/uat!o% *or a c!rcle &eco'es r > . A y.
+% order to *!%d the o!%t P o% the curve !% ter's o* . a%d y, ,e use three vectors, $., y)
o% the curve, $.
0
,

y
0
), the le*t *ocus, a%d $.
1
, y
1
), the r!"ht *ocus, ,here the or!"!% o* all three
vectors !s at the cor%er *or'ed &y the . a%d y a.es. 2hat 'akes d
1
> $.
0
,

y
0
) @ $., y) a%d d
2
>
$.
1
, y
1
) @ $., y). So
$k, 0) > I$.
0
,

y
0
) @ $., y)J A I$.
1
, y
1
) @ $., y)J, a%d
$k, 0) > $.
0
,

y
0
) @ 2$., y) A $.
1
, y
1
). So
$., y) > I$.
0
,

y
0
) A $.
1
, y
1
) @ $k, 0)J 4 2
Hett!%" y > 0, $., 0) > I$.
0
,

y
0
) A $.
1
, y
1
) @ $k, 0)J 4 2
. > I$.
0
A .
1
) A $y
0
A y
1
) @ kJ 4 2
(ro' the a&ove ara"rah, the e/uat!o% *or the ell!se !s
y > Ik @ $ .
1
A .
2
)J 4 2, ,here k > 2a.
+t could also &e !%terreted as y > I$ .
1
A .
2
) @ kJ 4 2.
+t !s see% that the "e%eral e/uat!o% !s - > . A y.
53
The .arabola
2he ae. 0 o* a ara&ola !s e/u!d!sta%t *ro' a l!%e
arallel to the y a.!s $or !% so'e cases, the . a.!s), called
the d!rectr!. D, a%d a o!%t (, called the *ocal o!%t o* the
curve. 2rad!t!o%ally, the d!sta%ce *ro' the d!rectr!. a%d the
*ocal o!%t !s called . ;o, 0, as !t travels alo%" the
ara&ol!c curve, !s the o!%t P$., y). 2h!s o!%t !s al,ays
e/u!d!sta%t *ro' the d!rectr!. a%d the *ocal o!%t. 2hat1s
,hat 'akes !t ara&ol!c. 2he s'allest d!sta%ces $D, 0) a%d
$0, () are 42. Het the d!sta%ce *ro' ( to P &e r
0
, a%d the
d!sta%ce *ro' D to P &e r
1
.
2here*ore, r
0
> r
1
.
0 l!es o% the y a.!s. 2he e/uat!o% o* th!s l!%e !s . > 0.
2he e/uat!o% o* the d!rectr!. !s . > @ 42. r
1
the% !s the
d!sta%ce *ro' Pd$@ 42, y) o% the d!rectr!. to P$., y) o% the
curve. r
0
!s the d!sta%ce *ro' P$., y) to the *ocal o!%t
($42, 0). 5he% y > 0, that !s, ,he% P > 0, so that also . >
0, r
1
> @ 42 a%d r
0
> 42. But ,he% P starts r!s!%" or lo,er!%" *ro' 0, P has to &e added to the
e/uat!o%. So r
1
> $@ 42 A y) @ $. A y) a%d r
0
> $42 @ 0) @ $. A y).
;o, ,e have the e/uat!o% o* the ara&ola as
$42 @ 0) @ $. A y) > $@ 42 A y) @ $. A y),
$42 @ .) @ $y A 0) > @ $42 A .) @ $y @ y).
$. @ 42) @ y > @ $. A 42), so
y > $. @ 42) A $. A 42).
2he vector rerese%tat!o% o* the ara&ola "oes !% th!s 'a%%er.
Het ( > $.
0
, y
0
), P > $., y), a%d P
d
> $.
1
, y
1
), so that us!%" vectors, ,e have
$.
0
, y
0
) @ $., y) > $., y) @ $.
1
, y
1
)
2h!s reduces to
2$. A y) > @ $.
1
A y
1
) @ $y
0
A .
0
)
2. > @ .
1
@ y
1
@ y
0
@ .
0
@ 2y, the%
. > I@ $.
0
A

.
1
) @ $y
0
A

y
1
)

@ 2yJ 4 2
. > @ I$.
0
A

.
1
) A $y
0
A

y
1
) A 2yJ 4 2
+t aears that the "e%eral e/uat!o% *or the ara&ola !s also
- > . A y.
The 6yperbola
2he d!**ere%ce &et,ee% the ell!se a%d the hyer&ola !s that ,!th the ell!se, r
0
a%d
r
1
are added. 2he hyer&ola !s created ,!th a d!**ere%ce o* r
0
a%d r
1
. 2here*ore, the e/uat!o%s
*or the hyer&ola !s
y > a @ $ .
1
@ .
2
)42,
a%d us!%" vectors,
54
. > I$.
0
A .
1
) @ $y
0
A y
1
) @ kJ 4 2, ,here k > 2a.
0"a!%, the "e%eral *or'ula !s - > . A y.
Co#parison of E"uations
2he ell!seE
. > I$.
0
A .
1
) A $y
0
A y
1
) @ kJ 4 2
2he hyer&olaE
. > I$.
0
A .
1
) @ $y
0
A y
1
) @ kJ 4 2
2he ara&olaE
. > @ I$.
0
A

.
1
) A $y
0
A

y
1
) A 2yJ 4 2
2hese three e/uat!o%s are l!%ear a%d deal ,!th stra!"ht l!%es. 2he co%sta%t !% these cases
are arallel to the - a.!s or o%e s!de o* the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. 2he trad!t!o%al e/uat!o%s, +
,ould say, deal ,!th the area o* the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le.
8ha%"!%" the a&ove e/uat!o%s to volu'es !s as s!'le as
tr!a%"l!%" the'. 2hese l!%es are the tr!a%"ular roots o* the
volu'es.
To-ards a Theory of Conics
(or all l!%es x > /x1 ,!th!% a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, sace
!s &e%t arou%d a% !so'etr!c sace rerese%t!%" a three
d!'e%s!o%al #0
o
sace. 2h!s de*!%es a l!%ear sace *or three
d!'e%s!o%s. Us!%" these l!%es as a "r!d, ,herever a%y t,o
sets o* l!%es - > &y, . > c-, y > a., a%d -1 > &y1, .1 > c-1, a%d y1
> a.1, !%tersect, t,o o!%ts P
1
$., y, -) a%d P
2
$.1, y1, -1) are created. Dra, a stra!"ht l!%e l "o!%"
*ro' P
1
to P
2
such that the l!%e "oes *ro' o%e cor%er o* a arallelo"ra' to a%other. Dra,
a%other d!a"o%al l!%e ,!th!% the %e.t arallelo"ra', the% o%to the %e.t, etc. Dra,!%" a stra!"ht
55
l!%e throu"h a curved sace, ,h!ch the l!%ear sace ,!th!% a tr!a%"le !s, the l!%e aears to
*ollo, the curve o* the sace. 2he *!%er the "r!d, the s'oother the curve. 2he curve created !%
th!s 'a%%er !s %o%@l!%ear, &ut &ecause !t !s 'ade u o* l!%ear se"'e%ts, !t !s d!screte. 0%y curve
!% ;ature !s 'ade u o* d!screte l!%ear se"'e%ts. 2here !s %o true co%t!%uous l!%e. Everyth!%"
!% %ature co'es !% l!ttle ackets.
0%y co%!c sect!o%, a%y curve, !s %ot co%t!%uous. +t !s
'ade u o* s'all d!screte l!%es. 0 co'ro'!se ,!th
'athe'at!c!a%s ,ho ar"ue a&out co%t!%u!ty ca%%ot &e
'ade. Eve% !* you use a #0
o
coord!%ate syste', sace 'ust
&e curved us!%" s'all d!screte se"'e%ts *or curved l!%es.
0%y curve ca% &e created us!%" a l!%ear sace.
(!rst, us!%" all o!%ts 'ade
*ro' the !%tersect!o% o*
e/uat!o%s x > /x1, *!%d a set o* l!%e se"'e%ts that *or' a
arallelo"ra'. Dra, a l!%e *ro' P
2
$., y, -) a%d P
1
$., y, -) ,h!ch
ca% &e *ou%d &y solv!%" *our s!'ulta%eous e/uat!o%s o* the *or'
x > /x1. 2he% !%clude the %e.t set o* *our e/uat!o%s to solve the'
a%d the last set as the %e.t *our e/uat!o%s a%d so o% u%t!l you
have all the o!%ts !% the curve, the% co%%ect all the o!%ts.
(ro' x > /x1, ,e "et x @ /x1 > 0. +* ,e su' all o* Dx @ D/x1, ,e "et the curve h
yo
y%
$Dx @ D/x1).
+* you ske, the tr!a%"le, you have a
d!**ere%tly shaed curve. S!%ce each
tr!a%"le has a o%e@to@o%e
correso%de%ce to the 60
o
tr!a%"le &y
scale, ,e are st!ll ,!th!% the 60
o
coord!%ate syste'. 0%y curve ca% &e
de'o%strated &y curv!%" the sace !t !s
dra,% !%.
The 8otating Bine 1eg#ent
+t !s true that - > . A y, a%d *or - > 1, . > cos q, y > s!% q, so that
1> cos q + s!% q, ,here 0
o
R q Q 60
o
.
56
Mult!ly &oth s!des &y i- to "et

i- > i- cos q + i- s!% q, ,h!ch !s true *or 0
o
R q Q 60
o
.
Het there &e a i. a%d a iy such that i- cos q = i. a%d i- s!% q = iy ,here i. !s a var!a&le
l!%e se"'e%t o% the .@a.!s a%d iy !s a var!a&le l!%e se"'e%t o% the y@a.!s a%d q !s the a%"le
&et,ee% i- a%d i..
2here*ore, i- > i. A iy.
Proo*E I+t !s su**!c!e%t to sho, that i- > i- cos q + i- s!% q.]
Het i- > ( i- A ( i-. 2here*ore, i- > i- cos ?0
o
+ i- s!% 30
o
Ce%eral!-!%", !* !t !s true *or ?0
o
, !t !s also true *or 0
o
R q Q 60
o
.
2here*ore, i- > i- cos q + i- s!% q .
Le'e'&er, that cos q + s!% q ca% &e e.ressed as e
q
.
2here*ore, a%other ,ay to e.ress i- !s i- e
q
. S!%ce q > wt, the% i-
> i- e
wt
a%d !s a l!%e se"'e%t rotat!%" at the a%"ular veloc!ty o* w .
2heore'E
2he rotat!%" l!%e se"'e%t i- rotates a&out !ts '!do!%t.
De*!%!t!o%sE 7ert!cal 'ea%s ly!%" at 60
o
. Bor!-o%tal 'ea%s ly!%" at 0
o
or 180
o
.
Proo*E I+t !s su**!c!e%t to sho, that i- j i. A iy.J
i- !s a co%sta%t, as i- > i. A iy. +* i- !s hor!-o%tal, the% i- > i., a%d iy > 0. 2he
e%do!%ts there*ore o* i- l!e o% the curve o* a c!rcle ,hose d!a'eter !s i. . +* i- !s vert!cal,
the% i- > iy, i. > 0, a%d the e%do!%ts o* i- l!e o% the curve o* a c!rcle ,hose d!a'eter !s iy.
+* i- !s %e!ther vert!cal %or hor!-o%tal, the% i- > i. A iy. Say that i- rotates throu"h a%y
o!%t other tha% !ts ce%ter, es. %ear e!ther e%do!%t, the% each e%do!%t 'oves alo%" a d!**ere%t
c!rcle a%d &oth i. a%d iy are sl!t. 2here*ore, i- ,ould %ot e/ual i. A iy.
Circular Measure#ents
2he c!rcu'*ere%ce o* a c!rcle 8 > 2pr.
0rc le%"th s > r q .
2o cha%"e *ro' de"rees to rad!a%s, q > p4%, or d!v!s!o%s o* p.
2here*ore, !% rad!a%s, arc le%"th s > r p4%.
;o, !* ,e &ase p o% the er!'eter o* the u%!t he.a"o% !%stead o* o% the c!rcu'*ere%ce
o* the u%!t c!rcle, a%d s!%ce the c!rcu'*ere%ce o* a c!rcle !s d!v!ded &y a he.a"o% !%to s!. arcs,
let p = ?. 5here p ,ould &e, there are ? chords.
57
Su&st!tut!%" ? *or p, arc le%"th s > ? r4%.
Het p = 842r. 2he c!rcu'*ere%ce o* the c!rcle %o, &eco'es 8 > 2 k ?r > 6r. +t !s%1t ho,
'a%y t!'es the rad!us *!ts arou%d the c!rcu'*ere%ce, &ut 6 chords o* the c!rcu'*ere%ce t!'es
the rad!us out,ards, the c!rcu'*ere%ce e.a%d!%".
5rc #easure $erses Binear Measure
0 c!rcular he.a"o% !s l!ke%ed u%to a he.a"o% that !s &lo,% u l!ke a &alloo%. 2he s!des
o* the he.a"o% are &e%t so as to roduce a c!rcle ,!th the sa'e rad!us that e.!sts *ro' the
ce%ter o* the he.a"o% to o%e o* !ts cor%ers. Het th!s rad!us &e o%e u%!t. 2h!s c!rcular he.a"o%
!%scr!&es the re"ular he.a"o%. Dra, a%other c!rcle ,!th s!. e/ual arcs arou%d the
c!rcu'*ere%ce so that the rad!us e/uals the sa'e le%"th as o%e o* the arcs.
Het su& h des!"%ate the *!rst he.a"o% a%d the su& c des!"%ate the seco%d c!rcle.
2he c!rcu'*ere%ce c
h
> 6 r
h
. 0% arc a
h
> ?r4%
Het rad!us r
h
> 1. 2here*ore arc a
h
> 1 a%d

c
h
> 6.
S!%ce c
c
> 6 r
c
, a%d r
c
> 3r4%, the% c
c
> 18r4% ,here % !s so'e d!v!s!o% o* ?60 !% 60
!%cre'e%ts.
Bav!%" the rad!us the sa'e le%"th o* the arc sho,s a d!**ere%t s!-ed c!rcle tha% the c!rcle
as a &lo,% u he.a"o%.
2he area o* a sher!cal tr!a%"le D > r
2
I$a A & A c) @ pJ ,here a A & A c > e, called the
sher!cal e.cess $,h!ch !s actually 6
o
). +* e > 0, D !s the area o* a la%ar tr!a%"le. +* each s!de o*
o%e o* the 20 sher!cal tr!a%"les o% the sur*ace o* the sher!cal !cosahedro% !s e/ual, the% a > &
> c > F2
o
or 1.2564 rad!a%s. +* r > 1, the area o* each o%e o* these sher!cal tr!a%"les !s D A

$? .
1.2564) 7 p A 0.62F60F. Mult!ly that &y 20 a%d you "et the sur*ace area o* 12.5521 s/uare
rad!a%s. 2hat co%verts to 14 tr!a%"ular rad!a%s a%d to F20
o

$,h!ch !s the su' o* all the a%"les !%
a tetrahedro%). But d!v!de 0.62F60F &y $9?)44 to co%vert !t to e/u!lateral tr!a%"les a%d 'ult!ly
that &y the 20 sher!cal tr!a%"les o* the sher!cal !cosahedro% a%d you "et 2# > 4 . C 144 $4
t!'es the area o* o%e "reat c!rcle). 2he sur*ace area o* a u%!t shere !s 4pr
)
. 5!th r > 1, 4p =
12.5521, &ut 12.5521&$3?)44 > 2#. So the sur*ace area o* a shere !s 2#r
)
!% sher!cal e/u!lateral
tr!a%"ular u%!ts.
2here are %e, e.ress!o%s *or each o* the three d!'e%s!o%s !% e/uat!o%s o* %ature1s ,ay
o* 'easur!%" that do%1t use p or the Pytha"orea% theore'.
9ld (or'ula ;e, (or'ula U%!ts
7
shere
> 44? pr
*
5 r
*
tetrahedro%s
0
c!rcle
> p r
)
C
%
&
+
r
)
tr!a%"les
0
shere
> 4 p r
)
), r
)
sher!cal tr!a%"les
58
8
c!rcle
> 2 p r
6 r
60
o
arcs
S
arc
> r p4%
? r4%
60
o
arcs
$;ote also that 44? p r
*
,here p > ? e/uals 4, &ut 4 . $#48)
)

> 5)
5 8e$ie- of Trigono#etry
Start!%" ,!th the a%"le, !t has a% !%!t!al s!de, a ter'!%al s!de a%d a verte. or the o!%t o*
the a%"le. 2he sta%dard os!t!o% o* the a%"le, called os!t!ve, !s a cou%terclock,!se rotat!o%.
2he %e"at!ve a%"le the% has a clock,!se rotat!o%. 0% a%"le 'ay &e "e%erated &y 'ak!%" 'ore
tha% o%e revolut!o%, the ter'!%al s!de ass!%" the !%!t!al s!de o%ce or 'ore tha% o%ce. 0%d
dee%d!%" uo% the d!rect!o% o* rotat!o%, a %e"at!ve a%"le re'a!%s a %e"at!ve a%"le, a%d a
os!t!ve a%"le re'a!%s a os!t!ve a%"le.
2he tr!"o%o'etr!c *u%ct!o%s ca% &e de*!%ed as *ollo,sE
s!% < > y4$.Ay),
cos < > .4$.Ay),
ta% < > y4.,
cot < > .4y,
a%d < > ta%
@ %
y4.,
,here . A y > r. 0lso, . A y > -.
y ,!ll al,ays &e !% 'ult!les o* %4?6 or %4?60.
2rad!t!o%ally, tr!"o%o'etr!c *u%ct!o%s have &ee% &ased
uo% the r!"ht tr!a%"le. 2he tetrahedral *u%ct!o% -
*
> A4@ 1 *or's
a% !%ter*ace &et,ee% #0
o
a%d 60
o
coord!%ate syste's. Based uo%
the r!"ht tr!a%"le, S!% 60
o
has &ee% de*!%ed as $9?)42, ,h!ch !s the
volu'e o* a u%!t e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, a%d cos 60
o
as (. 2he
59
d!sta%ce &et,ee% the !'a"!%ary roots o* -
*
> 1 !s 9? ,h!ch !s also de*!%ed as ta% 60
o
. 2he
d!a"o%al o* a s/uare ,!th s!des o* 92 !s sec 60
o
,h!ch !s 2, the rec!rocal o* cos 60
o
. So, ,e
have
s!% 60
o
> $9?)42,
cos 60
o
> (>
ta% 60
o
> 9? a%d
sec 60
o
A 2.
2he cos 60
o
> ( !s o%ly o%e hal* the &ase o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. 2he hyote%use o*
the r!"ht tr!a%"le !s u%!ty a%d !s a%other s!de o* that tr!a%"le.
0llo,!%" the hyote%use &e de*!%ed as the y@coord!%ate a%d 2
cos 60
o
> ( &e de*!%ed as the .@coord!%ate o* the 60
o
coord!%ate syste', ,e have &ee% led *ro' our #0
o
coord!%ate
syste' !%to our 60
o
coord!%ate syste'. 2h!s !s true *or every
?0
o
460
o
4#0
o
tr!a%"le.
2ake a cu&e o* ,h!ch each s!de !s d!v!ded !%to *our
s/uares ,here each s!de !s $92)42, 'ak!%" that a cu&e o* 92.
Dra,!%" o%e !%ch d!a"o%als to each o* the *our s/uares o%
each *ace o* the cu&e so that they *or' a%other s/uare ,h!ch
!s tur%ed 45
o
*ro' the s/uare *ace, each o* these d!a"o%als ca%
&e co%%ected to *or' 4 he.a"o%s !%terlaced ,!th!% the cu&e.
Each o* the d!a"o%als !s ( sec 60
o
> P.P > PyP > P-P > 1, a%d th!s sho,s the 45
o
a%"le &et,ee% the
#0
o
a%d 60
o
coord!%ate syste's.
+'a"!%ary %u'&ers also *or' a% !%ter*ace &et,ee% #0
o
a%d 60
o
coord!%ate syste's.
Us!%" the s!de s o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, a% !'a"!%ary %u'&er !s o* tye, A4@ s42 A4@ h, ,here
h !s the he!"ht o* the tr!a%"le. (or a u%!t e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, the !'a"!%ary %u'&er ,ould &e
A4@ ( A4@ $9?)42. S!%ce the he!"ht o* the tr!a%"le ,ould have as 'a%y d!v!s!o%s % as the s!de s,
a "e%eral !'a"!%ary %u'&er ,ould &e A4@ s42% A4@ h4%. But s!%ce the he!"ht o* a u%!t
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le !s $9?)42, the !'a"!%ary %u'&er ,ould &e A4@ s42% A4@ $9?)42%. 2he
d!sta%ce &et,ee% a%y t,o o* @ s42% @ $9?)42%, A s42% @ $9?)42%, @ s42% A$9?)42%, A s42% A
$9?)42% ,ould &e P$9?)4%P. +% a #0
o
coord!%ate syste', s!% 60
o
> $9?)42%, a%d cos 60
o
> s42%.
2he !'a"!%ary %u'&er !s actually A4@ cos 60
o
A4@ s!% 60
o
. 2hat ,ould &e true ,hether !t
!s !% the #0
o
coord!%ate syste' or the 60
o
coord!%ate syste'. 2here*ore !t !s a% !%ter*ace.
2o tur% th!s to a 60
o
coord!%ate syste', % ,ould have to &e e/ual to 24$9?), a%d s > 0.
2he result ,ould &e s!% 60
o
> 1 a%d cos 60
o
> 0. 9% the other ha%d, the s!% 60
o
o* the 60
o

coord!%ate syste' !s e/ual to t,!ce the cos 60
o
o* the #0
o
coord!%ate syste'. 2h!s !s due to the
*act that, tak!%" hal* o* a u%!t e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, ,h!ch !s a r!"ht tr!a%"le, ,!th the a%"le
oos!te the he!"ht o* the tr!a%"le e/ual to 60
o
, the &ase !s o%e hal* the hyote%use. 2he
hyote%use !s the s!%e o* the a%"le !% the 60
o
coord!%ate syste', ,hereas the &ase !s the cos!%e
60
o* the a%"el !% the 60
o
coord!%ate syste'. 2he he!"ht !s %ot take% !%to co%s!derat!o%.
2he sec o* 60
o
!s 2 ,h!ch !s the le%"th o* t,o co%%ected s!des o* the u%!t he.a"o%. 2he
ta% o* 60
o
!s 9? ,h!ch !s the le%"th o* a l!%e co%%ect!%" the t,o e%ds o* the t,o co%%ected s!des
o* the u%!t he.a"o%. 5!th th!s !%*or'at!o%, a ta&le o* the tr!"o%o'etr!c *u%ct!o%s ca% &e
roduced.
0 tr!"o%o'etr!c ta&le &ased o% a s!%"le tr!a%"le ,!th!% a u%!t he.a"o% us!%" de"ree
'easure /E
Eve% thou"h de"ree 'easure !s used, the result !s the sa'e as rad!a% 'easure &ecause !t !s
&ased uo% chords o* the c!rcle a%d %ot the c!rcle !tsel*.
q Sin q Cos q Tan q Cot q
0
o
0 1 0
K
10
o
146 546
$9?)412, 145
5
15
o
144 ?44
$9?)48, 14?
?
20
o
14? 24?
$9?)46, (
2
?0
o
( $9?)42, ( $9?)44, 1
1
40
o
24? 14?
$9?)4?, 2
142
45
o
14$92), ?44 14$92), 144 1, ? 14?
50
o
546 146
5$9?)412, 5
145
60
o
$9?)42, 1 (> 0 $9?), K 0
$Sec q > S!% q or 8os q &ecause a seca%t !s the chord u%der%eath the arc. +% other ,ords, Sec q
> . A y. $9% the ?0
o
, 45
o
, a%d 60
o
, as ,ell as the 2a% q colu'%, + have !%cluded 'easures *ro'
the #0
o
coord!%ate syste'.)
0lso !%cluded !% tr!"o%o'etr!c 'easure'e%t !s the *u%ct!o%s o*
seca%t, coseca%t, a%d cota%"e%t ,h!ch are the rec!rocals o* cos!%e, s!%e,
a%d ta%"e%t, resect!vely.
+ !%clude here a ta&le o* !'a"!%ary %u'&ers o&ta!%ed *ro' the r!"ht
tr!a%"le.
Z h x X In!"#$%s
1 $9?)42 142 1 A4@ ( A4@ $9?)42
2 9? 1 2 A4@ 1 A4@ 9?
? ?$9?)42 1 142 ? A4@ 1( A4@ ?$9?)42
4 2$9?) 2 4 A4@ 2 A4@ 29?
61
5 5$9?)42 2 142 5 A4@ 2( A4@ 5$9?)42
6 ?$9?) ? 6 A4@ ? A4@ ?9?
F F$9?)42 ? 142 F A4@ ?( A4@ F$9?)42
8 4$9?) 4 8 A4@ 4 A4@ 49?
# #$9?)42 4 142 # A4@4( A4@ #$9?)42
2he rad!us r o* a c!rcle !s the hyote%use o* a r!"ht tr!a%"le. 2he ere%d!cular le" h
e.te%d!%" do,% *ro' the o!%t $.
o
, y
o
) o% the c!rcle !s the s!%e o* the
oos!te a%"le, ,hereas the &ase o* the tr!a%"le !s the cos!%e o* the
sa'e a%"le, the a%"le q ,h!ch the rad!us 'akes ,!th the .@a.!s. Het
th!s c!rcle e%close a he.a"o% such that the s!des o* the he.a"o% are
the chords o* the c!rcle. 2he o!%t $., y) ,here the rad!us r !%tersects
the he.a"o% !s the start o* the 60
o
coord!%ate syste'. 0 l!%e y
e.te%d!%" do,% *ro' the o!%t $., y) to !%tersect the .@a.!s at 60
o
!s
the y coord!%ate. (ro' that o!%t . &ack to the or!"!% !s the .
coord!%ate. 2hese t,o l!%es . a%d y added to"ether "!ve the sa'e
le%"th as the rad!us r. .1 !s the &ase o* the r!"ht tr!a%"le.
r @ .1 !s the d!sta%ce &et,ee% the t,o o!%ts $.
o
, y
o
) o% the arc a%d $., y) o% the chord.
5hy6
(!rst, &ecause M > r. 2hat1s a "!ve%.
Seco%d, the r!"ht tr!a%"les 8.1B a%d 8$., y)B share the sa'e s!de 8B, the chord o* the
arc &et,ee% 8 a%d B.
2h!rd, the a%"le &et,ee% r a%d 8B a%d the a%"le &et,ee% M a%d 8B are e/ual,a%d
(ourth, a%"le B.18 > a%"le 8$., y)B, they &oth &e!%" r!"ht a%"les, a%d s!%ce there are
t,o a%"les !% the t,o r!"ht tr!a%"les that are e/ual lus the *act that they share o%e s!de, the t,o
tr!a%"les are e/ual.
2here*ore, $., y)8 > .1B. 0 vert!cal droed do,% *ro' $., y) "!ves you the !'a"!%ary %u'&er.
y > h.
5hy6
(!rst, the t,o r!"ht tr!a%"les are e/ual.
Seco%d, the t,o &ases o* the r!"ht tr!a%"les are e/ual.
2h!rd, the t,o r!"ht tr!a%"les share the sa'e s!de 8B.
Het the t,o e/ual &ases &e &. Het the s!de 8D &e a. 2he% h > 9$a
2
A &
2
). But $., y)B !s
also e/ual to 9$a
2
A &
2
), a%d y > $., y)B &ecause $., y)B !s art o* a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ,here
y !s o%e o* the s!des, so, h > y.
62
;o, !* h > s!% q , the% y !s also e/ual to s!% q. cos < !s 'erely *ou%d &y su&tract!%" y
*ro' r.
2he o!%t $., y) !s o% the seca%t -, a%d %ot o% the c!rcle c. +*
the le%"th o* the seca%t aroaches -ero, the% ,e '!"ht say that
the o!%t $., y) co!%c!des ,!th a o!%t o% c, &ut th!s 'athe'at!cs !s
'ore co%cer%ed ,!th o!%ts o% the he.a"o%.
Le'e'&er that . > r cos q a%d y > r s!% q .
(or a o!%t e.te%d!%" *ro' the s!de o* a s'aller he.a"o%
,!th!% a lar"er he.a"o% to the s!de o* that e%clos!%" he.a"o%, a%d
the t,o he.a"o%s share a co''o% ce%ter, the% the outer o!%t
$ .
o
A r cosq, y
o
A r s!%q) !s a% e.te%s!o% o* the !%%er o!%t $.
o
, y
o
).
63
Chapter 3i$e
5 Leo#etric 5lgebra
$!%s!red &y Dav!d 9rl!% Beste%es)
Multiplying ectors
$take% *ro' ;e, (ou%dat!o%s *or 8lass!cal Mecha%!cs &y Dav!d Beste%es, . 1F)
0l"e&ra!c syste's *a!l to !%d!cate the d!**ere%ce &et,ee% scalars a%d vectors. 2h!s
d!**ere%ce !s %ot re*lected !% the rules *or add!t!o%, &ut !% the d!**ere%t "eo'etr!c
!%terretat!o%s. Descates "ave rules *or V'ult!ly!%"W l!%e se"'e%ts !% ,h!ch the d!rect!o%
d!d%1t 'atter, a%d the result ,as a d!lat!o% or ro:ect!o%. 5e ca% take a d!**ere%t ath a%d use
rules *or 'ult!l!cat!o% o* l!%e se"'e%ts !% ,h!ch the d!rect!o% does 'atter, that !s, use a
co%struct!o% *or the 'ult!l!cat!o% o* t,o vectors. 2he co%struct!o% that !s *a'!l!ar !s the
ere%d!cular ro:ect!o% o* o%e l!%e se"'e%t o%to a%other. +* o%ly the relat!ve d!rect!o% o* the
l!%e se"'e%ts to &e 'ult!l!ed !s %eeded, the result ca% &e 'ult!l!ed &y the 'a"%!tude o* e!ther
o* the'.
2he +%%er Product , also called the Dot Product, o* t,o d!rected l!%e se"'e%ts a a%d b>
,r!tte% a
.
b !s de*!%ed to &e the or!e%ted l!%e se"'e%t o&ta!%ed &y d!lat!%" the ro:ect!o% o* a
o%to b &y the 'a"%!tude o* b. 2he result!%" l!%e se"'e%t !s a scalar.
2he de*!%!t!o% o* a
.
b !'l!es the relat!o%sh! o* a a%d b to the a%"le < &y
a
.
& > PaPP&P cos <.
64
+% Eucl!dea% sace, the !%%er roduct !s al,ays os!t!ve,
a
)
> a
.
a S 0 Va j 0.
5e de*!%e the cos!%e o* the a%"le &et,ee% the t,o vectors a a%d & as
a
.
& 4 PaPP&P > cos <.
$+% %o%@Eucl!dea% saces ,e ca%%ot do th!s. 5e ca% ho,ever !%troduce a% ortho"o%al *ra'e
a%d co'ute the dot roduct as !% M!%ko,sk! sace@t!'e as a
\
&
\
or l
\m
a
\
&
m
, ,here l
\m
!s the
'etr!c te%sor.)
2he reaso% that the resulta%t l!%e se"'e%t !s a scalar !s &ecause ,e are talk!%" a&out
relat!ve d!rect!o% !% the de*!%!t!o% o* a
.
b a%d %ot the d!rect!o% o* e!ther a or b. 2h!s ,ay, the
a%"le &et,ee% a a%d b re'a!%s co%sta%t a%d roduces a% !'orta%t sy''etry roerty o*
a
.
& > &
.
a . $5.1)
2he ro:ect!o% o* a o%to b d!lated &y ;b; "!ves the sa'e result as b ro:ected o%to a a%d
d!lated &y ;a;.
$take% *ro' ;e, (ou%dat!o%s *or 8lass!cal Mecha%!cs &y Dav!d Beste%es, . 1#)
2,o other al"e&ra!c roert!es ca% &e deduced *or the de*!%!t!o% o* the !%%er roduct. +ts
relat!o% to scalar 'ult!l!cat!o% o* vectors !s e.ressed &y
$Ma)
.
& > M$a
.
&) > a
.
$M&) ,here M !s os!t!ve, %e"at!ve or -ero. $5.2)
+ts relat!o% to vector add!t!o% ca% &e e.ressed &y the d!str!&ut!ve ruleE
a
.
$& A c) > a
.
& A a
.
c . $5.?)
2he 'a"%!tude o* a vector !s related to the !%%er roduct &y
a
.
a > ; a ;
)
N 0. $5.4)
9* course, a
.
a > 0 !* a%d o%ly !* a > 0.
2he !%%er roduct ca% &e used to co'are a%"les a%d the le%"ths o* l!%e se"'e%ts.
65
+'orta%t theore's o* "eo'etry a%d tr!"o%o'etry ca% &e roved &y the 'ethods o*
vector al"e&ra. 2h!s ca% &e real!-ed &y us!%" a s!'le vector e/uat!o% *or a tr!a%"le, v!-.
c > a A & .
By us!%" the !%%er roduct a%d s/uar!%", us!%" the d!str!&ut!ve rule, o%e "ets a% e/uat!o%
relat!%" the s!des o* a tr!a%"le to !ts !%%er a%"lesE
c
.
c > $a A &)
.
$a A &)
> a
.
$a A &) A &
.
$a A &)
> $a
.
a) A $&
.
&) A $a
.
&) A $&
.
a) , the%,
; c ;
)
A ; a ;
)
J ; & ;
)
J 2$ a
.
&) ,h!ch ca% &e e.ressed !% ter's o* scalars as
c
)
> a
)
A &
)
A 2a& cos 8.
2h!s *or'ula !s called the la, o* cos!%es !% tr!"o%o'etry. +* 8 reduces to -ero, ,e have the
Pytha"orea% 2heore'. 2here*ore, the !%%er roduct !s a l!%k &et,ee% the 60
o
coord!%ate syste'
a%d the #0
o
coord!%ate syste'.
S!'!larly, *ro' a > c @ & a%d s/uar!%", o%e "ets the the la, o* s!%es,
s!% 0 & a > s!% B & & > s!% 8 & c .
2he +%%er Product ca% &e *ully de*!%ed as a rule relat!%" scalars to vectors hav!%" the
roert!es o* e/uat!o%s 5.1 throu"h 5.4.2he results o* "eo'etr!c a%d tr!"o%o'etr!c theore's
ca% &e o&ta!%ed eas!ly *ro' the al"e&ra. (or e.a'le, the *act that l!%es a a%d & are
ere%d!cular ca% &e ,r!tte% as a
.
& > 0. 2he al"e&ra &eco'es a use*ul la%"ua"e *or
descr!&!%" the real ,orld.
;oteE 2he 8ross Product, e.!sts o%ly !% ?@D such that a x & !s ere%d!cular to the la%e
de*!%ed &y a a%d &. +t has a 'a"%!tude o* PaPP&P s!% <. 0lso, a, &, a%d a x & *or' a r!"ht@ha%ded
set. +%troduc!%" a r!"ht@ha%ded ortho%or'al *ra'e ne
!
o, ,e have
e
1
x e
2
> e
?
, etc.
or "e%eral!-!%", us!%" !%de. %otat!o%,
e
!
x e
:
> e
!:k
e
k
.
;o, !* ,e e.a%d the vectors !% ter's o* co'o%e%ts a > a
!
e
!
a%d & > &
!
e
!
, ,e have,
a x & > $a
!
e
!
) x(&
:
e
:
)
> a
!
&
:
$e
!
x e
:
)
> $f
!:k
a
!
&
:
) e
k
.
But the "eo'etr!c de*!%!t!o% !s !% ter's o* *ra'es. 9%e a!' o* Ceo'etr!c 0l"e&ra !s to avo!d
!%troduc!%" *ra'es as 'uch as oss!&le.
The Outer .roduct
2he *a!l!%" o* the cross roduct !s that !t e.!sts o%ly !% ? d!'e%s!o%s. +t ca%%ot e.!st !% 2
d!'e%s!o%s. 5!th a% outer roduct, ,e ca% e%code a la%e "eo'etr!cally ,!thout rely!%" uo%
66
a vector ere%d!cular to !t. 5e de*!%e a% outer roduct as the area s,et out &y a a%d &. 2h!s !s
de%oted as a 4p &, called 1a ,ed"e &1. 2he la%e has a% area o* PaPP&P s!% < ,h!ch !s de*!%ed to &e
the 'a"%!tude o* a 4p &. 2here have &ee% 'a%y syste's such as te%sor al"e&ra, 'atr!. al"e&ra
a%d s!%or al"e&ra des!"%ed to e.ress th!s "eo'etr!cal !dea. 0ll o* these other syste's ca% &e
e.ressed us!%" th!s outer roduct.
+% the ,ords o* Dav!d Beste%es,
2he r!%c!le that the roduct o* t,o vectors ou"ht to descr!&e the!r relat!ve
d!rect!o%s res!ded over the de*!%!t!o% o* the !%%er roduct. But the !%%er roduct
*alls short o* a co'lete *ul*!ll'e%t o* that r!%c!le, &ecause !t *a!ls to e.ress the
*u%da'e%tal "eo'etr!cal *act that t,o %o%@arallel l!%es deter'!%e a
arallelo"ra'. $;e, (ou%dat!o%s *or 8lass!cal Mecha%!cs &y Dav!d Beste%es, . 21)
But ,e are th!%k!%" a&out the e/u!lateral tr!a%"le a%d the "eo'etr!c roerty o* area as the
"eo'etr!cal roduct o* t,o s!des o* the tr!a%"le e.ressed as the th!rd s!de.
2he result o* the outer roduct !s %e!ther a scalar %or a vector. +t !s a %e, 'athe'at!cal
e%t!ty. +t !s the %ot!o% o* a% or!e%ted la%e se"'e%t or area. +t !s called a &!vector. +t ca% &e
v!sual!-ed as a% e/u!lateral tr!a%"le ,!th o%e vector s,ee!%" &ack !%to the other. $2he vector
sho,!%" the d!rect!o% o* s,ee !s al,ays the th!rd vector oos!te the a%"le created &y the
other t,o vectors.) 8ha%"!%" the order o* the s,ee reverses the or!e%tat!o% o* the la%e.
@ y 4p . > - or @ - 4p @ . > y
a 4p & > c & 4p a > @ c
. !s s,et to,ards @ y, & !%to a @ . !s s,et to,ards @ -, a !%to &
or . !s s,et across - a%d @ . !s s,et across y
Lecall!%" the tetrahedral roots o* o%e, there ,ere t,o tr!a%"les, each rotat!%" !% oos!te
d!rect!o%s. 2hese are de*!%ed as outer roducts $s!'!lar to the cross roduct . x y !% ?
d!'e%s!o%s, &ut al!ed to 2 d!'e%s!o%s), such that . 4p - > @ y > 1, or @ - 4p @ . > y > 1.
$2hese tr!a%"les are related to the e/uat!o%s a A & > c a%d a @ c > @ &. )
Ce%eral!-!%", a 4p & > c a%d & 4p a > @ c. Het c al,ays o!%t u,ard. 2here*ore, c "o!%"
cou%terclock,!se !s -, a%d c "o!%" clock,!se !s y. 2h!s ,!ll &e the sta%dard. a 4p & !s d!rected
cou%terclock,!se a%d & 4p a !s d!rected clock,!se. 2he% a !s al,ays s,et !%to & clock,!se, a%d
& !s al,ays s,et !%to a cou%terclock,!se. Het the outer roduct &e de*!%ed as the area o* a u%!t
d!rected e/u!lateral tr!a%"le, so !* a > & > 1, a 4p & > 1, a%d & 4p a > @ 1 . +% ;ature1s 5ay o*
Measur!%", a u%!t &!vector has the area o* 1.
67
2he &!vector !s %ot a set o* o!%ts &ut !s a d!rect!o%al relat!o% o* that set o* o!%ts,
sec!*y!%" the the la%e the o!%ts are !%. 0s a vector !s a d!rect!o%al relat!o% o* o!%ts o% a
l!%e, the &!vector character!-es the d!rect!o%al relat!o% o* o!%ts ,!th!% a% area o* a la%e.
Because & 4p a > @ a 4p & > @ c, the outer roduct !s a%t!co''utat!ve. 2he relat!o% &et,ee%
vector or!e%tat!o% a%d &!vector or!e%tat!o% !s *!.ed &y the ruleE
& 4p a > a 4p $@ &) > $@ &) 4p $@ a) > $@ a) 4p &. $5.4)
+* le*t crosses over to r!"ht, !t cha%"es s!"%, &ut !* r!"ht crosses over to le*t, !t does %ot cha%"e
s!"%. 2h!s co'es *ro' the correso%de%ce o* vectors a%d &!vectors ,!th l!%e se"'e%ts a%d
la%e se"'e%ts.
2h!s ca% &e e.ressed ,!th scalars as
y @ . > @ -, . A y > @ -, . @ y > -, @ . @ y > -
2h!s !s &ecause !* y a%d - have &oth &ee% rotated 180
o
, the% . re'a!%s the sa'e to kee the
sa'e tr!a%"ular or!e%tat!o%, &ut !* y a%d - are the% rotated 60
o
, the% . !s rotated 180
o
. 0 rotat!o%
o* 180
o
does %ot cha%"e the s!"% o* a the th!rd %u'&er, &ut a rotat!o% o* 60
o
does.
2he 'a"%!tude o* a 4p & !s :ust the area o* a% e/u!a%"ular e/u!lateral tr!a%"le. 2here*ore,
PBP > Pa 4p &P > P& 4p aP > PaP P&P s!% <, $5.5)
,here < !s the a%"le &et,ee% a a%d & a%d 0
o
Q < Q 60
o
. +* that !s the case, the% < !s *ou%d
,!th!% a he.a"o% ,h!ch !s d!v!ded u !%to s!. 60
o
a%"les. 2here*ore, th!s de*!%!t!o% ha%dles a%y
a%"le.
Scalar 'ult!l!cat!o% *or &!vectors !s the sa'e as *or vectors. (or a%y &!vectors 0 a%d B
a%d scalar q , the%
B > q 0 $5.6)
'ea%s that the 'a"%!tude o* 0 !s d!lated &y q , that !s,
PBP > q P0P
,here the d!rect!o% o* 0 !s the sa'e as B u%less q !s %e"at!ve. 2h!s last st!ulat!o% ca% &e
e.ressed &y 'ult!l!cat!o% &y %u'&ers 1 a%d @ 1E
B > B, $@ 1) B > @ B. $5.F)
B!vectors ,h!ch are scalar 'ult!les o* o%e a%other are sa!d to &e cod!rect!o%al.
Scalar 'ult!l!cat!o%s o* vectors a%d &!vectors are related &y
q$a 4p &) > $ qa) 4p & > a 4p$ q&). $5.8) $a% e!ther4or s!tuat!o%E e!ther a !s 'ult!l!ed &y q or
68
& !s 'ult!l!ed &y q.)
(or q > @ 1, th!s e/uat!o% !s the sa'e as e/uat!o% $5.4). (or os!t!ve q, e/uat!o% 5.8
sho,s that d!lat!o% o* o%e s!de o* the tr!a%"le !s d!lated the sa'e a'ou%t as the other s!de.
By e/uat!o% 5.5, !* s!% < > 0 the% Pa 4p &P > 0 *or %o%@-ero a a%d &. 2h!s !s the al"e&ra!c
,ay o* say!%" that a a%d & are coll!%ear. +t *ollo,s that Pa 4p &P > 0 !* a%d o%ly !* a 4p & > 0. $2h!s
*ollo,s the r!%c!le o* vectors that !* the 'a"%!tude o* a vector !s -ero, the% the vector !s
-ero.) 2here*ore, the outer roduct a 4p & o* %o%@-ero vectors !s -ero !* a%d o%ly !* they are
coll!%ear.
0ssu'!%" that
a 4p & > 0 a%d & > qa, the%
a 4p a > 0.
Us!%" the a%t!co''utat!ve rule,
a 4p a > @ a 4p a
*or o%ly -ero !s e/ual to !ts o,% %e"at!ve. 2he vector a !s coll!%ear ,!th !tsel*.
3ro# 5rea to olu#e
9uter 'ult!l!cat!o%s a%d add!t!o% have a relat!o%sh! !% the d!str!&ut!ve ruleE
a 4p $& A c) > a 4p & A a 4p c.
2h!s relates add!t!o% o* &!vectors o% the r!"ht to the add!t!o% o* vectors o% the le*t. 2he
al"e&ra!c roert!es o* &!vectors are co'letely deter'!%ed &y the roert!es o* vectors. 2he
add!t!o% o* t,o &!vectors !s a &!vector a%d th!s add!t!o% !s assoc!at!ve.
But ,hat a&out $a 4p &) A $c 4p d) > $a A c) 4p $& A d)6 +s that true6
+% ?@d the add!t!o% o* &!vectors !s eas!ly v!sual!-ed. 2he la%e o* a &!vector ca% &e
sho,% ,!th!% a vorte. or a t,!st o* three vectors !% three d!'e%s!o%s. 2ak!%" the three vectors
o* a vorte. a%d co'&!%!%" the' to three vectors o* the oos!te t,!st, a tetrahedro% !s *or'ed
sho,!%" the d!str!&ut!ve roerty o* &!vectors.
69
2he !%%er a%d outer roducts are co'l!'e%ts o* each other. 2hey are &oth 'easures o*
relat!ve d!rect!o%. +* a relat!o% !s too d!**!cult to o&ta!% us!%" o%e, the% !t ca% &e *ou%d ,!th the
other. 5hereas the e/uat!o% a

& > 0 rov!des a s!'le e.ress!o% *or t,o ere%d!cular l!%es,
a 4p & > 0 rov!des a s!'le e.ress!o% *or t,o arallel l!%es.
Pere%d!cular l!%es S a

& > 0
Parallel l!%es S a 4p & > 0
2ake the outer roduct, *or e.a'le, o* a A & > c success!vely ,!th vectors a, &, a%d c.
2h!s roduces the e/uat!o%s
a 4p & > a 4p c
& 4p a > & 4p c
c 4p a > c 4p &
,h!ch ca% &e e.ressed &y
a 4p c > a 4p & > c 4p &.
E.ressed !% 'a"%!tudes,
Pa 4p cP > Pa 4p &P > Pc 4p &P,
a%d us!%" the de*!%!t!o% o* the outer roduct,
PaPPcPs!% < > PaPP&Ps!% < > PcPP&Ps!% <,
us!%" the scalar la&els 0, B, 8 *or the a%"les o* a tr!a%"le, a%d d!v!d!%" &y a&c, ,e o&ta!%
s!% 0
>
s!% B
>
s!% 8 .
a & c
0ll the *or'ulas *or la%e a%d sher!cal tr!"o%o'etry ca% &e der!ved us!%" !%%er a%d
outer roducts.
Properties of a bivector:
1. 2he outer roduct o* t,o vectors !s a%t!sy''etr!c,
a 4p & > @ & 4p a.
2h!s *ollo,s *ro' the "eo'etr!c de*!%!t!o%.
2. 2he outer roduct !s d!str!&ut!ve. 2hat !s,
a 4p $& A c) > a 4p & A a 4p c.
?. B!vectors *or' a l!%ear sace the sa'e as vectors do.
70
B!vectors ,ere or!"!%ally &ased uo% d!rected arallelo"ra's. ;o,, there !s really %o
u%!/ue dee%de%ce o% a a%d &. +* a1 > a A & ,e st!ll have a14p & > a 4p &. Het & > c. 2here*ore,
,e have $a A c) 4p & > a 4p & A c 4p & ,here c 4p & > & 4p & > 0, s!%ce & a%d & are arallel. 2hus,
!t !s so'et!'es &etter to relace the d!rected arallelo"ra' ,!th a d!rected c!rcu!t, a%d the
e/u!lateral tr!a%"le !s the s!'lest d!rected c!rcu!t.
Three 4i#ensions
2he outer roduct ca% &e "e%eral!-ed. rust as a tr!a%"ular la%e se"'e%t !s s,et out &y
a vector or l!%e se"'e%t, a sac!al se"'e%t o* a tetrahedro% !s s,et out &y a la%e se"'e%t. 0
&!vector a 4p & 'oves at a d!sta%ce a%d d!rect!o% sy'&ol!-ed &y the vector c roduc!%" a
tetrahedro%.
2he al"e&ra o* Ba'!lto%!a% /uater%!o%s co%ta!%s 4 ele'e%ts n1, !, :, ko, &ut o%ly three o*
these sec!*y a vector. 2h!s ca% &e "e%eral!-ed &y de*!%!%" the 1 as a *ourth vector. n1, !, :, ko !s
"e%eral!-ed as na, &, c, do. 2h!s *ourth d!'e%s!o% d ca% &e !%terreted as t!'e, so the
Ba'!lto%!a% ca% &e de'o%strated ,!th a tetrahedro% 2, a
tr!vector. 5e ,r!te the outer roduct o* a &!vector a 4p &
,!th a vector c as
$a 4p &)4p c > 2.
0s *or &!vectors, tr!vectors o&ey the assoc!at!ve ruleE
$a 4p &)4p c > a 4p $& 4p c).
2h!s rule ca% &e deter'!%ed *ro' a%other ruleE $a 4p &) > @
$& 4p a) such that
$& 4p a)4p c > $@ a 4p &)4p c > @ 2 .
2hus, the or!e%tat!o% o* a tr!vector ca% &e reversed &y revers!%" the or!e%tat!o% o* o%ly o%e o*
!ts co'o%e%ts. 2h!s 'akes !t oss!&le to rearra%"e the vectors to "et
$a 4p &)4p c > $& 4p c)4p a > $c 4p a)4p &,
,h!ch 'ea%s that $a 4p &) s,ee!%" alo%" c, $& 4p c) s,ee!%" alo%" a, a%d $c 4p a) s,ee!%"
alo%" &, all results !% the sa'e tetrahedro%. But !*
$a 4p &)4p c > a 4p & 4p c > 0,
the% c l!es !% the sa'e la%e as a a%d &, a%d a tetrahedro% !s %ot roduced.
0lso, as &!vectors are a%t!co''utat!ve, so are tr!vectorsE
71
c 4p & 4p a > @ a 4p & 4p c.
5!thout such al"e&ra!c aaratus, a%y "eo'etr!cal !dea o* relat!ve or!e%tat!o% ,ould &e
d!**!cult to e.ress. 0dd!%" 'ore d!'e%s!o%s does %ot add a%y %e, !%s!"hts !%to the relat!o%
&et,ee% al"e&ra a%d "eo'etry. 2he d!slace'e%t o* a tr!vector a 4p & 4p c alo%" a *ourth vector d
does %ot roduce a *ourth@d!'e%s!o%al sace se"'e%t a%alo"ous to a three d!'e%s!o%al
tetrahedro%, esec!ally s!%ce the tetrahedro% !s e%ou"h to de'o%strate a *our d!'e%s!o%al
'a%!*old.
So $a 4p & 4p c)4p d > a 4p & 4p c 4p d > 0.
The Leo#etric .roduct
2he sy''etr!c !%%er roduct a
.
& a%d the a%t!sy''etr!c outer roduct a 4p & are
co'&!%ed !% the "eo'etr!c roduct, called a 'ult!vector,
a& > a
.
& A a 4p &.
+t ca% also &e thou"ht o* as co'osed o* real a%d !'a"!%ary arts. 2he !%%er roduct !s the real
art.
S!%ce a
.
& > &
.
a, a%d a 4p & > @ & 4p a, &y the sy''etry4a%t!sy''etry use o* the ter's,
&a > &
.
a A & 4p a > a
.
& @ a 4p &.
+t *ollo,s that &y tak!%" the su% a%d d!**ere%ce o* the e/uat!o%s *or a& a%d &a that
a
.
& > ( $a& A &a) a%d a 4p & > ( $a& @ &a).
5e ca% thus *or' other roducts !% ter's o* the "eo'etr!c roduct.
a& > ( I$a& A &a) A $a& @ &a)J.
Le'e'&er that the area o* a arallelo"ra' !s the deter'!%a%t o* t,o vectors or Iad @ &cJ. Bal*
o* that deter'!%a%t !s the area o* a tr!a%"le. a4p& !s the area o* a tr!%a"le, so !* a4p& > ( $a& @ &a),
the% the d!**ere%ce o* t,o 'ult!vectors $a& @ &a) !s a deter'!%a%t.
Proert!es o* the Ceo'etr!c ProductE
1. Ce%eral ele'e%ts o* a Ceo'etr!c 0l"e&ra are called 'ult!vectors a%d are usually ,r!tte%
!% uer case, $0, B, 8, T ). 2hese *or' a l!%ear sace !% ,h!ch scalars ca% &e added to
&!vectors, a%d vectors, etc.
2. 2he "eo'etr!c roduct !s assoc!at!veE
0$B8) > $0B)8 > 0B8
?. 2he "eo'etr!c roduct !s d!str!&ut!veE
0$BA8) > 0B A 08
$Matr!. 'ult!l!cat!o% !s a "ood th!%" to kee !% '!%d.)
4. 2he tr!a%"le o* a%y vector !s a scalar.
72
2he roo* o* th!s last roerty !s to rove that the !%%er roduct o* a%y t,o vectors !s a
scalar.
Het c > a A &, a%d there*ore, c
2
> $a A &)
2
. E.a%d!%",
$a A &)
2
> $a A &)$a A &)

> a
2
A &
2
A a& A &a
+t *ollo,s that
a& A &a > $a A &)
2
@ a
2
@ &
2

+% "eo'etr!c al"e&ra, a& > 8 has the solut!o% & > a
@ 1
8. ;e!ther the dot roduct %or the
cross roduct are caa&le o* th!s !%vers!o% o% the!r o,%.
Leo#etric 5lgebra in )7d
8o%s!der a la%e ,h!ch !s sa%%ed &y 2 ortho%or'al vectors ! a%d :. 2hese &as!s vectors
sat!s*y !
2
> :
2
> 1, !

.
: > 0, a%d P!P

> P:P.
2he %e.t e%t!ty rese%t !% a 2 d!'e%s!o%al al"e&ra !s the &!vector !

4p : . By co%ve%t!o%,
&!vectors are r!"ht@ha%ded, so that !

s,ees o%to :

!% a r!"ht@ha%ded se%se ,he% v!e,ed *ro'
a&ove. But !* ,e kee the co%ve%t!o% o* : al,ays &e!%" vert!cal, : s,ees !%to ! e!ther ,ay.
class!cal arra%"e'e%t the "eo'etr!c roduct ! 4p : : !s al,ays vert!cal
2he other co%ve%t!o% !s that the head o* o%e vector co%%ects to the e%d o!%t o* the other
vector.
Het I > ! 4p : > ! :. 5he% I > !

4p : , ,e call I a seudoscalar. 2he *ull al"e&ra !s sa%%ed &y
1 n ! , :o ! 4p :
1 scalar 2 u%!t vectors 1 &!vector

5e de%ote th!s al"e&ra &y C
2
. 2he la, o* 'ult!l!cat!o% *or C
2
!s that the "eo'etr!c roduct
73
! : > !
.
: A ! 4p : > ! 4p : .
2hat !s, *or ortho"o%al vectors, the "eo'etr!c roduct !s a ure &!vector. Because o* the
a%t!co''utat!v!ty roerty o* &!vectors, ! : > ! 4p : > : 4p @ ! > @ $: !). +% Ceo'etr!c 0l"e&ra,
ortho%or'al vectors a%t!co''ute.
5e ca% %o, *or' roducts *ro' the r!"ht a%d *ro' the le*t. Mult!ly!%" a vector &y a
&!vector *ro' the le*t, ,e rotate the vector clock,!se 60
o
. Het ! &e 'ult!l!ed &y !: o% the le*t.
$! :) ! > $ @ : !) ! > @

: $! !) > @

:,
2he vector has &ee% rotated clock,!se 60
o
,here 7 : > :1 &y co%ve%t!o%.
2h!s ca% &e v!sual!-ed &y us!%" tr!a%"ular
vectorsE
Het : &e rotated &y !: o% the le*t.
$! :)

: > !$

:

:) > !.
+* : !s rotated *ro' the le*t, !t !s rotated
clock,!se 120
o
.
S!'!larly, act!%" *ro' the r!"ht,
! $! :) > !

! : >

:,
: $! :) > @

:

: ! > @ !.
Mult!ly!%" *ro' the r!"ht rotates a vector
clock,!se, e!ther 120
o
or 60
o
.
2he *!%al roduct !% the al"e&ra !s the
tr!a%"le o* the &!vector.
I
)
> $ !

4p : )
2
> ! :

! :

> @ ! !

: :

> @ 1.
5e have d!scovered a urely "eo'etr!c
/ua%t!ty ,h!ch tr!a%"les to @ 1. 2,o success!ve
le*t or r!"ht 'ult!l!cat!o%s o* a vector &y ! :
rotates the vector throu"h 180
o
,h!ch !s
e/u!vale%t to 'ult!ly!%" &y @ 1. But o%ly $! :)
! or : $! :) ,!ll tra%s*or' !%to I
)
or @ 1.
2ak!%" $! :) ! > @

: a%d 'ult!ly!%" each s!de &y :, $! :) ! : > @

: :, ,e have I
)
> @ 1. 2he%
tak!%"

: $! :) > @ I a%d 'ult!ly!%" each s!de &y !, ! : $! :) > @ ! !, ,e a"a!% have I
)
> @ 1.
2h!s ca%%ot &e do%e ,!th $! :)

: > ! a%d ! $! :) >

:. 0ll you ,!%d u ,!th !s 1 > 1.
74
Co#ple! Nu#bers
+t aears that the &!vector tr!a%"led &r!%"s the sa'e result as a% !'a"!%ary %u'&er
tr!a%"led. 2hat !s, I
)
> @ 1. 0s *u%ct!o%s, they &oth rotate a vector 60
o
. 2he co'&!%at!o% o* a
scalar a%d a &!vector are %aturally *or'ed us!%" the "eo'etr!c roduct a%d ca% &e v!e,ed as a
co'le. %u'&er
e > u A v ! : > u A I v.
Every co'le. %u'&er has a real a%d a% !'a"!%ary art.
+% C
2
, vectors are "rade@1 o&:ects,
. > u! A v:.
2he 'a!%" &et,ee% th!s vector . a%d the co'le. %u'&er e !s s!'ly re'ult!ly!%" &y !.
.! > u!! A v!: > u A I v > e.
Us!%" th!s 'ethod, vectors ca% &e !%tercha%"ed ,!th co'le. %u'&ers.
Leo#etric 5lgebra of * 4i#ensions
5e %o, add a th!rd vector k to our 2@d set n ! , :o. 0 la%e
!s sa%%ed &y ? ortho%or'al vectors !, :, k. 0ll three vectors are
assu'ed to &e ortho%or'al, so they all a%t!co''ute. (ro' these
three vectors are "e%erated three !%dee%de%t &!vectors !:, :k,
a%d !k. 2h!s !s the e.ected %u'&er o* !%dee%de%t la%es !%
?@D sace.
2he e.a%ded al"e&ra "!ves a %u'&er o* %e, roducts to
co%s!der. 9%e !s the roduct o* a &!vector a%d a% ortho"o%al
vector,
$! 4p :)k > !:k.
2h!s correso%ds to the &!vector, a la%e, ! 4p :, alo%" the vector k. 2he result !s a three
d!'e%s!o%al volu'e ele'e%t called a tr!vector ! 4p : 4p k. 2he sa'e result ca% &e see% as : 4p k
s,ees alo%" !. Ce%eral!-!%", $a 4p &) c > a&c. 2h!s "!ves us the 12 &!vectors E

clock,!se cou%terclock,!se
!$@:)k, @:k!, k!$@:), @!:$@k), :$@k)$@!), @k$@!):, !k$@:), @:!k, k$@:)!, @!$@k):, :$@!)$@k), @k:$@!)
But so'e o* these ca% &e el!'!%ated, as they are the sa'e tr!a%"le, "!v!%" us 4 &as!c tr!vectorsE
clock,!se cou%terclock,!se
!$@:)k, @!:$@k), !k$@:), @!$@k):
$+%stead o* order!%" the vectors, o%ly the s!"%s have &ee% ordered such that @ A A, A @ @ ,@ A @,
A @ A, A @ @, @ @ A, A A A, a%d @ @ @ , etc. 2here are actually 12 co'&!%at!o%s, &ut 8 o* the' are
%ot tr!vectors !% that they do %ot e.h!&!t c!rcu!try.)
2he &as!s vectors !, :, k sat!s*y
75
!
2
> :
2
> k
2
> 1, !
.
: > 0, :
.
k > 0, k
.
! > 0, I > $! 4p : 4p k) > ! : k, I
2
> @ 1 a%d
! @ : >

k, @ ! A : > @ k

, a%d etc., us!%" all the a&ove co'&!%at!o%s,
,h!ch are called the roert!es o* the al"e&ra C
?
, ,h!ch !s sa%ed &y
1 n!, :, ko n! 4p :, : 4p k, k 4p !o n! 4p : 4p ko
1 scalar ? u%!t
vectors
? &!vectors
1 tr!vector
2he other 'a!% roerty o* C
?
!s that !t !s a%t!sy''etr!c o% every a!r o* vectors,
a4p&4pc4p > @ &4pa4pc > &4pc4pa > etc.
S,a!%" a%y t,o vectors reverses the or!e%tat!o% o* the roduct.
2he roert!es o* the tr!vector I, or as !t !s so'et!'es called, a seudoscalar, or d!rected
volu'e, !s that !t !s r!"ht ha%ded. +% other ,ords, ! @ : > k. Net, !% the 60
o
coord!%ate syste',
there !s a re*lect!o% @ ! A : > @ k, ,h!ch, ,he% co'&!%ed ,!th I roduces a he.a"o%al
coord!%ate syste' such that P.
!
P A Py
:
P > P-
k
P.
8o%s!der the roduct o* a vector a%d seudoscalar, !I > !$!:k) > :k. 2h!s retur%s a
&!vector, the la%e ortho"o%al to the or!"!%al vector. Mult!ly!%" *ro' the le*t, $!:k)! > :k, ,e
*!%d a% !%dee%de%ce o* order. +t *ollo,s the% that + co''utes ,!th all the ele'e%ts !% the
al"e&ra. +* a !s a%y vector, the% a I > I a. 2h!s !s true ,!th o* the seudoscalar !% all odd
d!'e%s!o%s. +% eve% d!'e%s!o%s, the seudoscalar a%t!co''utes ,!th all vectors as ,e sa, !%
C
2
.
76
Each o* the &as!s &!vectors ca% &e e.ressed as the roduct o* the seudoscalar a%d ,hat
!s k%o,% as the dual vector
!: > I k, :k > I !, k! > I :
2h!s oerat!o% !s k%o,% as dual!ty tra%s*or'at!o%. 0lso,
a I & a
'
I
ca% &e u%derstood as a ro:ect!o% o%to the co'o%e%t o* I ortho"o%al to a.
2he roduct o* a &!vector a%d a seudoscalar
I$! 4p :) > I !:kk > I I k > @ k $%ote kk > 1)
the &!vector &e!%" 'aed o%to a vector v!a the dual!ty oerat!o%.
2he s/uare o* the seudoscalar !s I
(
& !:k!:k > !:!: > @ !!:: > @ 1 .

Multiplying ectors
The Inner .roduct
2he !%%er roduct !s usually ,r!tte% !% the *or' a k &. +% Eucl!dea% sace, the !%%er
roduct !s os!t!ve de*!%!t!ve,
a
2
> a k a S 0 7a j 0.
(ro' th!s ,e recover the Sch,ar- !%e/ual!ty
$a A q&)
2
S 0 7q
>>S a
2
A 2 q a k & A q
2
&
2
S 0 7q
>>S$a k &)
2
Q a
2
&
2
.
5e use th!s to de*!%e the cos!%e o* the a%"le &et,ee% a a%d &.
a k & > PaPP&P cos q .
2he cross roduct has o%e 'a:or *a!l!%". +t o%ly e.!sts !% ? d!'e%s!o%s. 5hat ,e %eed !s
a 'ea%s o* rerese%t!%" a la%e "eo'etr!cally, ,!thout rely!%" uo% the %ot!o% o* a vector
ere%d!cular to !t. 5e ca% rerese%t ortho"o%al vectors !% t,o d!'e%s!o%s. 5e ca% do th!s &y
the use o* the outer or e.ter!or roduct called a &!vector.
5e de*!%e the outer roduct to &e the area s,et out &y a a%d &. 2h!s !s de%oted &y a 4p &.
2he la%e has the area PaPP&P s!% q , ,h!ch !s de*!%ed to &e the roduct o* a 4p &, called a &!vector.
+t ca% &e v!sual!-ed as a tr!a%"le as a la%e ,!th the &ase or !%!t!al s!de s,ee!%" out the area
to,ards the ter'!%al s!de o* the tr!a%"le. 8ha%"!%" the order o* the s!des or vectors reverses the
or!e%tat!o% o* the la%e.
2he &!vector creates a real vector sace ,!th a "eo'etr!c roduct a&.
0% ar&!trary &!vector ca% &e deco'osed !% ter's o* ortho%or'al *ra'e o* &!vectors
77
a 4p & > $a
!
e
!
) 4p $&
:
e
:
)
> $a
2
&
?
@ &
?
a
2
)e
2
4p e
?
A $a
?
&
1
@ a
1
&
?
)e
?
4p e
1
A $a
1
&
2
@ a
2
&
1
)e
1
4p e
2
.
2he co'o%e%ts !% th!s e/uat!o% are those o* the cross roduct.
2he sta%dard co%cet o* a real vector sace *or vectors a, &, c &y the *ollo,!%" rulesE
$a&)c > a$&c) , assoc!at!ve $1)
a$& A c) > a& A ac , le*t d!str!&ut!ve $2)
$& A c)a > &a A ca , r!"ht d!str!&ut!ve $?)
a
2
> P a P
2
. co%tract!o% $4)
,here P a P !s a os!t!ve scalar called the 'a"%!tude o* a, a%d P a P > 0 !'l!es that a > 0.
2hese rules are co''o% ord!%ary scalar al"e&ra. 2he d!**ere%ce !s the lack o* a
co''utat!ve rule. 8o%se/ue%tly, le*t a%d r!"ht d!str!&ut!ve rules 'ust &e ostulated searately.
2he co%tract!o% rule $4) !s ecul!ar to "eo'etr!c al"e&ra.
(ro' the "eo'etr!c roduct a& ,e ca% de*!%e t,o %e, roducts, a sy''etr!c
!%%er roduct
a 4p & > 142 $a& A &a) > & kaU $5)
a%d a% a%t!sy''etr!c outer roduct
a 4p & > 142 $a& @ &a) > @ & 4p a.$6)
2here*ore, the "eo'etr!c roduct has the ca%o%!cal deco'os!t!o%
a& > a k & A a 4p & .
2he "eo'etr!c s!"%!*!ca%ce o* the outer roduct a 4p & should &e *a'!l!ar
*ro' the sta%dard vector cross roduct a x &, &ut !t !s !%terreted "eo'etr!cally as a% or!e%ted
la%e se"'e%t, as sho,% !% (!". 2. +t d!**ers *ro' a x & !% !% the *act that .
a 4p & & 4pa
(!". 2. B!vectors a 4p & a%d & 4p a rerese%t la%e se"'e%ts o* oos!te
or!e%tat!o% as sec!*ed &y a Vtr!a%"ular ruleW *or dra,!%" the
se"'e%ts.
(ro' the "eo'etr!c !%terretat!o%s o* the !%%er a%d outer roducts, ,e ca% !%*er a%
78
!%terretat!o% o* the "eo'etr!c roduct *or e.tre'e cases.
(or ortho"o%al vectors, ,e have *ro' $5)
a k & > 0 R>>S a& > @ &a.$8)
9% the other ha%d, coll!%ear vectors deter'!%e a arallelo"ra' ,!th va%!sh!%"
area $(!". 2), so *ro' $6) ,e have
a 4p & > 0 R>>S a& > &a.$#)
2hus, the "eo'etr!c roduct a& rov!des a 'easure o* the relat!ve d!rect!o%
o* the vectors. 8o''utat!v!ty 'ea%s that the vectors are coll!%ear. 0%t!co''utat!v!ty
'ea%s that they are ortho"o%al. Mult!l!cat!o% ca% &e reduced to
these e.tre'e cases &y !%troduc!%" a% ortho%or'al &as!s.