1

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION:
When a brake is working, the transformation of kinetic energy of moving masses into
thermal energy takes place. Brake elements are heated, which leads to the deterioration of
work conditions of a brake pad, increasing its, wear and decreasing the coefficient of friction.
Therefore, the limitation of brake heating is one of the important problems in the calculation
and construction brake blocks, and in certain cases the thermal calculation defines the choice
of a brake.

When the construction of brake systems is being designed, it is necessary to know the
temperature and the thermal distortion of the interface in the frictional contact region. The
analytical definition of heating parameters must take into account the condition under which
the mechanism must work. Thus, in intensive momentary braking the radiation of heat into
the surroundings may be neglected. Then since the brake pads are made of materials with
low thermal conductivity, almost all the heat generated in friction is directed inside the disk.
In view of the short duration of the braking process, the heat generated has no time to heat all
the disk and, hence, the temperature of the disk working surface is considerably higher than
the mean value of the volume temperature.

A. Yevtushenko [1] have studied the determination of heat and thermal distortion in
braking system and have shown that the change is magnitude of a contact area due to a
thermal distortion of a originally plane disk surface may be neglected.

D.M. Rowson [2] Has rederived the equations for the surface temperature rise at the
interface between a friction material and a brake disk to show how they are interrelated by
making suitable assumptions. He has also calculated for actual contact area to how the heat
generated during braking enters the disk brake, using an asbestos based friction material
rubbing on a cast iron disk brake.

Thomas Valvano [3] has developed an analytical method to predict thermal distortion
of a brake rotor. His technique involves utilizing a PC based computer program to calculate
2

the necessary thermal parameters and apply the result as input to a finite element based
thermal stress analysis.

Ji-Hoon Choi [4] has preformed transient analysis for thermoelastic contact problem
of disk brake with frictional heat generation using Finite Element Method. He has
investigated the thermoelastic instability (TEI) phenomenon i.e. The unstable growth of
contact pressure and temperature and the influence of the material properties on the
thermoelastic behavior.

G.H. Gao [5] has shown that using a two dimensional model for thermal analysis
implies that the contact conditions and frictional heat flux transfer are independent of u,
which may lead to false thermal elastic distortions and unrealistic contact conditions. Hence
he has presented an analytical model for the determination of the contact temperature
distribution on the working surface of a brake.

R.El Abdi & H Samrout [6] have presented an Anisothermal elasto viscoplastic three
dimensional model used to predict the response of disk brakes mounted on the French TGV
(High speed trains). They have studied the cyclic viscoplastic behaviours under in phase
changes of temperature and strain is analyzed by using this elaborate anisothermal model
with its material constants determined from isothermal experiments.

In the present work an attempt has been made for the transient heat conduction
analysis of disk brakes with frictional heat generation is performed using FEM. At the
present work the experimental data of A. Yevtushenko & Ivanyk [1] have been employed for
comparison. Further the variation of temperatures & thermal stress induced in the disk brake
is reported for various flange widths & various materials. Finally conclusion has been drawn
for the proper material for disk brake and it is shown that the Ansys results are consistent
with the experimental data for the same time of braking.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:
The statement of the problem is Transient thermal analysis as a disc brake rotor
using F.E.A (Finite Element Analysis).


3

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT:
The present investigation is aimed to study.
- The given disc brake rotor for its stability and rigidity (for this Thermal analysis and
coupled structural analysis is carried out on a given disc brake rotor).

- Best combination of parameters of disc brake rotor like Flange width, wall thickness
and material there by a best combination is suggested. (for this three different
combinations in each case is analyzed)

- The correlation between Ansys results and experimental results.

1.4 FUTURE SCOPE OF THE PROJECT:
In the present investigation of Thermal analysis of disc brake, a simplified model of
the disc brake without any vents with only ambient air cooling is analyzed by FEM package
ANSYS.

As a future work, a complicated model of Ventilated disc brake can be taken and there
by forced convection is to be considered in the analysis.

The benefit of utilizing analytical methods in the development of components is that
multiple design iterations can be evaluated of minimal costs. With the successful correlation
of test and analytical data, it is felt confident that this method can be utilized to evaluate
multiple design proposals with respect to rotor distortion and recommended optimum
component design parameters to meet the design specifications.

The determination of thermal fatigue life is another development to be investigated.
Thermal fatigue evaluation would require long heat cycles to ensure that temperature and
resultant stresses attain steady state operating conditions. Also, the finite element is close to
the friction surface may need to be further refined to accurately predict thermal stresses and
thus computer file sizes and running time need to be addressed.

Considering variable thermal conductivity, variable specific heat and non uniform
deceleration of the vehicle still complicates the analysis. This can be considered for the
future work.
4

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
A brake is a device by means of which artificial frictional resistance
is applied to moving machine member, in order to stop the motion of a machine.
In the process of performing this function, the brakes absorb either kinetic energy of
the moving member or the potential energy given up by objects being lowered by hoists,
elevators etc., the energy absorbed by brakes is dissipated in the form of heat. This heat is
dissipated in the surrounding atmosphere.

2.2 BRAKING REQUIREMENTS:
The brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle with in a minimum distance in
an emergency.
The driver must have proper control over the vehicle during braking and vehicle must
not skid.
The brakes must have well anti fade characteristics i.e, their effectiveness should not
decrease with constant prolonged application.
The brakes should have well anti wear properties.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKES:
Hydraulic brakes.
Electric brakes.
Mechanical brakes.

The mechanical brakes according to the direction of acting force may be sub divided
into the following two groups:

1. Radial brakes.
2. Axial brakes.


5

2.3.1 RADIAL BRAKES:
In these brakes the force acting on the brake drum is in radial direction. The radial
brake may be sub divided into external brakes and internal brakes.

2.3.2 AXIAL BRAKES:
In these brakes the force acting on the brake drum is only in the axial direction e.g.
Disc brakes, Cone brakes.



Fig 2.1 Disc Brake

2.4 DISC BRAKES:

A disc brake consists of a cast iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and a stationary housing
called caliper. The caliper is connected to some stationary part of the vehicle like the axle
casing or the stub axle as is cast in two parts each part containing a piston. In between each
piston and the disc there is a friction pad held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc.
passages are drilled in the caliper for the fluid to enter or leave each housing. The passages
are also connected to another one for bleeding. Each cylinder contains rubber-sealing ring
between the cylinder and piston. A schematic diagram is shown in the figure.

6



2.4.1 PRINCIPLE:

The principle used is the applied force (pressure) acts on the brake pads,
which comes in to contact with the moving disc. At this point of time due to friction the
relative motion is constrained.

A moving car has a certain amount of Kinetic energy and the brakes have to remove
this energy from the car in order to stop it. Each time the car is stopped, the brakes convert
Kinetic energy to heat generated by the friction between the pads and the disc slows the disc
down.



Fig 2.2 Working of Disc brake

2.4.2 WORKING:

When the brakes are applied, hydraulically actuated pistons move the
friction pads in to contact with the disc , applying equal and opposite forces on the later. On
releasing the brakes the rubber-sealing ring acts as return spring and retract the pistons and
the friction pads away from the disc (see fig 2.2)
7



2.5 LOCATION OF DISC BRAKE:


Fig 2.3 Location of Disc Brakes



The main components of the disc brake are:
The Brake pads
The caliper which contains the piston
The Rotor , which is mounted to the hub





8


2.6 VENTED DISC BRAKES:
Most car disc brakes are vented as shown in the below figure:



Fig 2.4 Vents provided on Disc Brakes

Vented disc brakes have a set of vanes, between the two sides of the disc that pumps
air through the disc to provide cooling.


2.7 TYPES OF DISC BRAKES:
1. Swinging caliper disc brake.
2. Sliding caliper disc brake.
3. Self-adjusting disc brake.



9

2.7.1 SWINGING CALIPER DISC BRAKE:









Fig 2.5 Swinging Caliper Type Disc Brake

The caliper is hinged about a fulcrum pin and one of the friction pads is fixed to the
caliper. The fluid under pressure presses the other pad against the disc to apply the brake. The
reaction on the caliper causes it to move the fixed pad inward slightly applying equal pressure
to the other side of the disc. The caliper automatically adjusts its position by swinging about
the pin. This is shown in the fig 2.5

2.7.2 SLIDING CALIPER DISC BRAKE:











Fig 2.6 Sliding Caliper Type Disc Brake


10

There are two pistons between which the fluid under pressure is sent which presses on
friction pad directly on to the disc where as the other pad is passed indirectly via the caliper.
Figure (2.6) shows the Sliding Caliper Type Disc Brake System.

2.7.3 SELF-ADJUSTING BRAKES :


Fig 2.7 Self Adjusting Disc Brake

The single-piston floating-caliper disc brake is self-centering and self-
adjusting. The caliper is able to slide from side to side so it will move to the center each time
the brakes are applied. Also, since there is no spring to pull the pads away from the disc, the
pads always stay in light contact with the rotor ( the rubber piston seal and any wobble in the
rotor may actually pull the pads a small distance away from the rotor ). This is important
because the pistons in the brakes are much larger in diameter than the ones in the master
cylinder. If the brake pistons retracted into their cylinders, it might take several applications
of the brake pedal to pump enough into the brake cylinder to engage the brake pads. The
figure 2.7 shows Self adjusting disc brake.

11

2.8 SHAPE OF DISC:

Fig 2.8 A 3-D model of disc
While it is true that some discs were and still are produced according to simple, flat
and circular geometry, there shape is normally more complex and can be broken down into a
number of parts, each corresponding to the particular function performed.

The braking surface is the area on which the braking action of the friction material
takes place. Dimensions are such as to ensure that the specific power output is too high. A
value of 230 W/cm
2
of braking surface is the basis for calculating size, although this value
can change considerably when the disc is very well ventilated and can reach 623 W/cm
2

The second function is that of attachment provided by the central part of the disc
which has a circular aperture which serves to center the wheel axle. The central part of the
disc is surrounded by a number of holes for the hub screws and wheel bolts.
The disc is therefore required to perform two additional tasks: induce air movement
like the rotor in a centrifugal fan and, simultaneously, act as a heat exchanger like a radiator.
The circular shape of a disc makes it particularly well suited to this dual role. In fact as the
12

disc rotates it sets in motion the laminar stratum of air with which it is in contact. The
external part of the disc rotates at a greater linear speed that the part near to the carrier of hat.
Here, dynamic pressure acting on the air is greater in as much as it varies with the square of
the speed.
The shape of the blades is a compromise between efficiency and the production
difficulties they create. The output of a turbine is given by the ratio between energy
transmitted to the gas and the energy required to make the turbine rotate. This output
improves when the blades are shaped and does not obstruct movement of the gas. This is
why discs receiving a considerable quantity of energy have shaped blades which, at a given
rotational speed, optimize the speed of circulation. There is, however, a limit represented by
the speed of heat transfer from within the metal towards the gas. We have to bear in mind
that same blades shape requires the production of both specific right and left discs.

2.9 BRAKE PADS STRUCTURE AND GEOMENTRY:


Fig 2.9 Section of a Pad


13


Fig 2.10 Disc Brake Pad
The pad is essentially a piece of material designed to rub against the disc
surface in order to convert mechanical energy into thermal energy. In this sense it is no
different from the linings in a drum brake. Its distinguishing feature, however, is that the
friction surface is flat. We can imagine calipers where pads are nothing more than a piece of
friction material.
In reality the pad is rather more complicated as it is made up on numerous parallel
layers produced from different materials. The thickest layer is the true friction material that
comes into contact with the disc and gradually wears down. On the opposite side is the
support or plate, a flat plate of mild steel about 5 mm thick. Its main purpose is to distribute
the force exerted by the piston on a limited area would risk damaging them. The thickness of
the support is therefore calculated so that under maximum force it has an imperceptible
flexing distortion that does not cause the material to wear unevenly. The purpose of the
support is also to secure and position the pad. In particular, sections of this metal plate rest
against the caliper during braking. This is because the disc tends to drag the pad in the
direction of rotation.
The definitive form is the result of this compromise, but it is also based on
calculations. Calculations performed on finished elements not only make it possible to
determine pressure distribution but also provide useful information relative to both localized
stresses that may possible cause breakage, and heat diffusion.




14

CHAPTER-3
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
The finite element method is numerical analysis technique for obtaining approximate
solutions to a wide variety of engineering problems, Because of its diversity and flexibility as
an analysis tool, it is receiving much attention in engineering schools and industries. In more
and more engineering situations today, we find that it is necessary to obtain approximate
solutions to problems rather than exact closed form solution.
It is not possible to obtain analytical mathematical solutions for many engineering
problems. An analytical solutions is a mathematical expression that gives the values of the
desired unknown quantity at any location in the body, as consequence it is valid for infinite
number of location in the body. For problems involving complex material properties and
boundary conditions, the engineer resorts to numerical methods that provide approximate, but
acceptable solutions.
The finite element method has become a powerful tool for the numerical solutions of
a wide range of engineering problems. It has developed simultaneously with the increasing
use of the high-speed electronic digital computers and with the growing emphasis on
numerical methods for engineering analysis. This method started as a generalization of the
structural idea to some problems of elastic continuum problem, started in terms of different
equations or as an extrinum problem.
The fundamental areas that have to be learned for working capability of finite element
method include:
Matrix algebra.
Solid mechanics.
Variational methods.
Computer skills.
Matrix techniques are definitely most efficient and systematic way to handle algebra
of finite element method. Basically matrix algebra provides a scheme by which a large
number of equations can be stored and manipulated. Since vast majority of literature on the
finite element method treats problems in structural and continuum mechanics, including soil
and rock mechanics, the knowledge of these fields became necessary. It is useful to consider
15

the finite element procedure basically as a Variational approach. This conception has
contributed significantly to the convenience of formulating the method and to its generality.
The term finite element distinguishes the technique from the use of infinitesimal
differential elements used in calculus, differential equations. The method is also
distinguished from finite difference equations, for which although the steps in to which space
is divided into finite elements are finite in size; there is a little freedom in the shapes that the
discrete steps can take. F.E.A is a way to deal with structures that are more complex than
dealt with analytically using the partial differential equations. F.E.A deals with complex
boundaries better than finite difference equations and gives answers to the real world
structural problems. It has been substantially extended scope during the roughly forty years
of its use.
F.E.A makes it possible it evaluate a detail and complex structure, in a computer
during the planning of the structure. The demonstration in the computer about the adequate
strength of the structure and possibility of improving design during planning can justify the
cost of this analysis work. F.E.A has also been known to increase the rating of the structures
that were significantly over design and build many decades ago.
In the absence of finite element analysis (or other numerical analysis), development of
structures must be based on hand calculations only. For complex structures, the simplifying
assumptions are required to make any calculations possible can lead to a conservative and
heavy design. A considerable factor of ignorance can remain as to whether the structure will
be adequate for all design loads. Significant changes in design involve expensive strain
gauging to evaluate strength and deformation.

3.1.1 TERMS COMMONLY USED IN FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:
Descritization: The process of selecting only a certain number of discrete points in
the body can be termed as Descritization.
Continuum: The continuum is the physical body, structure or solid being analyzed.
Node: The finite elements, which are interconnected at joints, are called nodes or
nodal points.
Element: Small geometrical regular figures are called elements.
Displace Models: The nodal displacements, rotations and strains necessary to specify
completely deformation of finite element.
16

Degree of freedom: The nodal displacements, rotations and strains necessary to
specify completely deformation of finite element.
Local coordinate system: Local coordinate system is one that is defined for a
particular element and not necessary for the entire body or structure.
Global system: The coordinate system for the entire body is called the Global
coordinate system.
Natural coordinate system: Natural coordinate system is a local system, which
permits the specification of point with in the element by a set of dimensionless
numbers, whose magnitudes never exceeds unity.
Interpolation function: It is a function, which has unit value at one nodal point and a
zero value at all other nodal points.
Aspect ratio: The aspect ratio describes the shapes of the element in the assemblage
for two dimensional elements; this parameter is defined as the ratio of largest
dimension of the element to the smallest dimension.
Field variables: The principal unknowns of a problem are called the field variables.



17


Fig 3.1 Process of Finite Element Analysis



18

3.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF F.E.M:

In the finite element method, the actual continuum of
body of matter like solid, liquid or gas is represented as an assemblage of sub divisions called
Finite elements. These elements are considered to be inter connected at specified points
known as nodes or nodal points. These nodes usually lie on the element boundaries where an
adjacent element is considered to be connected. Since the actual variation of the field
variables (like Displacement, stress, temperature, pressure and velocity) inside the continuum
are is not know, we assume that the variation of the field variable inside a finite element can
be approximated by a simple function. These approximating functions (also called
interpolation models) are defined in terms of the values at the nodes. When the field
equations (like equilibrium equations) for the whole continuum are written, the new unknown
will be the nodal values of the field variable. By solving the field equations, which are
generally in the form of the matrix equations, the nodal values of the field variables will be
known. Once these are known, the approximating function defines the field variable
throughout the assemblage of elements.

The solution of a general continuum by the finite element method always follows as orderly
step-by-step process. The step-by-step procedure for static structural problem can be stated
as follows:

STEP 1:- DESCRIPTION OF STRUCTURE (DOMAIN):
The first step in the finite element method is to divide the structure of solution region
in to sub divisions or elements.

STEP 2:- SELECTION OF PROPER INTERPOLATION MODEL:
Since the displacement (field variable) solution of a complex structure under any
specified load conditions cannot be predicted exactly, we assume some suitable solution,
within an element to approximate the unknown solution. The assumed solution must be
simple and it should satisfy certain convergence requirements.

19

STEP 3:- DERIVATION OF ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRICES
(CHARACTERISTIC MATRICES) AND LOAD VECTORS:
From the assumed displacement model the stiffness matrix [K(e)] and the load vector
P(e) of element e are to be derived by using either equilibrium conditions or a suitable
Variation principle.

STEP 4:- ASSEMBLAGE OF ELEMENT EQUATIONS TO OBTAIN THE
EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS:
Since the structure is composed of several finite elements, the individual element
stiffness matrices and load vectors are to be assembled in a suitable manner and the overall
equilibrium equation has to be formulated as
[K] = P
Where [K] is called assembled stiffness matrix,
is called the vector of nodal displacement and
P is the vector or nodal force for the complete structure.

STEP 5:- SOLUTION OF SYSTEM EQUATION TO FIND NODAL VALUES OF
DISPLACEMENT (FIELD VARIABLE)
The overall equilibrium equations have to be modified to account for the boundary
conditions of the problem. After the incorporation of the boundary conditions, the
equilibrium equations can be expressed as,
[K] = P
For linear problems, the vector can be solved very easily. But for non-linear
problems, the solution has to be obtained in a sequence of steps, each step involving the
modification of the stiffness matrix [K] and or the load vector P.

STEP 6:- COMPUTATION OF ELEMENT STRAINS AND STRESSES.

From the known nodal displacements, if required, the element strains and stresses can
be computed by using the necessary equations of solid or structural mechanics.

In the above steps, the words indicated in brackets implement the general FEM step-
by-step procedure.


20

3.3 ADVANTAGES OF F.E.M:

The F.E.M is based on the concept of discretization. Nevertheless as either a
variational or residual approach, the technique recognizes the multi dimensional continuity of
the body not only does the idealizations portray the body as continuous but it also requires no
separate interpolation process to extend the approximate solution to every point with in the
continuum. Despite the fact that the solution is obtained at a finite number of discrete node
points, the formation of field variable models inherently provides a solution at all other
locations in the body. In contrast to other variational and residual approaches, the F.E.M
does not require trail solutions, which must all, apply to the entire multi dimensional
continuum. The use of separate sub-regions or the finite elements for the separate trial
solutions thus permits a greater flexibility in considering continua of the shape.

Some of the most important advantages of the F.E.M derive from the techniques of
introducing boundary conditions. This is another area in which the method differs from other
variational or residual approaches. Rather than requiring every trial solution to satisfy the
boundary conditions, one prescribes the conditions after obtaining the algebraic equations for
assemblage.

No special techniques or artificial devices are necessary, such as the non-cantered
difference equations or factious external points often employed in the finite difference
method.
The F.E.M not only accommodates complex geometry and boundary conditions, but it
also has proved successful in representing various types of complicated material properties
that are difficult to incorporate in to other numerical methods. For example, formulations in
solid mechanics have been devised for anisotropy, nonlinear, hysteretic, time dependant or
temperature dependant material behavior.
One of the most difficult problems encountered in applying numerical procedures of
engineering analysis is the representation of non-homogeneous continua. Nevertheless the
F.E.M readily accounts for non-homogeneity by the simple tactic of assigning different
properties with in an element according to the pre selected polynomial pattern. For instance
it is possible to accommodate continuous or discontinuous variations of the constitutive
parameters or of the thickness of a two-dimensional body.
21

The systematic generality of the finite element procedure makes it a powerful and
versatile tool for a wide range of problems. As a result, flexible general-purpose computer
programs can be constructed. Primary examples of these programs are several structural
analysis packages which include a variety of element configurations and which can be
applied to several categories of structural problems. Among these packages are ASKA,
STRUDL, SAP and NASTRAN & SAFE. Another indicator of the generality of the method
is that programs developed for one field of engineering have been applied successfully to
problems in different field with a little or no modification.
Finally an engineer may develop a concept of the F.E.M at different levels. IT is
possible to interpret the method in physical terms. On the other hand the method may be
explained entirely in mathematical terms. The physical or intuitive nature of the procedure is
particularly useful to the engineering student and practicing engineer.

3.4 LIMITATION:

One limitation of finite element method is that a few complex phenomenons are not
accommodated adequately by the method as its current state of development. Some examples
of such phenomenon form the realm of solid mechanics are cracking and fracture behaviour,
contact problems, bond failures of composite materials, and non-linear material behaviour
with work softening. Another example is transient, unconfined seepage problems. The
numerical solution of propagation or transient problem is not satisfactory in all respects.
Many of these phenomenons are presently under research and refinements of the methods to
accommodate these problems better can be expected.

The finite element method has reached a high level of development as a solution
technique. How ever the method yields realistic results only if the coefficients or material
parameters, which describe the basic phenomenon, are available. Material non-linearity in
solid mechanics is a notable example of a field in which our understanding of material
behaviour has lagged behind the development of the analytical tool. In order to exploit fully
the power of the finite element method, significant effort must be direct towards the
development of constitutive laws and the evaluation of realistic coefficients and material
parameters.

22

Even the most efficient finite element computer code requires a relatively large
amount of computer memory and time. Hence use of this method is limited to those who
have access to relatively large, high-speed computers. The advent of time-sharing, remote
batch processing and computer service bureaus or utilities ahs alleviated this restriction to
some degree. In addition the method can be applied indirectly to common engineering
problems by utilizing tables, graphs and other analysis aids that have been generated by finite
element codes.

The most tedious aspects of the use of finite element methods are the basic processes
of sub-dividing the continuum and of generating error free input data for the computer.
Although these processes my be automated to a degree they have been totally accomplished
by computer because some engineer judgement may be employed in the descritization. Error
in the input data may go undetected and erroneous result obtained there form may appear
acceptable. Consequently it is essential that the engineer/programmer provide checks to
detect such errors. In addition to check internal code, an auxiliary routine that reads the input
data and generates a computer plot of the discritized continuum is desirable. This plot
permits a rapid visual check of the input data.

Finally as for any approximate numerical method the results of the finite element
analysis must be interpreted with care. We must be aware of the assumptions employed in
the formulation, the possibility of the numerical difficulties and the limitations in the material
characterizations used. A large volume of solution information is generated by a finite
element routine but this data is worthwhile only when its generation and interpretation are
tempered by proper engineering judgement.













23



CHAPTER 4
F.E.A SOFTWARE ANSYS

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS PROGRAM:

ANSYS Stands for Analysis System Product.

Dr. John Swanson founded ANSYS. Inc in 1970 with a vision to commercialize the
concept of computer simulated engineering, establishing himself as one of the pioneers of
Finite Element Analysis (FEA). ANSYS inc. supports the ongoing development of
innovative technology and delivers flexible, enterprise wide engineering systems that enable
companies to solve the full range of analysis problem, maximizing their existing investments
in software and hardware. ANSYS Inc. continues its role as a technical innovator. It also
supports a process-centric approach to design and manufacturing, allowing the users to avoid
expensive and time-consuming built and break cycles. ANSYS analysis and simulation
tools give customers ease-of-use, data compatibility, multi platform support and coupled field
multi-physics capabilities.

4.2 EVOLUTION OF ANSYS PROGRAM:

ANSYS has evolved into multipurpose design analysis software program, recognized
around the world for its many capabilities. Today the program is extremely powerful and
easy to use. Each release hosts new and enhanced capabilities that make the program more
flexible, more usable and faster. In this way ANSYS helps engineers meet the pressures and
demands modern product development environment.

4.3 OVERVIEW OF THE PROGRAM:

The ANSYS program is flexible, robust design analysis and optimization package.
The software operates on major computers and operating systems, from PCs to workstations
and to super computers. ANSYS features file compatibility throughout the family of
24

products and across all platforms. ANSYS design data access enables user to import
computer aided design models in to ANSYS, eliminating repeated work. This ensures
enterprise wide, flexible engineering solution for all ANSYS user.

USER INTERFACE:

Although the ANSYS program has extensive and complex capabilities, its
organization and user-friendly graphical user interface makes it easy to learn and use.

There are four graphical methods to instruct the ANSYS program:
1. Menus.
2. Dialog Boxes
3. Tool bar.
4. Direct input of commands.

MENUS:
Menus are groupings of related functions or operating the analysis program located in
individual windows. These include:

Utility menu
Main menu
Input window
Graphics window
Tool bar
Dialog box

DIALOG BOXES:
Windows that present the users with choices for completing operations or specifying
settings. These boxes prompt the user to input data or make decisions for a particular
function.

25

TOOL BAR:
The tool bar represents a very efficient means for executing commands for the
ANSYS program because of its wide range of configurability. Regardless of how they are
specified, commands are ultimately used to supply all the data and control all program
functions.

OUTPUT WINDOW:
Records the ANSYS response to commands and functions.
GRAPHICS WINDOW:
Represents the area for graphic displays such as model or graphically represented
results of an analysis. The user can adjust the size of the graphics window, reducing or
enlarging it to fit to personal preferences.

INPUT WINDOW:
Provides an input area for typing ANSYS commands and displays program prompt
messages.

MAIN MENU:
Comprise the primary ANSYS functions, which are organized in pop-up side menus,
based on the progression of the program.

UTILITY MENU:
Contains ANSYS utility functions that are mapped here for access at any time during
an ANSYS session. These functions are executed through smooth, cascading pull down
menus that lead directly to an action or dialog box.

PROCESSORS:
ANSYS functions are organized into two groups called processors. The ANSYS
program has one pre-processor, one solution processor; two post processors and several
auxiliary processors such as the design optimizer. The ANSYS pre-processor allows the user
to create a finite element model to specify options needed for a subsequent solution. The
solution processor is used to apply the loads and the boundary conditions and then determine
26

the response of the model to them. With the ANSYS post processors, the user retrieves and
examines the solutions results to evaluate how the model responded and to perform additional
calculations of interest.

DATABASE:
The ANSYS program uses a single, centralized database for all model data and
solution results. Model data (including solid model and finite element model geometry,
materials etc) are written to the database using the processor. Loads and solution results data
are written using the solutions processor. Post processing results data are written using the
post processors. Data written to the database while using one processor are therefore
available as necessary in the other processors.

FILE FORMAT:
Files are used, when necessary, to pass the data from part of the program to another,
to store the program to the database, and to store the program output. These files include
database files, the results file, and the graphics file and so on.

4.4 REDUCING THE DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING COSTS
USING ANSYS (F.E.A):

The ANSYS program allows engineers to construct computer models or transfer CAD
models of structures, products, components, or systems, apply loads or other design
performance conditions and study physical responses such as stress levels, temperature
distribution or the impact of lector magnetic fields.

In some environments, prototype testing is undesirable or impossible. The ANSYS
program has been used in several cases of this type including biomechanical applications
such as hi replacement intraocular lenses. Other representative applications range from
heavy equipment components, to an integrated circuit chip, to the bit-holding system of a
continuous coal-mining machine.

ANSYS design optimization enables the engineers to reduce the number of costly
prototypes, tailor rigidity and flexibility to meet objectives and find the proper balancing
geometric modifications.

27

Competitive companies loom for ways to produce the highest quality product at the
lowest cost. ANSYS (FEA) can help significantly by reducing the design and manufacturing
costs and by giving engineers added confidence in the products they design. FEA is most
effective when used at the conceptual design stage. It is also useful when used later in
manufacturing process to verify the final design before prototyping.

PROGRAM AVAILABILITY:

The ANSYS program operates on 486 and Pentium based PCs running on Wndows95
or WindowsNT and workstations and super computers primarily running on UNIX operating
system. ANSYS Inc. continually works with new hardware platforms and operating systems.

ANALYSIS TYPES AVAILABLE:

1. Structural static analysis.
2. Structural dynamic analysis.
3. Structural buckling analysis.
Linear buckling
Non linear buckling
4. Structural non linearities
5. Static and dynamic kinematics analysis.
6. Thermal analysis.
7. Electromagnetic field analysis.
8. Electric field analysis
9. Fluid flow analysis
Computational fluid dynamics
Pipe flow
10. Coupled-field analysis
11. Piezoelectric analysis.

4.5 PROCEDURE FOR ANSYS ANALYSIS:
Static analysis is used to determine the displacements, stresses, strains and forces in
structures or components due to loads that do not induce significant inertia and damping
effects. Steady loading in response conditions are assumed. The kinds of loading that can be
applied in a static analysis include externally applied forces and pressures, steady state
28

inertial forces such as gravity or rotational velocity imposed (non-zero) displacements,
temperatures (for thermal strain).

A static analysis can be either linear or non linear. In our present work we consider
linear static analysis.

The procedure for static analysis consists of these main steps:

1. Building the model.
2. Obtaining the solution.
3. Reviewing the results.

4.5.1 BUILD THE MODEL:
In this step we specify the job name and analysis title use PREP7 to define the
element types, element real constants, material properties and model geometry element types
both linear and non-linear structural elements are allowed. The ANSYS element library
contains over 80 different element types. A unique number and prefix identify each element
type.

E.g. PLANE 42, PLANE 77
29

MATERIAL PROPERTIES:
Youngs modulus(EX) must be defined for a static analysis .If we plan to apply inertia
loads(such as gravity) we define mass properties such as density(DENS).Similarly if we plan
to apply thermal loads (temperatures) we define coefficient of thermal expansion(ALPX).

4.5.2 OBTAIN THE SOLUTION:
In this step we define the analysis type and options, apply loads and initiate the finite
element solution. This involves three phases:
Pre processor phase
Solution phase
Post-processor phase
The following table shows the brief description of steps followed in each phase:

Table 4.1 Description of steps in FEA
PREPROCESSOR
PHASE
SOLUTION PHASE POST-PROCESSOR
PHASE
GEOMETRY
DEFINITIONS
ELEMENT MATRIX
FORMULATION
POST SOLUTION
OPERATIONS
MESH GENERATION OVERALL MATRIX
TRIANGULARIZATION
POST DATA PRINT
OUTS(FOR REPORTS)
MATERIAL (WAVE FRONT) POST DATA
DEFINITIONS SCANNING POST DATA
DISPLAYS
CONSTRAINT
DEFINITIONS
DISPLACEMENT.
STRESS,ETC

LOAD DEFINITION CALCULATION
MODEL DISPLAYS

30

4.6 PRE PROCESSOR:

Pre processor has been developed so that the same program is available on micro,
mini, super-mini and mainframe computer system. This slows easy transfer of models one
system to other.

Pre processor is an interactive model builder to prepare the FE (finite element) model
and input data. The solution phase utilizes the input data developed by the pre processor, and
prepares the solution according to the problem definition. It creates input files to the
temperature etc., on the screen in the form of contours.

4.6.1 GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS:

There are four different geometric entities in pre processor namely key points, lines,
areas and volumes. These entities can be used to obtain the geometric representation of the
structure. All the entities are independent of other and have unique identification labels.

MODEL GENERATIONS:

Two different methods are used to generate a model:

Direct generation.
Solid modeling

With solid modeling we can describe we can describe the geometric boundaries of the
model, establish controls over the size and desired shape of the elements and then instruct
ANSYS program to generate all the nodes and elements automatically. By contrast, with the
direct generation method, we determine the location of every node and size, shape and
connectivity of every element prior to defining these entities in the ANSYS model.
Although, some automatic data generation is possible (by using commands such as FILL,
NGEN, EGEN etc) the direct generation method essentially a hands on numerical method
that requires us to keep track of all the node numbers as we develop the finite element mesh.
This detailed book keeping can become difficult for large models, giving scope for modeling
errors. Solid modeling is usually more powerful and versatile than direct generation and is
commonly preferred method of generating a model.
31


MESH GENERATION:

In the finite element analysis the basic concept is to analyze the structure, which is an
assemblage of discrete pieces called elements, which are connected, together at a finite
number of points called Nodes. Loading boundary conditions are then applied to these
elements and nodes. A network of these elements is known as Mesh.

FINITE ELEMENT GENERATION:

The maximum amount of time in a finite element analysis is spent on generating
elements and nodal data. Pre processor allows the user to generate nodes and elements
automatically at the same time allowing control over size and number of elements. There are
various types of elements that can be mapped or generated on various geometric entities.

The elements developed by various automatic element generation capabilities of pre
processor can be checked element characteristics that may need to be verified before the
finite element analysis for connectivity, distortion-index, etc.

Generally, automatic mesh generating capabilities of pre processor are used rather
than defining the nodes individually. If required, nodes can be defined easily by defining the
allocations or by translating the existing nodes. Also one can plot, delete, or search nodes.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND LOADING:
After completion of the finite element model it has to constrain and load has to be
applied to the model. User can define constraints and loads in various ways. All constraints
and loads are assigned set 1-D. This helps the user to keep track of load cases.

MODEL DISPLAY:
During the construction and verification stages of the model it may be necessary to
view it from different angles. It is useful to rotate the model with respect to the global system
and view it from different angles. Pre processor offers this capability. By windowing feature
pre processor allows the user to enlarge a specific area of the model for clarity and details.
Pre processor also provides features like smoothness, scaling, regions, active set, etc for
efficient model viewing and editing.

32

4.6.2 MATERIAL DEFINITIONS:
All elements are defined by nodes, which have only their location defined. In the case
of plate and shell elements there is no indication of thickness. This thickness can be given as
element property. Property tables for a particular property set 1-D have to be input.
Different types of elements have different properties for e.g.
Beams: Cross sectional area, moment of inertia etc
Shells: Thickness
Springs: Stiffness
Solids: None
The user also needs to define material properties of the elements. For linear static
analysis, modules of elasticity and poissons ratio need to be provided. For heat transfer,
coefficient of thermal expansion, densities etc are required. They can be given to the
elements by the material property set to 1-D.

4.7 SOLUTION:
The solution phase deals with the solution of the problem according to the problem
definitions. All the tedious work of formulating and assembling of matrices are done by the
computer and finally displacements are stress values are given as output. Some of the
capabilities of the ANSYS are linear static analysis, non-linear static analysis, transient
dynamic analysis, etc.

4.8 POST PROCESSOR :
It is a powerful user-friendly post-processing program using interactive colour
graphics. It has extensive plotting features for displaying the results obtained from the finite
element analysis. One picture of the analysis results (i.e. the results in a visual form) can
often reveal in seconds what would take an engineer hour to asses from a numerical output,
say in tabular form. The engineer may also see the important aspects of the results that could
be easily missed in a stack of numerical data.


33

Employing state of art image enhancement techniques, facilities viewing of:
Contours of stresses, displacements, temperatures, etc.
Deform geometric plots
Animated deformed shapes
Time-history plots
Solid sectioning
Hidden line plot
Light source shaded plot
Boundary line plot etc.

The entire range of post processing options of different types of analysis can be
accessed through the command / menu mode there by giving the user added flexibility and
convenience.


34

CHAPTER 5
CALCULATIONS OF DISC BRAKE
5.1. THE TEMPERATURE FIELD:

The circumstances noted above permit us to determine the heating temperature of the
brake disk surface by the solution of a transient boundary-value problem of thermal
conductivity for a half-space 0 > z , in a circular region R r s s 0 of the surface on which
heat sources with a density of distribution are acting.

) ( ) ( ) ( ) , ( r R H r p t fV t r q = (5.1)

where the sliding speed V changes according to the law

s
s
t t
t
t
V t V s s
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 0 1 ) (
0
(5.2)

and the contact pressure p(r) is given by Hertz formula [5]

2
0
2
0
2
3
1 ) (
R
P
p
R
r
p r p
t
=
|
.
|

\
|
= (5.3)

It is obvious that by the symmetry of the problem the maximum value of the
temperature on the surface of the half-space will be reached at the point r=0. At an arbitrary
moment of time t > 0 the temperature at the circular region centre r=0 of the surface of the
half-space due to the heat flux influence (5.1)-(5.3) is represented in the form [6]
t
t
t t
d ds s
R
s
t t
e
k k c
q
t T
R
s
S t
v
2
0
2 / 3
0
0
1 1
) ( 2
) (
2
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
} }

(5.4)

where

0 0 0
p fV q = (5.5)

) ( 4
2
2
t
=
t k
s
S (5.6)
Changing the order of integration in (5.4), which is valid because the conditions of the
theorem about integration under the integral sign hold, we obtain.
35

ds t s P
t
t s P
t
t
R
s
s
k k c
q
t T
s s
R
v
(

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
}
) , (
1
) , ( 1 1
2
) (
1 0
2
0
0
t
(5.7)

Hence Pm denotes

) 1 , 0 (
) (
) , (
0
2 / 3
2
=

=
}

m d
t
e
s P
t
m
S
m
t
t
t (5.8)
Using the substitution of variable (5.6) to calculated the integral (5.8), if m=0, we
obtain
}

|
.
|

\
|
= =
kt s
S
kt
s
erfc
s
k
ds e
s
k
t s P
2 /
0
2
2 4
) , (
2 t
(5.9)

where , , erf erfc =1
In that way, using also the rule of differentiation under the integral sign, we calculate
P1(s,T). After some transformations we have
kt S
e t
kt
s
erfc
k
s t s P
4 /
1
2
2
2
) , (

+ |
.
|

\
|
=
t
(5.10)
Taking (5.9) and (5.10) into account, the temperature (5.7) at the centre of the disk
brake surface takes a form
ds e
k
t
t
s
kt
s
erfc
kt
s
t
t
R
s
K
q
t T
R
kt S
s s s
}
(

+ |
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=

0
4 /
2
2
0
2
2 2
1 1 ) (
t
(5.11)
In long braking (ts) it follows from (5.11) that
ds
kt
s
erfc
R
s
K
q
t T
R
}
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
2
0
2
1 ) ( (5.12)
If in addition we take t then from (5.12) it follows that
K
R q
T
4
0
t
=

Or including the definition (5.5)
KR
P fV
T
8
3
0
=

(5.13)
Formula (5.13) determines the maximum temperature of the disk brake surface in a
steady state of heat generation in long braking [4].

36

It follows from (5.13) that, at a constant power of heat generation (f VoP), the
temperature at the friction surface can be lowed by increasing the contact area or the thermal
conductivity coefficient of the disk material.

The experimental data for the temperature of the frictional surface of a disc brake in an
automobile weighing 1 ton when its velocity changes from V
0
=96.6kmph to a complete halt
are presented in [2]. It has been found by dynamometric measurements that the load P carried
by the disc is on average 680 N. At a breaking moment the initial surface temperature of the
disc measured with a thermocouple was 175
o
C and the maximum during braking was
215
o
C, i.e. the temperature flash was 40
o
C. The breaking time was t
s
= 4.8 s, the disc
material was cast iron for which k=1.286x10
-4
m
2
s
-1
, K = 50 W m
-1 o
C
-1
. The area of the
lateral disc surface was Aa = 329x10
-4
m
2
(the nominal contact area), and the
coefficient of friction was f = 0.25. Then on the basis (5.5) the density of the heat
flow directed into the disc is q
o
= 750000 W / m
2

5.2 DISC BRAKE CALCULATIONS:

Given Data:
Velocity of the vehicle = 96.6 k.m.p.h = 26.833 m/s
Time for stopping the vehicle = 4.8 seconds
Mass of the vehicle = 1000 kg.

STEP-1:
Kinetic Energy (K.E) = * m * v
2

= * 1000 * 26.833
2

= 360 KJ
The above said is the Total Kinetic Energy induced while the vehicle is under motion.
STEP-2:
The total kinetic energy = The heat generated but the heat generated in one of the
wheel of the car is 1/3
rd
the total kinetic energy.[2]

i.e. this 28.6 K. Cal/ft
2
hr.
1 Cal = 1/252 Btu [10]
& 1 Btu = 1.05504 KJ [10]
37

:. 05504 . 1
252
1000 6 . 28

= Q
= 120 KJ
which is 1/3
rd
the total kinetic energy.

STEP-3:
The area of the rubbing faces
A = t
A = t ) (
2
1
2
2
r r
= t (0.14562
2
0.1036
2
)
A = 329x10
-4
m
2


STEP-4:
The density of heat flow (Heat Flux) directed in to the disc.
Heat Flux =
ngtime facexBraki ractingsur Areaofcont
generated Heat


=
8 . 4 10 329
120
4
x x



q = 750000 w/m
2

38

5.3 ASSUMPTIONS:
The analysis is done taking the disc brake efficiency as 30% (since the distribution
of the braking torque between the front and rear axle is 70:30)
Brakes are applied on all the four wheels.
The analysis is based on pure thermal loading and vibrations and thus only stress
levels due to the above is done. The analysis does not determine the life of the disc
brake.
Only ambient air-cooling is taken in to account and no forced convection is taken.
The kinetic energy of the vehicle is lost through the brake discs i.e. no heat loss
between the tyres and the road surface and the deceleration is uniform.
The disc brake model used is of solid type and not the ventilated one.
The thermal conductivity of the material used for the analysis is uniform throughout.
The specific heat of the material used is constant throughout and does not change
with the temperature.









39

CHAPTER 6
THERMAL ANALYSIS

6.1 INTRODUCTION:

A Thermal analysis calculates the temperature distribution and related thermal
quantities in a system or component. Typical thermal quantities are:

1. The temperature distributions
2. The amount of heat lost or gained
3. Thermal fluxes


TYPES OF THERMAL ANALYSIS:


1. A Steady State Thermal Analysis determines the temperature distribution and other
thermal quantities under steady state loading conditions. A steady state loading
condition is a situation where heat storage effects varying over a period of time can be
ignored.

2. A Transient thermal analysis determines the temperature distribution and other
thermal quantities under conditions that vary over a period of time

6.2 DEFINITION OF PROBLEM:
Due to the application of brakes on the car disc brake rotor, heat generation takes
place due to friction and this temperature so generated has to be conducted and dispersed
across the disc rotor cross section. The condition of braking is very much severe and thus the
thermal analysis has to be carried out.

The thermal loading as well as structure is axis-symmetric. Hence axis-symmetric
analysis is performed which is an exact representation for this thermal analysis.


40

Linear thermal analysis is performed to obtain the temperature field since
conductivity and specific heat of the material considered here are independent of temperature.
The analysis performed here is transient thermal analysis as temperature distribution varies
with time. (The time for thermal analysis is taken as 4.8 seconds of braking)



An Ansys thermal model was developed to predict temperatures through the brake
corner. The model includes the brake disc, pads, caliper, wheel, spindle and axle in order to
accurately predict brake system temperatures during long braking and heat soaking
conditions. In addition, the model can be used to predict the brake fluid temperature rise.
Various aspects of the brake thermal analysis process are schematically summarized in fig 6.1
below.


Fig 6.1 Brake Thermal Analysis Process for a Vehicle Under a Given Braking Schedule



6.3 ELEMENT CONSIDERED FOR THERMAL ANALYSIS:

According to the given specifications the element type chosen is PLANE 77
(Dimensions: 2-D; shape or characteristics: Quadrilateral, eight nodes; Degrees of freedom:
Temperature at each node; usage notes: Useful for modeling curved boundaries). The
following Figure shows the schematic diagram of the 8-noded thermal solid element.

41


Fig 6.2 Schematic Diagram of 8 Noded Thermal Sold Element


PLANE 77 is a higher order version of the two dimensional, four node thermal
element. The element has one degree of freedom, temperature at each node. The 8-node
elements have compatible temperature shapes and are well suited to model curved
boundaries.

The 8-node thermal element is applicable to a two dimensional, steady state or
transient thermal analysis. If the model containing this element is also to be analyzed
structurally, the element should be replaced by an equivalent structural element, a similar
axis-symmetric thermal element which accepts non axis symmetric loading.

6.4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES GIVEN AS FOLLOWS:

Table 6.1 Thermal Material Properties of CI, Al & Steel
CAST IRON ALUMINIUM STEEL
Thermal Co-efficient of
expansion (o xx) /
0
C
10.4e-6 22.2e-6 13e-6
Thermal Conductivity (K)
W/mk
55 250 43
Specific Heat (Cp)
J/Kg
0
C
460 870 486
Density(kg/m3) 6800 2712 7850
Poissons ratio 0.22 0.334 0.303
Youngs Modulus 120e9 70e9 200e9
Heat Flux (q) =750000 W/m
2

42

6.5 MESH GENERATION:

Before building the model, it is important to think about whether a free mesh or a
mapped mesh is appropriate for the analysis. A free mesh has no restrictions in terms of
element shapes and has no specified pattern applied to it.
Compared to the free mesh, a mapped mesh is restricted in terms of the element shape
it contains and pattern of the mesh. A mapped mesh contains either only quadrilateral or only
triangular element, while a mapped volume mesh contains only hexahedral elements. In
addition, a mapped mesh typically has a regular pattern, with obvious rows of elements.
For mapped mesh, we must build the geometry as a series of fairly regular volumes
and / or areas that can accept a mapped mesh.
The type of mesh generation considered here is a free mesh since the 2D figure is not a
regular shape. Axis-symmetric element 77 is used to model in ANSYS by considering axis-
symmetric geometry. After convergence check the final mesh is shown in the figure 6.5.


6.6. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:
a). GEOMETRY BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:
The temperature 25
0
C is fixed at the hub bore grinds as the boundary conditions. The
standard convection law is used.

b). THERMAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:
i) A convection boundary condition is applied on all sides of the axis symmetric
model except in the region of tread and the hub. The heat transfer coefficient
of 50 W/m
2
k is considered.

ii) The thermal load is applied axis symmetrically on the tread of the wheel is a
heat flux (q) of value 75e4 W/m
2
and is analyzed for 4.8 seconds of braking
i.e. the heat generate is going to be distributed along the profile after the
application of the brakes .

The standard convection law used is
Q = h (t-t

) ...(6.1)
43

The main conduction equation in heat transfer analysis is

T
. Cp q
z
T
K
y
T
K
x
T
K
2
2
zz
2
2
yy
2
2
xx
c
c
= +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
..(6.2)
where K
xw
, K
yy
, K
zz
are thermal conductivities in x, y, z direction w/mK
Q - Heat generation/unit volume
- Time
T = T
n

Where T
n

= boundary temperature defined over a surface S
1

If the heat gained or lost boundary S
2
is due to convection the boundary is
0 ) T T ( h
z
T
K I
y
T
K I
x
T
K
zz y yy x xx
= +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

...(6.3)
where h - heat transfer coefficient w/m
2
K
T

- Fluid temperature
As 2-D solid element is consider there
. 0
z
T
2
2
=
c
c

0 Q
y
T
K
x
T
K
2
2
yy
2
2
xx
= +
c
c
+
c
c
...(6.4)
Most of the heat transfer takes place in X-direction
we assume 0
y
T
2
2
=
c
c
...(6.5)
Then final equation is

T
Cp q
x
T
K
2
2
x
c
c
= +
c
c
...(6.6)
The functional formulation of equation and its boundary conditions is
t = ( )
} }
+
}
+
}
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

v
2
S
2
1
S v
2
2
zz
2
2
yy
2
2
xx
ds T q ds T T h
2
1
dv T q dv
z
T
K
y
T
K
x
T
K
2
1

+ o Cp
}
c
c
2
T
1
T

T

t= ( )
} } } }
c
c
+ +
(

c
c

V v
1
S
2
T
1
T
2
2
2
xx

T
Cp ds T T h
2
1
dv T q dv
x
T
K
2
1
...(6.7)

44

)
`

=
)
`

e ) e ( ) e (
T N T ...(6.8)
minimize equation (6.7) with respect to set of nodal value { } T
Temperature gradient matrix (represented by column matrix { } g
{ }
)
`

c
c
c
c
c
c
=
z
T
y
T
x
T
g ...(6.9)
and D =
(
(
(

zz
YY
xx
K
K
K
0 0
0 0
0 0
...(6.10)

The first integral term on RHS of equation (6.7) can be written as
dv
z
T
K
y
T
K
x
T
K
2
1
I
v
2
2
zz
2
2
yy
2
2
xx 1
} (

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
=
T
v
zz
yy
xx
z
T
y
T
x
T
K
K
K
z
T
y
T
x
T
}
(
(
(

c
c
c
c
c
c
(
(
(

c
c
c
c
c
c
0 0
0 0
0 0
2
1
...(6.11)
Substituting equation (6.9) (6.10) in equation 6.11 we get
{ } | |{ }
} } }
+ + =

v
3
S
2 2 T
1
ds T q
2
1
ds ) T T T 2 T ( h
2
1
dv T Q dv g D g
2
1
I ...(6.12)
Function is not continuous over the region but in equation (6.12) element
) e (
T separated into
integral over individual element yielding.
t = { } | |{ } { } { }{ } { } | |

} }
=
(

c
c
+
N
e
v
e
S
e e e e e
T
e
dt
T
Cp ds T T T T h dv T Q dv g D g
1
2
. . 2
2
1
2
1
2

o ...(6.13
This is for one element
If where N number and element than
t = = + + +
=
N
1 e
) e ( ) N ( ) 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 (
.... ...(6.14)
When
) e (
is contribution of a single element of t
The set of integral can written in condensed form
{ }
(

=
c
c
e e e
e
f T K
T
t
...(6.15)
minimize with respect to T
45

0
T

=
c
c

Then the final equation obtained is
0 f T K
e e
N
1 e
e
=
(

)
`

=

| | F T K
e e
=
)
`

....(6.16)
Where [F] = element force vector
[K] = element conduction matrix
= | | | |
}
+
}
(

A
T
v
e e
A d N N h dv B D B






46

6.7 GIVEN DIMENSIONS OF DISC BRAKE:


Fig 6.3 Geometric Model of a Disc Brake
(All Dimensions are in mm)


291.24
47


Fig 6.4 3-D Model of Disc Brake

Fig 6.5 Meshed Model
48


Fig 6.6 Front view of Meshed Model


Fig 6.7 Top view of Meshed Model

49


Fig 6.8 All applied boundary conditions

The figure 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8 respectively shows the 3-D disc brake model finite
element model of the 3-D disc brake with the applied boundary conditions.

Finally the boundary conditions are verified before going for a solution. At the hub
surface the heat transfer is taken as zero i.e. Q= 0

Thermal load of q= 750000 W/m
2
is applied as a boundary conditions and is
analyzed for 4.8 seconds of braking.

6.8 DISC MATERIAL:

The two main functions of a brake disc or drum are the transmission of a considerable
mechanical force and dissipation of the heat produced, that implies functioning at medium or
high temperatures. From a theoretical standpoint numerous materials would be able to fulfill
these functions. In reality, for reasons of performances stability, cost of raw materials and
ease of production, cast iron is the material universally used. However, other materials are
used for specific braking applications. For example, composite carbon matrix materials are
50

employed in the production of brake discs for competition cars and airplanes, although their
particular performance level and cost make them inappropriate for use on standard vehicles.
Also aluminum alloys containing silicon carbide can be considered as they afford a
significant reduction in weight, although their inability to support high temperatures means
that brakes have to be oversized, a factor which partly cancels out the weight advantage. Cast
iron is one of its numerous forms therefore remains the preferred material.

6.9 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:
TABLE 6.2 Results of maximum Temperatures attained
Flange width
In mm
CAST IRON
In
o
C
ALUMINIUM
In
o
C
STEEL
In
o
C
8 131.328 123.754 126.783
10 124.328 108.139 123.166
12 121.252 98.247 121.965
14 119.971 91.619 121.601

The above table 6.2 indicates the maximum temperature attained for different flange
widths and for different materials.

For Cast Iron Disc, the maximum temperature is attained for a flange width of 10mm,
which is 124.328 C. This temperature value is nearest to the experimental value of 124 C
[2]. The temperature variation for different flange width is as shown in the Graph (6.3).

For Aluminium Disc, the maximum temperature is attained for a flange width of
8mm, which is 131.328C. The temperature variation for different flange width is as shown
in the Graph (6.4).
For Steel Disc, the maximum temperature is attained for a flange width of 8mm,
which is 126.783C. The temperature variation for different flange width is as shown in the
Graph (6.5)

From the above results we can conclude that the Cast Iron Disc of flange width 10mm
nears to the experimental value, hence this is recommended.
51


Moreover the temperature distribution on the contacting surface along X direction and
Y direction is as shown in the Graphs (6.1 & 6.2).




Fig 6.9 Temperature distribution for Cast Iron 8mm flange width
52


Fig 6.10 Temperature distribution for Cast Iron 10mm flange width


Fig 6.11 Temperature distribution for Cast Iron 12mm flange width
53


Fig 6.12 Temperature distribution for Cast Iron 14mm flange width


Temperature distribution for Aluminium8mm flange width
54


Temperature distribution for Aluminium10mm flange width


Temperature distribution for Aluminium12mm flange width
55


Temperature distribution for Aluminium14mm flange width


Temperature distribution for Steel 8mm flange width
56


Temperature distribution for Steel 10mm flange width


Temperature distribution for Steel 12mm flange width
57


Temperature distribution for Steel 14mm flange width


Graph 6.1.Temperature Vs Distance along the contacting surface of 10mm flange width
of Cast Iron in X-direction.
58


Graph 6.2 Temperature Vs Distance along the contacting surface of 10mm flange width
of Cast Iron in Y-direction.



Graph 6.3 Flange width Vs Temperature for CAST IRON

59



Graph 6.4 Max Temperature Vs Flange width for ALUMINIUM




Graph 6.5 Max Temperature Vs Flange width for STEEL

60

CHAPTER 7
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

7.1 INTRODUCTION:
Structural analysis is the most common application of the finite element method. The
term structural (or structure) implies civil engineering structures such as bridges and
buildings, but also naval, aeronautical and mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft
bodies and machines housings as well as mechanical components such as pistons, machine
parts and tools.

STRUCTURAL STATIC ANALYSIS:
A static analysis calculates the effects of steady loading condition on a structure,
while ignoring inertia and damping effects such as those caused by time varying loads. A
static analysis can, however include steady inertia loads (such as gravity and rotational
velocity), and time varying loads that can be approximated as static equivalent loads (such as
the static equivalent wind and seismic loads commonly defined in many building codes.)

7.2 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM:

Due to the application of brakes on the car disc brake rotor heat generation takes place
due to friction and this temperature so generated has to be conducted away and dispersed
across the disc brake cross section. The condition of braking is very severe and thus thermal
analysis is carried out and with the above load structural analysis is also performed for
analyzing the stability of the structure.
From the virtual work energy principle i.e. we = ue .. (7.1)
The basic analysis equation is
[ K ] [ Q ] = F .. (7.2)
Where K = global stiffness matrix.
F = Load vector.
Q = Displacement vector

61

7.3 THERMAL DISC DISTORTION:

Fig 7.1 Disc Distortion Due to Heat

Distribution of heat flows depends on the physical- chemical properties of the two
materials; it remains relatively constant as far as cast irons are concerned whereas it tends to
vary somewhat in the case of friction materials. It can be seen, however, that in more than
80% of cases the heat generated ends up in the disc but above all from air movement induced
by the vehicle itself. Depending on the maximum quantity of heat to be eliminated, various
methods are used that in turn make the shape of the disc more or less complex. For instance
the heat exchange surface can be increased, as in the case of ventilated discs. Air flow can
also be increased and performance improved by shaping the blades. Entry of air through the
side to which the wheel is attached is generally less efficient since the discs environment is
more confined and create a circulation of hotter air. An excessive temperature increase in the
pads cause their material to deteriorate and increase the temperature of the piston and, as a
consequence, the brake fluid. Moreover, excessive temperature increases in the disc have
numerous consequences.

The cast iron can undergo a transformation that leads to the bluing of the surface or a
permanent distortion of the disc itself. By the conduction, heat transferred towards the carrier.
In this case the disc surface curves, the disc becomes conical and does not return to its
62

original shape on cooling. Lastly the carrier is in contact with the wheel and, as a
consequence heats the tyre.
The only way to make improvements to a physical system is first to fully understand
how it functions. This is why technicians commence by taking a large number of
measurements in order to form an idea of systems reaction to various stresses. This widely
applied approach is costly and only partly effective since it is rather difficult, or often
impossible, to obtain precise measurements of moving parts affected by a transitory
phenomena. Low cost, powerful computers have made it possible to expand such studies by
modeling, also in the brake disc field. The principal is to breakdown the component, in a
virtual sense, into small parts which are assigned certain pertinent basic characteristic:
geometry, weight, mechanical and thermal properties. Following this they are reduced to the
form of simplified linear equations that describe all the possible relationships that can exists
between the various elements : for example between heat conduction and elastic properties.
Of course, data representing the initial situations must be provided (for instance, the
temperature map) and indications are given to the external stresses to which the elements
under consideration is exposed. All of these data are then processed by what is known as
Finite element Software that provides new maps of the stresses and flows. After a small
time increment, it is then possible to calculate the new state of the various disc elements
being studied before progressing to the examination of braking itself.

7.4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES:
Table 7.1 Structural material properties of Ci, Al & Steel
Properties Material Cast iron Aluminium Steel
1. YOUNGS MODULUS (E) Gpa 120e9 70e9 200e9
2. POISSONS RATIO (V) 0.22 0.334 0.303
3. COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL
EXPANSION (o) /
o
C
10.4e-6 22.2e-6 13e-6

Table 6.1 Thermal Material Properties of CI, Al & Steel



63

7.5 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:
Geometric Boundary conditions:
Since the axis-symmetric model is considered all the nodes in the hub radius are
fixed. So the nodal displacements in the hub become Zero i.e. both in radial and axial
direction.

7.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

The table 7.2 indicates the variation of stress for different materials having different flange
widths.
For Disc made of Cast Iron, maximum Vonmises stress is observed for 8mm flange
width which is 174Mpa and minimum Vonmises stress is observed for 14mm flange width
which is 128 MPa.

For Disc made of Aluminium, maximum Vonmises stress is observed for 14mm
flange width which is 205 MPa and minimum Vonmises stress is observed for 8mm flange
width which is 258 MPa.

For Disc made of Steel, maximum Vonmises stress is observed for 14mm flange
width which is 276 MPa and minimum Vonmises stress is observed for 8mm flange width
which is 325 MPa.

Hence it is seen that the Vonmises stress decreases with increase in flange width for
Cast Iron Disc (refer Graph 7.1) and increases with increase in flange width for Steel and
Aluminium Discs (refer Graphs 7.2 & 7.3)

Viewing the above results and the discussion made in this chapter regarding the
material of the Disc Brake we can conclude that the Cast Iron Disc of 10mm flange width can
be preferred.


64



Vonmises stress for Aluminium 8mm flange width


Vonmises stress for Aluminium 10mm flange width
65



Vonmises stress for Aluminium 12mm flange width



Vonmises stress for Cast Iron 8mm flange width
66



Vonmises stress for Cast Iron 10mm flange width



Vonmises stress for Cast Iron 12mm flange width
67



Vonmises stress for Cast Iron 14mm flange width



Vonmises stress for Steel 8mm flange width
68



Vonmises stress for Steel 10mm flange width



Vonmises stress for Steel 12mm flange width
69



Vonmises stress for Steel 14mm flange width

Graph 7.1 Vonmises stress Vs Flange width for Cast Iron
VONMISES STRESS Vs FLANGE WIDTH (CAST
IRON)
0
50
100
150
200
250
8 10 12 14
FLANGE WIDTH (mm)
V
O
N
M
I
S
E
S

S
T
R
E
S
S

(
M
P
a
)
Series1
70


Graph 7.2 Vonmises stress Vs Flange width for Aluminium


Graph 7.3 Vonmises stress Vs Flange width for Steel
VONMISES STRESS Vs FLANGE WIDTH (ALUMINIUM)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
8 10 12 14
FLANGE WIDTH (mm)
V
O
N
M
I
S
E
S

S
T
R
E
S
S

(
M
P
a
)
Series1
VONMISES STRESS Vs FLANGE WIDTH (STEEL)
0
50
100
150
200
8 10 12 14
FLANGE WIDTH (mm)
V
O
N
M
I
S
E
S

S
T
R
E
S
S

(
M
P
a
)
Series1
71


TABLE 7.2 RESULTS OF VARIOUS STRESSES OBTAINED FOR CI, AL & STEEL.
Sl
No.
Matirial
Flange
width in mm
Stress in
XDirection
mpa
Stress in
Y-direction
mpa
1
st
principal
stress mpa
2
nd
principal
stress mpa
Vonmi
sses
stress
mpa
1. CAST IRON
8 mm 40.4 59.7 62.6 26.5 230
10 mm 80.1 69.8 81.0 68.8 222
12 mm 70.6 73.2 85.8 48.5 206
14 mm 62.2 21.1 62.2 20.8 179
2. ALUMINIUM
8 mm 24.8 7.73 24.8 5.23 48.6
10 mm 31.3 7.55 31.3 7.12 63.7
12 mm 35.2 9.41 35.2 9.04 75.7
14 mm 36.6 11.9 36.6 11.7 84.2
3. STEEL
8 mm 52.0 13.3 52.0 10.6 106
10 mm 62.6 14.7 62.6 13.8 137
12 mm 66.0 17.4 66.0 16.7 157
14 mm 63.3 21.0 63.3 20.7 169
72
8. CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are drawn from the present work.

An axis-symmetric analysis of disc brake has been carried out using plane
77 and plane 42 through ANSYS R 10.0 (F.E.A) software.

A transient thermal analysis is carried out using the direct time integration
technique for the application of braking force due to friction for time
duration of 4.8 seconds.

The maximum temperature obtained in the brake disc is at the contact
surface and is observed to be 124.328C for cast iron disc of 10mm flange
width, which varies only by 0.16% from the experimental value.

Static structural analysis is carried out by coupling the thermal solution to
the structural analysis and the maximum Vonmises stress is observed to be
174 MPa for Cast Iron Disc of 8mm flange width.

The brake disc design is safe based on the strength and rigidity criteria.

Comparing the different results obtained from the analysis, it is concluded
that disc brake with 10 mm flange width, 6.5 mm wall thickness and of
material cast iron is the best possible combination for the present
application.

73
9.REFERENCES

[1] A. Yevtushenko and E. Ivanyk, Determination of heat & thermal
distortion in braking systems, WEAR, Vol.185, pp. 159165, 1995.
[2] D. M. Rowson, The Interfacial Surface Temperature Of A Disc Brake,
WEAR, Vol. 47, pp 323328, 1978.
[3] Ji-Hoon Choi and In Lee, Finite element analysis of transient
thermoelastic behaviours in Disc Brakes, WEAR, Vol.257, pp. 4758,
2004.
[4] Thomas Valvano and Kwangjin Lee, An Analytical Method to Predict
Thermal Distortion of a Brake Rotor, SAE, 2000-01-0445, 2000.
[5] C. H. Gao and X. Z. Lin, Transient temperature field analysis of a Break
in a non-axisymetrical three dimensional model, Journal Of
Materials Processing Technology, Vol.129, pp. 513517, 2002.
[6] El Abdi and H. Samrout, Anisothermal modelling applied to brake discs,
International Journal of Nonlinear Mechanics, Vol.34, pp. 795805, 1999.
[7] The Brake Disc Manual, www. Brembodiscbrakes.com.

[8] www. howstuffworks.com.

[9] User Guide for ANSYS version 10.0

[10] D. Q. Kern, Process heat transfer, Tata McGraw Hill, 9
th
edition, 2003.

[11] J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw Hill, 8
th
edition, 2002.

[12] Chandraputla, Introduction to Finite Element Analysis,

[13] Dr. P. Ravinder Reddy, Finite Element Analysis & ANSYS,