Human nutrition

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For aspects of nutrition science not specific to humans, see Nutrition.

This article duplicates, in whole or part, the scope of other article(s) or
section(s), specifically, Nutrition#Animal nutrition. Please discuss this issue on the talk
page and conform with Wikipedia's Manual of Style by replacing the section with a link
and a summary of the repeated material, or by spinning off the repeated text into an article
in its own right. (April 2013)
Human nutrition is the provision to obtain the essential nutrients necessary to support life and
health. In general, people can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored
body fat and muscle mass.
[citation needed]

Poor nutrition is a chronic problem linked to poverty, poor nutrition understanding and practices,
and deficient sanitation and food security.
[1]
Malnutrition globally provides many challenges to
individuals and societies. Lack of proper nutrition contributes to worse class performance, lower
test scores, and eventually less successful students and a less productive and competitive
economy.
[2]
Malnutrition and its consequences are immense contributors to deaths and
disabilities worldwide.
[2]
Promoting good nutrition helps children grow, promotes human
development and advances economic growth and eradication of poverty.
[1]

Contents
Overview
Nutritional science investigates the metabolic and physiological responses of the body to diet.
With advances in the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, genetics, the study of nutrition is
increasingly concerned with metabolism and metabolic pathways: the sequences of biochemical
steps through which substances in living things change from one form to another.
The human body contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and
fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These
compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and
elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins, phospholipids,
hydroxyapatite), both in the human body and in the plant and animal organisms that humans eat.
Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after
experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the whole diet and of all material excreted
and eliminated from the body (in urine and feces). Comparing the food to the waste can help
determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized in the body. The
effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period, during which all food and
waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making
nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of human
nutrition is still slowly evolving.
Nutrients
Main article: Nutrient
There are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, dietary fiber, minerals, proteins,
vitamins, and water.
These nutrient classes can be categorized as either macronutrients (needed in relatively large
amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates,
fats, fiber, proteins, and water. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.
The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from
which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules
are built), energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and
in either case it is measured Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a
capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ
approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram,
[3]
though
the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary
substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide
energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class of dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-
digestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for both mechanical and
biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear.
Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex
polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a
glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be
synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen,
and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids,
some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the
amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for
energy production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down existing protein, some glucose can
be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This
occurs naturally when atrophy takes place, or during periods of starvation.
Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals which are said to influence (or
protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for
instance, vitamins.
Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes, together with other substances.
Some nutrients can be stored internally (e.g., the fat soluble vitamins), while others are required
more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients or, in
extreme cases, too much of a required nutrient. For example, both salt and water (both absolutely
required) will cause illness or even death in too large amounts.
Carbohydrates
Main article: Carbohydrate


Grain products: rich sources of complex and simple carbohydrates
Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides
depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of
foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products.
Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more.
Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long
multiple branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take
longer to digest and absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before
absorption. The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be
related to some of the heart and vascular diseases which have become more frequent in recent
times. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than formerly, perhaps leading to more
cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear, however.
Simple carbohydrates are absorbed quickly, and therefore raise blood-sugar levels more rapidly
than other nutrients. However, the most important plant carbohydrate nutrient, starch, varies in
its absorption. Gelatinized starch (starch heated for a few minutes in the presence of water) is far
more digestible than plain starch. And starch which has been divided into fine particles is also
more absorbable during digestion. The increased effort and decreased availability reduces the
available energy from starchy foods substantially and can be seen experimentally in rats and
anecdotally in humans. Additionally, up to a third of dietary starch may be unavailable due to
mechanical or chemical difficulty.
Fat

This article duplicates, in whole or part, the scope of other article(s) or
section(s), specifically, Animal nutrition#Fat. Please discuss this issue on the talk page
and conform with Wikipedia's Manual of Style by replacing the section with a link and a
summary of the repeated material, or by spinning off the repeated text into an article in its
own right. (April 2013)
Main articles: Fat and Nutrition#Fat
A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of
carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides
(three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or
unsaturated depending on the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved.
[citation needed]
Saturated
fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas
unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded, so their molecules have
relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same length. Unsaturated fats
may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many
double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid
chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids. Trans fats are a
type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in nature and in foods from
natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation.
Many studies have shown that unsaturated fats, particularly monounsaturated fats, are best in the
human diet. Saturated fats, typically from animal sources, are next, while trans fats are to be
avoided. Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or
lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are
very rare in nature, but have properties useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity
resistance.
[citation needed]

Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally
from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in humans at least
two fatty acids are essential and must be included in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential
fatty acids omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids seems also important for health, though
definitive experimental demonstration has been elusive. Both of these "omega" long-chain
polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins,
which have roles throughout the human body. They are hormones, in some respects. The omega-
3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which can be made in the human body from the omega-3
essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (LNA), or taken in through marine food sources, serves
as a building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g. weakly inflammatory PGE3). The omega-6
dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as a building block for series 1 prostaglandins
(e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as a building block for
series 2 prostaglandins (e.g., pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA can be made from
the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the human body, or can be taken in directly through food. An
appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production
of different prostaglandins: one reason a balance between omega-3 and omega-6 is believed
important for cardiovascular health. In industrialized societies, people typically consume large
amounts of processed vegetable oils, which have reduced amounts of the essential fatty acids
along with too much of omega-6 fatty acids relative to omega-3 fatty acids.
Fiber
Main article: Dietary fiber
Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate (or a polysaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed in humans and
in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four calories
(kilocalories) of energy per gram. But in most circumstances it accounts for less than that
because of its limited absorption and digestibility. There are two subcategories: insoluble and
soluble fiber. Insoluble dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer
that is indigestible by humans who do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it nor do
their digestive systems harbor sufficient quantities of the types of microbes that can do so either.
Soluble dietary fiber comprises a variety of oligosaccharides, waxes, esters, resistant starches
and other carbohydrates that dissolve or gelatinize in water. Many of these soluble fibers can be
fermented or partially fermented by microbes in the human digestive system to produce short-
chain fatty acids which are absorbed and therefore introduce some caloric content.
Whole grains, beans and other legumes, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and
vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. Fiber is important to digestive health and is thought
to reduce the risk of colon cancer.
[citation needed]
For mechanical reasons it can help in alleviating
both constipation and diarrhea. Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber
especially stimulates peristalsis the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which
move digesta along the digestive tract. Some soluble fibers produce a solution of high viscosity;
this is essentially a gel, which slows the movement of food through the intestines. Additionally,
fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, may help lessen insulin spikes and reduce the
risk of type 2 diabetes.
[citation needed]

Protein
Main article: Protein in nutrition
Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). They also
form the enyzmes which catalyse chemical reactions throughout the body. Each molecule is
composed of amino acids which are characterized by containing nitrogen and sometimes sulphur
(these components are responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin
in hair). The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to
replace damaged proteins (maintenance). Amino acids are soluble in the digestive juices within
the small intestine, where they are absorbed into the blood. Once absorbed they cannot be stored
in the body, so they are either metabolised as required or excreted in the urine.
For all animals, some amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce them internally) and
some are non-essential (the animal can produce them from other amino acids). Twenty two
amino acids can be found in the human body, and about ten of these are essential, and therefore
must be included in the diet. A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially
those that are essential) is particularly important in some situations: during early development
and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance). A complete protein source
contains all the essential amino acids; an incomplete protein source lacks one or more of the
essential amino acids.
It is a common misconception that a vegetarian diet will be insufficient in essential proteins; both
vegetarians and vegans of any age and gender, with a healthy diet, can flourish throughout all
stages of life, although the latter group typically need to pay more attention to their nutrition than
the former.
Minerals
Main article: Dietary mineral
Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four
elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules.
The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common elements in
the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned including several metals, which often
occur as ions in the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which
they occur naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural
inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground oyster shells). Some are absorbed
much more readily in the ionic forms found in such sources. On the other hand, minerals are
often artificially added to the diet as supplements; the most famous is likely iodine in iodized salt
which prevents goiter.
Essential dietary minerals
Chlorine as chloride ions; very common electrolyte; see sodium, below
Magnesium, required for processing ATP and related reactions (builds bone, causes
strong peristalsis, increases flexibility, increases alkalinity). Approximately 50% is in
bone, the remaining 50% is almost all inside body cells, with only about 1% located in
extracellular fluid. Food sources include oats, buckwheat, tofu, nuts, caviar, green leafy
vegetables, legumes, and chocolate.
[4][5]

Phosphorus, required component of bones; essential for energy processing
[6]

Approximately 80% is found in inorganic portion of bones and teeth. Phosphorus is a
component of every cell, as well as important metabolites, including DNA, RNA, ATP,
and phospholipids. Also important in pH regulation. Food sources include cheese, egg
yolk, milk, meat, fish, poultry, whole-grain cereals, and many others.
[4]

Potassium, a very common electrolyte (heart and nerve health). With sodium, potassium
is involved in maintaining normal water balance, osmotic equilibrium, and acid-base
balance. In addition to calcium, it is important in the regulation of neuromuscular
activity. Food sources include bananas, avocados, vegetables, potatoes, legumes, and
mushrooms.
[5]

Sodium, a very common electrolyte; not generally found in dietary supplements, despite
being needed in large quantities, because the ion is very common in food: typically as
sodium chloride, or common salt
Trace minerals
Many elements are required in smaller amounts (microgram quantities), usually because they
play a catalytic role in enzymes.
[7]
Some trace mineral elements (RDA < 200 mg/day) are, in
alphabetical order:
Cobalt required for biosynthesis of vitamin B
12
family of coenzymes
Copper required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase
Chromium required for sugar metabolism
Iodine required not only for the biosynthesis of thyroxin, but probably, for other
important organs as breast, stomach, salivary glands, thymus etc. (see Extrathyroidal
iodine); for this reason iodine is needed in larger quantities than others in this list, and
sometimes classified with the macrominerals
Iron required for many enzymes, and for hemoglobin and some other proteins
Manganese (processing of oxygen)
Molybdenum required for xanthine oxidase and related oxidases
Nickel present in urease
Selenium required for peroxidase (antioxidant proteins)
Zinc required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol
dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase
Vitamins
Main article: Vitamin
As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as essential nutrients,
necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can alternatively be
synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that
are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but
these are not "essential" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce
them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently
been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties
including antioxidant activity (see below); experimental demonstration has been suggestive but
inconclusive. Other essential nutrients not classed as vitamins include essential amino acids (see
above), essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.
Vitamin deficiencies may result in disease conditions: goiter, scurvy, osteoporosis, impaired
immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of premature
aging, and poor psychological health (including eating disorders), among many others.
[8]
Excess
of some vitamins is also dangerous to health (notably vitamin A), and for at least one vitamin,
B6, toxicity begins at levels not far above the required amount. Deficiency or excess of minerals
can also have serious health consequences.
For those who have healthy kidneys, it is somewhat difficult to drink too much water,
[citation needed]

but (especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) it is dangerous to drink too little.
People can drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk
of water intoxication, which can be fatal. In particular, large amounts of de-ionized water are
dangerous.
There is research interest in the health effects of phytochemicals, but to date there is no
conclusive evidence.
[9]
While many fruits and vegetables which happen to contain
phytochemicals are thought to be components of a healthy diet, by comparison dietary
supplements based on them have no proven health benefit.
[9]

Nutrition for Special Populations
Sports nutrition
Main article: Sports nutrition
Individuals with highly active lifestyles require more nutrients.
Protein


Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common
bodybuilding supplement.
Protein is an important component of every cell in the body. Hair and nails are mostly made of
protein. The body uses protein to build and repair tissues. Also protein is used to make enzymes,
hormones, and other body chemicals. Protein is an important building block of bones, muscles,
cartilage, skin, and blood.
The protein requirement for each individual differs, as do opinions about whether and to what
extent physically active people require more protein. The 2005 Recommended Dietary
Allowances (RDA), aimed at the general healthy adult population, provide for an intake of 0.8
1 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight (according to the BMI formula), with the review
panel stating that "no additional dietary protein is suggested for healthy adults undertaking
resistance or endurance exercise".
[10]

Water and salts
Water is one of the most important nutrients in the sports diet. It helps eliminate food waste
products in the body, regulates body temperature during activity and helps with digestion.
Maintaining hydration during periods of physical exertion is key to peak performance. While
drinking too much water during activities can lead to physical discomfort, dehydration in excess
of 2% of body mass (by weight) markedly hinders athletic performance.
[11]
Water and salt
dosage is based on work performed, lean body mass, and environmental factors, especially
ambient temperature and humidity. Maintaining the right amount is key.
Additional carbohydrates and protein taken before, during, and after exercise will improve
endurance (increase time to exhaustion) as well as speed recovery as long as the exercise is
compatible with digestion of the substance taken, e.g. a steak eaten while running a marathon
may not be fully digested and may hinder performance.
Carbohydrates
The main fuel used by the body during exercise is carbohydrates, which is stored in muscle as
glycogen a form of sugar. During exercise, muscle glycogen reserves can be used up,
especially when activities last longer than 90 min.
[citation needed]
Because the amount of glycogen
stored in the body is limited, it is important for athletes to replace glycogen by consuming a diet
high in carbohydrates. Meeting energy needs can help improve performance during the sport, as
well as improve overall strength and endurance.
There are different kinds of carbohydrates: simple (for example from fruits) and complex (for
example from grains such as wheat). Simple sugars can be from an unrefined natural source, or
may be refined and added to processed food. A typical American consumes about 50% of their
carbohydrates as refined sugars. Over the course of a year, the average American consumes 204
litres (54 US gallons @ 3.78l per gallon) of soft drinks, which contain the highest amount of
added sugars.
[12]
Even though carbohydrates are necessary for humans to function, they are not
all equally healthful. When machinery has been used to remove bits of high fiber, the
carbohydrates are refined. These are the carbohydrates found in white bread and fast food.
[13]

Child and Maternal Nutrition
Elderly Nutrition
Malnutrition
Main article: Malnutrition
Malnutrition refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients. In
developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional
imbalances or excessive consumption. Although there are more people in the world who are
malnourished due to excessive consumption, according to the United Nations World Health
Organization, the real challenge in developing nations today, more than starvation, is combating
insufficient nutrition the lack of nutrients necessary for the growth and maintenance of vital
functions.
The causes of malnutrition are directly linked to inadequate macronutrient consumption and
disease, and are indirectly linked to factors like household food security, maternal and child
care, health services, and the environment.
[2]

Individual nutrition challenges
Illnesses
Nutrients Deficiency Excess
Energy starvation, marasmus
obesity, diabetes mellitus,
cardiovascular disease
Simple
carbohydrates
none diabetes mellitus, obesity
Complex
carbohydrates
none obesity
Saturated fat low sex hormone levels
[14]
cardiovascular disease
[15]

Trans fat none cardiovascular disease
Unsaturated fat none obesity
Fat
malabsorption of fat-soluble vitamins, rabbit
starvation (if protein intake is high), during
development: stunted brain development
and reduced brain weight.
[16]

cardiovascular disease
[15]

Omega-3 fats cardiovascular disease bleeding, hemorrhages
Omega-6 fats none cardiovascular disease, cancer
Cholesterol
during development: deficiencies in
myelinization of the brain.
[17]

cardiovascular disease
[15]

Protein kwashiorkor

Sodium hyponatremia hypernatremia, hypertension
Iron anemia cirrhosis, cardiovascular disease
Iodine goiter, hypothyroidism
Iodine toxicity (goiter,
hypothyroidism)
Vitamin A
xerophthalmia and night blindness, low
testosterone levels
hypervitaminosis A (cirrhosis, hair
loss)
Vitamin B
1
beriberi

Vitamin B
2
cracking of skin and corneal unclearation

Niacin pellagra
dyspepsia, cardiac arrhythmias,
birth defects
Vitamin B
12
pernicious anemia

Vitamin C scurvy diarrhea causing dehydration
Vitamin D
rickets, osteoporosis, balance, immune
system, inflammation
hypervitaminosis D (dehydration,
vomiting, constipation)
Vitamin E nervous disorders
hypervitaminosis E
(anticoagulant: excessive
bleeding)
Vitamin K hemorrhage

Calcium
osteoporosis, tetany, carpopedal spasm,
laryngospasm, cardiac arrhythmias
fatigue, depression, confusion,
anorexia, nausea, vomiting,
constipation, pancreatitis,
increased urination
Magnesium hypertension
weakness, nausea, vomiting,
impaired breathing, and
hypotension
Potassium hypokalemia, cardiac arrhythmias hyperkalemia, palpitations
Mental agility
Main article: Nootropic
Research indicates that improving the awareness of nutritious meal choices and establishing
long-term habits of healthy eating has a positive effect on a cognitive and spatial memory
capacity, potentially increasing a student's potential to process and retain academic
information.
[citation needed]

Some organizations have begun working with teachers, policymakers, and managed foodservice
contractors to mandate improved nutritional content and increased nutritional resources in school
cafeterias from primary to university level institutions. Health and nutrition have been proven to
have close links with overall educational success.
[18]
Currently less than 10% of American
college students report that they eat the recommended five servings of fruit and vegetables
daily.
[19]
Better nutrition has been shown to have an impact on both cognitive and spatial
memory performance; a study showed those with higher blood sugar levels performed better on
certain memory tests.
[20]
In another study, those who consumed yogurt performed better on
thinking tasks when compared to those who consumed caffeine free diet soda or confections.
[21]

Nutritional deficiencies have been shown to have a negative effect on learning behavior in mice
as far back as 1951.
[22]

"Better learning performance is associated with diet induced effects on learning and
memory ability".
[23]

The "nutrition-learning nexus" demonstrates the correlation between diet and learning and has
application in a higher education setting.
"We find that better nourished children perform significantly better in school, partly
because they enter school earlier and thus have more time to learn but mostly because of
greater learning productivity per year of schooling."
[24]

91% of college students feel that they are in good health while only 7% eat their
recommended daily allowance of fruits and vegetables.
[19]

Nutritional education is an effective and workable model in a higher education
setting.
[24][25]

More "engaged" learning models that encompass nutrition is an idea that is picking up
steam at all levels of the learning cycle.
[26]

There is limited research available that directly links a student's Grade Point Average (G.P.A.) to
their overall nutritional health. Additional substantive data is needed to prove that overall
intellectual health is closely linked to a person's diet, rather than a correlation fallacy.
Mental disorders
Nutritional supplement treatment may be appropriate for major depression, bipolar disorder,
schizophrenia, and obsessive compulsive disorder, the four most common mental disorders in
developed countries.
[27]
Supplements that have been studied most for mood elevation and
stabilization include eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (each of which are an
omega-3 fatty acid contained in fish oil, but not in flaxseed oil), vitamin B
12
, folic acid, and
inositol.
Cancer
Cancer has become common in developing countries. According to a study by the International
Agency for Research on Cancer, "In the developing world, cancers of the liver, stomach and
esophagus were more common, often linked to consumption of carcinogenic preserved foods,
such as smoked or salted food, and parasitic infections that attack organs." Lung cancer rates are
rising rapidly in poorer nations because of increased use of tobacco. Developed countries
"tended to have cancers linked to affluence or a 'Western lifestyle' cancers of the colon, rectum,
breast and prostate that can be caused by obesity, lack of exercise, diet and age."
[28]

A comprehensive worldwide report, "Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of
Cancer: a Global Perspective", compiled by the World Cancer Research Fund and the American
Institute for Cancer Research, reports that there is a significant relation between lifestyle
(including food consumption) and cancer prevention. The same report recommends eating
mostly foods of plant origin and aiming to meet nutritional needs through diet alone, while
limiting consumption of energy-dense foods, red meat, alcoholic drinks and salt and avoiding
sugary drinks, processed meat and moldy cereals (grains) or pulses (legumes).
Metabolic syndrome and obesity
Several lines of evidence indicate lifestyle-induced hyperinsulinemia and reduced insulin
function (i.e. insulin resistance) as decisive factors in many disease states. For example,
hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are strongly linked to chronic inflammation, which in
turn is strongly linked to a variety of adverse developments such as arterial microinjuries and
clot formation (i.e. heart disease) and exaggerated cell division (i.e. cancer).
[29]
Hyperinsulinemia
and insulin resistance (the so-called metabolic syndrome) are characterized by a combination of
abdominal obesity, elevated blood sugar, elevated blood pressure, elevated blood triglycerides,
and reduced HDL cholesterol.
Obesity can unfavourably alter hormonal and metabolic status via resistance to the hormone
leptin, and a vicious cycle may occur in which insulin/leptin resistance and obesity aggravate one
another. The vicious cycle is putatively fuelled by continuously high insulin/leptin stimulation
and fat storage, as a result of high intake of strongly insulin/leptin stimulating foods and energy.
Both insulin and leptin normally function as satiety signals to the hypothalamus in the brain;
however, insulin/leptin resistance may reduce this signal and therefore allow continued
overfeeding despite large body fat stores.
There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors such as intake of
processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans
fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals contribute to the development of insulin and
leptin resistance. Evidence indicates that diets possibly protective against metabolic syndrome
include low saturated and trans fat intake and foods rich in dietary fiber, such as high
consumption of fruits and vegetables and moderate intake of low-fat dairy products.
[30]

Hyponatremia
Excess water intake, without replenishment of sodium and potassium salts, leads to
hyponatremia, which can further lead to water intoxication at more dangerous levels. A well-
publicized case occurred in 2007, when Jennifer Strange died while participating in a water-
drinking contest.
[31]
More usually, the condition occurs in long-distance endurance events (such
as marathon or triathlon competition and training) and causes gradual mental dulling, headache,
drowsiness, weakness, and confusion; extreme cases may result in coma, convulsions, and death.
The primary damage comes from swelling of the brain, caused by increased osmosis as blood
salinity decreases. Effective fluid replacement techniques include Water aid stations during
running/cycling races, trainers providing water during team games such as Soccer and devices
such as Camel Baks which can provide water for a person without making it too hard to drink the
water.
Global nutrition challenges
Death and disability
Non-infectious disease
The most common non-infectious diseases worldwide, that contribute most to the global
mortality rate, are cardiovascular diseases, various cancers, diabetes, and chronic respiratory
problems, all of which are linked to poor nutrition. Nutrition and diet are closely associated with
the leading causes of death, including cardiovascular disease and cancer. Obesity and high
sodium intake can contribute to ischemic heart disease, while consumption of fruits and
vegetables can decrease the risk of developing cancer.
[32]

Infectious Disease
The connection between food and sickness is well-established- foodborne and infectious diseases
can result in malnutrition, and malnutrition exacerbates infectious disease. Poor nutrition leaves
children and adults more susceptible to contracting life threatening diseases such as diarrheal
infections and respiratory infections.
[1]
According to the WHO, in 2011, 6.9 million children died
of infectious diseases like pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria, and neonatal conditions, of which at
least one third were associated with undernutrition.
[33][34][35]

Child malnutrition
According to UNICEF, in 2011, 101 million children across the globe were underweight and one
in four children, 165 million, were stunted in growth.
[36]
Simultaneously, there are 43 million
children under five who are overweight or obese.
[2]
Nearly 20 million children under 5 suffer
from severe acute malnutrition, a life-threatening condition requiring urgent treatment.
[2]

According to estimations at UNICEF, hunger will be responsible for 5.6 million deaths of
children under the age of five this year.
[1]
These all represent significant public health
emergencies.
[32]
This is because proper maternal and child nutrition has immense consequences
for survival, acute and chronic disease incidence, normal growth, and economic productivity of
individuals.
[37]

Childhood malnutrition is common and contributes to the global burden of disease.
[38]
Childhood
is a particularly important time to achieve good nutrition status, because poor nutrition has the
capability to lock a child in a vicious cycle of disease susceptibility and recurring sickness,
which threatens cognitive and social development.
[1]
Undernutrition and bias in access to food
and health services leaves children less likely to attend or perform well in school.
[1]

Under nutrition
UNICEF defines under nutrition as the outcome of insufficient food intake (hunger) and
repeated infectious diseases. Under nutrition includes being underweight for ones age, too short
for ones age (stunted), dangerously thin (wasted), and deficient in vitamins and minerals
(micronutrient malnutrient).
[1]
Under nutrition causes 53% of deaths of children under five across
the world.
[1]
It has been estimated that undernutrition is the underlying cause for 35% of child
deaths.
[39]
The Maternal and Child Nutrition Study Group estimate that under nutrition,
including fetal growth restriction, stunting, wasting, deficiencies of vitamin A and zinc along
with suboptimum breastfeeding- is a cause of 3.1 million child deaths and infant mortality, or
45% of all child deaths in 2011.
[37]

When humans are undernourished, they no longer maintain normal bodily functions, such as
growth, resistance to infection, or have satisfactory performance in school or work.
[1]
Major
causes of under nutrition in young children include lack of proper breast feeding for infants and
illnesses such as diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria, and HIV/AIDS.
[1]
According to UNICEF 146
million children across the globe, that one out of four under the age of five, are underweight.
[1]

The amount of underweight children has decreased since 1990, from 33 percent to 28 percent
between 1990 and 2004.
[1]
Underweight and stunted children are more susceptible to infection,
more likely to fall behind in school, more likely to become overweight and develop non-
infectious diseases, and ultimately earn less than their non-stunted coworkers.
[40]
Therefore,
undernutrition can accumulate deficiencies in health which results in less productive individuals
and societies
[1]

Many children are born with the inherent disadvantage of low birth weight, often caused by
intrauterine growth restriction and poor maternal nutrition, which results in worse growth,
development, and health throughout the course of their lifetime.
[32]
Children born at low
birthweight (less than 5.5 pounds), are less likely to be healthy and are more susceptible to
disease and early death.
[1]
Those born at low birthweight also are likely to have a depressed
immune system, which can increase their chances of heart disease and diabetes later on in life.
[1]

Because 96% of low birthweight occurs in the developing world, low birthweight is associated
with being born to a mother in poverty with poor nutritional status that has had to perform
demanding labor.
[1]

Stunting and other forms of undernutrition reduces a childs chance of survival and hinders their
optimal growth and health.
[40]
Stunting has demonstrated association with poor brain
development, which negatively impacts cognitive ability, academic performance, and eventually
earning potential.
[40]
Important determinants of stunting include the quality and frequency of
infant and child feeding, infectious disease susceptibility, and the mothers nutrition and health
status.
[40]
Undernourished mothers are more likely to birth stunted children, perpetuating a cycle
of undernutrition and poverty.
[40]
Stunted children are more likely to develop obesity and chronic
diseases upon reaching adulthood.
[40]
Therefore, malnutrition resulting in stunting can further
worsen the obesity epidemic, especially in low and middle income countries.
[40]
This creates
even new economic and social challenges for vulnerable impoverished groups.
[40]

Adult overweight and obesity
Malnutrition in industrialized nations is primarily due to excess calories and non-nutritious
carbohydrates, which has contributed to the obesity epidemic affecting both developed and some
developing nations.
[41]
In 2008, 35% of adults above the age of 20 years old were overweight
(BMI 25 kg/m), a prevalence that has doubled worldwide between 1980 and 2008.
[42]
Also 10%
of men and 14% of women were obese, with an BMI greater than 30.
[43]
Rates of overweight and
obesity vary across the globe, with the highest prevalence in the Americas, followed by
European nations, where over 50% of the population is overweight or obese.
[43]

Obesity is more prevalent amongst high income and higher middle income groups than lower
divisions of income.
[43]
Women are more likely than men to be obese, where the rate of obesity
in women doubled from 8% to 14% between 1980 and 2008.
[43]
Being overweight as a child has
become an increasingly important indicator for later development of obesity and non-infectious
diseases such as heart disease.
[37]
In several western European nations, the prevalence of
overweight and obese children rose by 10% from 1980 to 1990, a rate that has began to
accelerate recently.
[1]

Vitamin and mineral malnutrition
Iron deficiency and anemia
Iron deficiency is the most common inadequate nutrient worldwide, affecting approximately 2
billion people.
[44]
Globally, anemia affects 1.6 billion people, and represents a public health
emergency in children under five and mothers.
[45]
The World Health Organization estimates that
there exists 469 million women of reproductive age and approximately 600 million preschool
and school-age children worldwide who are anemic.
[46]
Anemia, especially iron-deficient
anemia, is a critical problem for cognitive developments in children, and its presence leads to
maternal deaths and poor brain and motor development in children.
[1]
The development of
anemia affects mothers and children more because infants and children have higher iron
requirements for growth.
[47]
Health consequences for iron deficiency in young children include
increased perinatal mortality, delayed mental and physical development, negative behavioral
consequences, reduced auditory and visual function, and impaired physical performance.
[48]
The
negative impacts of iron deficiency during child development cannot be reversed and result in
reduced academic performance, poor physical work capacity, and decreased productivity in
adulthood.
[2]
Mothers are also very susceptible to iron-deficient anemia because women lose iron
during menstruation, and rarely supplement it in their diet.
[2]
Maternal iron deficiency anemia
increases the chances of maternal mortality, contributing to at least 18% of maternal deaths in
low and middle income countries.
[49]

Vitamin A deficiency
Vitamin A plays an essential role in developing the immune system in children, therefore, it is
considered an essential micronutrient that can greatly affect health.
[1]
However, because of the
expense of testing for deficiencies, many developing nations have not been able to fully detect
and address vitamin A deficiency, leaving vitamin A deficiency considered a silent hunger.
[1]

According to estimates, subclinical vitamin A deficiency, characterized by low retinol levels,
affects 190 million pre-school children and 19 million mothers worldwide.
[50]
The WHO
estimates that 5.2 million of these children under 5 are affected by night blindness, which is
considered clinical vitamin A deficiency.
[51]
Severe vitamin A deficiency (VAD) for developing
children can result in visual impairments, anemia and weakened immunity, and increase their
risk of morbidity and mortality from infectious disease.
[52]
This also presents a problem for
women, with WHO estimating that 9.8 million women are affected by night blindness.
[53]

Clinical vitamin A deficiency is particularly common among pregnant women, with prevalence
rates as high as 9.8% in South-East Asia.
[50]

Iodine deficiency
Estimates say that 28.5% of the global population is iodine deficient, representing 1.88 billion
individuals.
[54]
Although salt iodization programs have reduced the prevalence of iodine
deficiency, this is still a public health concern in 32 nations. Moderate deficiencies are common
in Europe and Africa, and over consumption is common in the Americas.
[32]
Iodine-deficient
diets can interfere with adequate thyroid hormone production, which is responsible for normal
growth in the brain and nervous system. This ultimately leads to poor school performance and
impaired intellectual capabilities.
[1]

Infant and young child feeding
Improvement of breast feeding practices, like early initiation and exclusive breast feeding for the
first two years of life, could save the lives of 1.5 million children annually.
[55]
Nutrition
interventions targeted at young infants aged 05 months first encourages early initiation of
breastfeeding.
[2]
Though the relationship between early initiation of breast feeding and improved
health outcomes has not been formally established, a recent study in Ghana suggests a causal
relationship between early initiation and reduced infection-caused neo-natal deaths.
[2]
Also,
experts promote exclusive breastfeeding, rather than using formula, which has shown to promote
optimal growth, development, and health of infants.
[56]
Exclusive breasfeeding often indicates
nutritional status because infants that consume breast milk are more likely to receive all adequate
nourishment and nutrients that will aid their developing body and immune system. This leaves
children less likely to contract diarrheal diseases and respiratory infections.
[1]

Besides the quality and frequency of breastfeeding, the nutritional status of mothers affects infant
health. When mothers do not receive proper nutrition, it threatens the wellness and potential of
their children.
[1]
Well-nourished women are less likely to experience risks of birth and are more
likely to deliver children who will develop well physically and mentally.
[1]
Maternal
undernutrition increases the chances of low-birth weight, which can increase the risk of
infections and asphyxia in fetuses, increasing the probability of neonatal deaths.
[57]
Growth
failure during intrauterine conditions, associated with improper mother nutrition, can contribute
to lifelong health complications.
[2]
Approximately 13 million children are born with intrauterine
growth restriction annually.
[58]

Undernourishment
Data on global and regional food supply shows that consumption rose from 2011-2012 in all
regions. Diets became more diverse, with a decrease in consumption of cereals and roots and an
increase in fruits, vegetables, and meat products.
[59]
However, this increase masks the
discrepancies between nations, where Africa, in particular, saw a decrease in food consumption
over the same years.
[59]
This information is derived from food balance sheets that reflect national
food supplies, however, this does not necessarily reflect the distribution of micro and
macronutrients.
[59]
Often inequality in food access leaves distribution which uneven, resulting in
undernourishment for some and obesity for others.
[59]

Undernourishment, or hunger, according to the FAO, is dietary intake below the minimum daily
energy requirement.
[59]
The amount of undernourishment is calculated utilizing the average
amount of food available for consumption, the size of the population, the relative disparities in
access to the food, and the minimum calories required for each individual.
[59]
According to FAO,
868 million people (12% of the global population) were undernourished in 2012.
[59]
This has
decreased across the world since 1990, in all regions except for Africa, where undernourishment
has steadily increased.
[59]
However, the rates of decrease are not sufficient to meet the first
Millennium Development Goal of halving hunger between 1990 and 2015.
[59]
The global
financial, economic, and food price crisis in 2008 drove many people to hunger, especially
women and children. The spike in food prices prevented many people from escaping poverty,
because the poor spend a larger proportion of their income on food and farmers are net
consumers of food.
[60]
High food prices cause consumers to have less purchasing power and to
substitute more-nutritious foods with low-cost alternatives.
[61]

International food insecurity and malnutrition
According to UNICEF, South Asia has the highest levels of underweight children under five,
followed by sub-Saharan Africans nations, with Industrialized countries and Latin nations having
the lowest rates.
[1]

United States
Nutrition Status
In the United States, 2% of children are underweight, with under 1% stunted and 6% are
wasting.
[1]

Policies
In the US, dietitians are registered (RD) or licensed (LD) with the Commission for Dietetic
Registration and the American Dietetic Association, and are only able to use the title "dietitian,"
as described by the business and professions codes of each respective state, when they have met
specific educational and experiential prerequisites and passed a national registration or licensure
examination, respectively. In California, registered dietitians must abide by the "Business and
Professions Code of Section 2585-2586.8".Anyone may call themselves a nutritionist, including
unqualified dietitians, as this term is unregulated. Some states, such as the State of Florida, have
begun to include the title "nutritionist" in state licensure requirements. Most governments
provide guidance on nutrition, and some also impose mandatory disclosure/labeling requirements
for processed food manufacturers and restaurants to assist consumers in complying with such
guidance.
In the US, nutritional standards and recommendations are established jointly by the US
Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary and
physical activity guidelines from the USDA are presented in the concept of a plate of food which
in 2011 superseded the food pyramid that had replaced the Four Food Groups. The Senate
committee currently responsible for oversight of the USDA is the Agriculture, Nutrition and
Forestry Committee. Committee hearings are often televised on C-SPAN.
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services provides a sample week-long menu which
fulfills the nutritional recommendations of the government.
[62]
Canada's Food Guide is another
governmental recommendation.
Industrialized countries
According to UNICEF, the Commonwealth of Independent States has the lowest rates of stunting
and wasting, at 14 percent and 3 percent.
[1]
The nations of Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Lithuania
and Sweden have the lowest prevalence of low birthweight children in the world- at 4%.
[1]

Proper prenatal nutrition is responsible for this small prevalence of low birthweight infants.
[1]

However, low birthweight rates are increasing, due to the use of fertility drugs, resulting in
multiple births, women bearing children at an older age, and the advancement of technology
allowing more pre-term infants to survive.
[1]
Industrialized nations more often face malnutrition
in the form of over-nutrition from excess calories and non-nutritious carbohydrates, which has
contributed greatly to the public health epidemic of obesity.
[41]
Disparities, according to gender,
geographic location and socio-economic position, both within and between countries, represent
the biggest threat to child nutrition in industrialized countries. These disparities are a direct
product of social inequalities and social inequalities are rising throughout the industrialized
world, particularly in Europe.
[1]

South Asia
South Asia has the highest percentage and number of underweight children under five in the
world, at approximately 78 million children.
[1]
Patterns of stunting and wasting are similar,
where 44% have not reached optimal height and 15% are wasted, rates much higher than any
other regions.
[1]
This region of the world has extremely high rates of child underweight- 46% of
its child population under five is underweight.
[1]
India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan alone account
for half the globes underweight child population.
[1]
South Asian nations have made progress
towards the MDGs, considering the rate has decreased from 53% since 1990, however, a 1.7%
decrease of underweight prevalence per year will not be sufficient to meet the 2015 goal.
[1]
Some
nations, such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, on the other hand, have made
significant improvements, all decreasing their prevalence by half in ten years.
[1]
While India and
Pakistan have made modest improvements, Nepal has made no significant improvement in
underweight child prevalence.
[1]
Other forms of undernutrition have continued to persist with
high resistance to improvement, such as the prevalence of stunting and wasting, which has not
changed significantly in the past 10 years.
[1]
Causes of this poor nutrition include energy-
insufficient diets, poor sanitation conditions, and the gender disparities in educational and social
status.
[1]
Girls and women face discrimination especially in nutrition status, where South Asia is
the only region in the world where girls are more likely to be underweight than boys.
[1]
In South
Asia, 60% of children in the lowest quintile are underweight, compared to only 26% in the
highest quintile, and the rate of reduction of underweight is slower amongst the poorest.
[63]

Eastern/South Africa
The Eastern and Southern African nations have shown no improvement since 1990 in the rate of
underweight children under five.
[1]
They have also made no progress in halving hunger by 2015,
the most prevalent Millennium Development Goal.
[1]
This is due primarily to the prevalence of
famine, declined agricultural productivity, food emergencies, drought, conflict, and increased
poverty.
[1]
This, along with HIV/AIDS, has inhibited the nutrition development of nations such
as Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
[1]
Botswana has made
remarkable achievements in reducing underweight prevalence, dropping 4% in 4 years, despite
its place as the second leader in HIV prevalence amongst adults in the globe.
[1]
South Africa, the
wealthiest nation in this region, has the second lowest proportion of underweight children at
12%, but has been steadily increasing in underweight prevalence since 1995.
[1]
Almost half of
Ethiopian children are underweight, and along with Nigeria, they account for almost one-third of
the underweight under five in all of Sub-Saharan Africa.
[1]

West/Central Africa
West/Central Africa has the highest rate of children under five underweight in the world.
[1]
Of
the countries in this region, the Congo has the lowest rate at 14%, while the nations of
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo are
improving slowly.
[1]
In Gambia, rates decreased from 26% to 17% in four years, and their
coverage of vitamin A supplementation reaches 91% of vulnerable populations.
[1]
This region
has the next highest proportion of wasted children, with 10% of the population under five not at
optimal weight.
[1]
Little improvement has been made between the years of 1990 and 2004 in
reducing the rates of underweight children under five, whose rate stayed approximately the
same.
[1]
Sierra Leone has the highest child under five mortality rate in the world, due
predominantly to its extreme infant mortality rate, at 238 deaths per 1000 live births.
[1]
Other
contributing factors include the high rate of low birthweight children (23%) and low levels of
exclusive breast feeding (4%).
[1]
Anemia is prevalent in these nations, with unacceptable rates of
iron deficient anemia.
[1]
The nutritional status of children is further indicated by its high rate of
child wasting - 10%.
[1]
Wasting is a significant problem in Sahelian countries Burkina Faso,
Chad, Mali, Mauritania and Niger where rates fall between 11% and 19% of under fives,
affecting more than 1 million children.
[1]

Middle East/North Africa
Six countries in the Middle East and North Africa region are on target to meet goals for reducing
underweight children by 2015, and 12 countries have prevalence rates below 10%.
[1]
However,
the nutrition of children in the region as a whole has degraded for the past ten years due to the
increasing portion of underweight children in three populous nations Iraq, Sudan, and
Yemen.
[1]
Forty six percent of all children in Yemen are underweight, a percentage that has
worsened by 4% since 1990.
[1]
In Yemen, 53% of children under five are stunted and 32% are
born at low birth weight.
[1]
Sudan has an underweight prevalence of 41%, and the highest
proportion of wasted children in the region at 16%.
[1]
One percent of households in Sudan
consume iodized salt.
[1]
Iraq has also seen an increase in child underweight since 1990.
[1]

Djibouti, Jordan, the Occupied Palestinian Territory (OPT), Oman, the Syrian Arab Republic and
Tunisia are all projected to meet minimum nutrition goals, with OPT, Syrian AR, and Tunisia the
fastest improving regions.
[1]
This region demonstrates that undernutrition does not always
improve with economic prosperity, where the United Arab Emirates, for example, despite being
a wealthy nation, has similar child death rates due to malnutrition to those seen in Yemen.
[1]

East Asia/Pacific
The East Asia/Pacific region has reached its goals on nutrition, in part due to the improvements
contributed by China, the regions most populous country.
[1]
China has reduced its underweight
prevalence from 19 percent to 8 percent between 1990 and 2002.
[1]
China played the largest role
in the world in decreasing the rate of children under five underweight between 1990 and 2004,
halving the prevalence.
[1]
This reduction of underweight prevalence has aided in the lowering of
the under 5 mortality rate from 49 to 31 of 1000. They also have a low birthweight rate at 4%, a
rate comparable to industrialized countries, and over 90% of households receive adequate
iodized salts.
[1]
However, large disparities exist between children in rural and urban areas, where
5 provinces in China leave 1.5 million children iodine deficient and susceptible to diseases.
[1]

Singapore, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia are all projected to reach nutrition MDGs.
[1]

Singapore has the lowest under five mortality rate of any nation, besides Iceland, in the world, at
3%.
[1]
Cambodia has the highest rate of child mortality in the region (141 per 1,000 live births),
while still its proportion of underweight children increased by 5 percent to 45% in 2000. Further
nutrient indicators show that only 12 per cent of Cambodian babies are exclusively breastfed and
only 14 per cent of households consume iodized salt.
[1]

Latin America/Caribbean
This region has undergone the fastest progress in decreasing poor nutrition status of children in
the world.
[1]
The Latin American region has reduced underweight children prevalence by 3.8%
every year between 1990 and 2004, with a current rate of 7% underweight.
[1]
They also have the
lowest rate of child mortality in the developing world, with only 31 per 1000 deaths, and the
highest iodine consumption.
[1]
Cuba has seen improvement from 9 to 4 percent underweight
under 5 between 1996 and 2004.
[1]
The prevalence has also decreased in the Dominican
Republic, Jamaica, Peru, and Chile.
[1]
Chile has a rate of underweight under 5, at merely 1%.
[1]

The most populous nations, Brazil and Mexico, mostly have relatively low rates of underweight
under 5, with only 6% and 8%.
[1]
Guatemala has the highest percentage of underweight and
stunted children in the region, with rates above 45%.
[1]
There are disparities amongst different
populations in this region. For example, children in rural areas have twice the prevalence of
underweight at 13%, compared to urban areas at 5%.
[1]

Nutrition Access Disparities
Socioeconomic status
In all regions of the world, lack of proper nutrition is both a consequence and cause of poverty.
[1]

Internationally, impoverished individuals are less likely to have access to nutritious food, and are
more vulnerable to struggle harder to come out of poverty than those who have healthy diets.
[1]

Disparities in socieo-economic status, between and within nations, provide the largest threat to
child nutrition in industrialized nations, where social inequality is on the rise.
[64]
According to
UNICEF, children living in the poorest households are twice as likely to be underweight as those
in the richest.
[1]
Those in the lowest wealth quintile and whose mothers have the least education
demonstrate the highest rates of child mortality and stunting.
[65]
Throughout the developing
world, socioeconomic inequality in childhood malnutrition is more severe than in upper income
brackets, regardless of the general rate of malnutrition.
[66]
Concurrently, the greatest increase in
childhood obesity has been seen in the lower middle income bracket.
[43]

Location
Rural populations
According to UNICEF, children in rural locations are more than twice as likely to be
underweight as compared to children under five in urban areas.
[1]
In Latin American/Caribbean
nations, Children living in rural areas in Bolivia, Honduras, Mexico and Nicaragua are more
than twice as likely to be underweight as children living in urban areas. That likelihood doubles
to four times in Peru.
[1]

Urban populations
Minorities
In the United States, the incidence of low birthweight is on the rise amongst all populations, but
particularly amongst minorities.
[67]

Special needs
Gender
According to UNICEF, boys and girls have almost identical rates of underweight children under
5 across the world, except for in South Asia.
[1]

Food and Nutrition Policy and Programs
Nutrition interventions
Nutrition directly influences progress towards meeting the Millennium Goals of eradicating
hunger and poverty through health and education.
[1]
Therefore, nutrition interventions take a
multi-faceted approach to improve the nutrition status of various populations. Policy and
programming must target both individual behavioral changes and policy approaches to public
health. While most nutrition interventions focus on delivery through the health-sector, non-health
sector interventions targeting agriculture, water and sanitation, and education are important as
well.
[2]
Global nutrition micro-nutrient deficiencies often receive large-scale solution approaches
by deploying large governmental and non-governmental organizations. For example, in 1990,
iodine deficiency was particularly prevalent, with one in five households, or 1.7 billion people,
not consuming adequate iodine, leaving them at risk to develop associated diseases.
[1]
Therefore,
a global campaign to iodize salt to eliminate iodine deficiency successfully boosted the rate to
69% of households in the world consuming adequate amounts of iodine.
[1]

Emergencies and crises often exacerbate undernutrition, due to the aftermath of crises that
include food insecurity, poor health resources, unhealthy environments, and poor healthcare
practices.
[1]
Therefore, the repercussions of natural disasters and other emergencies can
exponentially increase the rates of macro and micronutrient deficiencies in populations.
[1]

Disaster relief interventions often take a multi-faceted public health approach. UNICEFs
programming targeting nutrition services amongst disaster settings include nutrition assessments,
measles immunization, vitamin A supplementation, provision of fortified foods and
micronutrient supplements, support for breastfeeding and complementary feeding for infants and
young children, and therapeutic and supplementary feeding.
[1]
For example, during Nigerias
food crisis of 2005, 300,000 children received therapeutic nutrition feeding programs through the
collaboration of UNICEF, the Niger government, the World Food Programme, and 24 NGOs
utilizing community and facility based feeding schemes.
[1]

Interventions aimed at pregnant women, infants, and children take a behavioral and program-
based approach. Behavioral intervention objectives include promoting proper breast-feeding, the
immediate initiation of breastfeeding, and its continuation through 2 years and beyond.
[2]

UNICEF recognizes that to promote these behaviors, healthful environments must be established
conducive to promoting these behaviors, like healthy hospital environments, skilled health
workers, support in the public and workplace, and removing negative influences.
[2]
Finally, other
interventions include provisions of adequate micro and macro nutrients such as iron, anemia, and
vitamin A supplements and vitamin-fortified foods and ready-to-use products.
[2]
Programs
addressing micro-nutrient deficiencies, such as those aimed at anemia, have attempted to provide
iron supplementation to pregnant and lactating women. However, because supplementation often
occurs too late, these programs have had little impact.
[1]
Interventions such as womens nutrition,
early and exclusive breastfeeding, appropriate complementary food and micronutrient
supplementation have proven to reduce stunting and other manifestations of undernutrition.
[40]
A
Cochrane review of community-based maternal health packages showed that this community-
based approach had a positive impact on the initiation of breastfeeding within one hour of
birth.
[68]
Some programs have had adverse effects. One example is the Formula for Oil relief
program in Iraq, which resulted in the replacement of breastfeeding for formula, which has
negatively affected infant nutrition.
[1]

Implementation and delivery platforms
In April 2010, the World Bank and the IMF released a policy briefing entitled Scaling up
Nutrition (SUN): A Framework for action that represented a partnered effort to address the
Lancets Series on under nutrition, and the goals it set out for improving under nutrition.
[69]
They
emphasized the 1000 days after birth as the prime window for effective nutrition intervention,
encouraging programming that was cost-effective and showed significant cognitive improvement
in populations, as well as enhanced productivity and economic growth.
[69]
This document was
labeled the SUN framework, and was launched by the UN General Assembly in 2010 as a road
map encouraging the coherence of stakeholders like governments, academia, UN system
organizations and foundations in working towards reducing under nutrition.
[69]
The SUN
framework has initiated a transformation in global nutrition- calling for country-based nutrition
programs, increasing evidence based and costeffective interventions, and integrating nutrition
within national strategies for gender equality, agriculture, food security, social protection,
education, water supply, sanitation, and health care.
[69]
Government often plays a role in
implementing nutrition programs through policy. For instance, several East Asian nations have
enacted legislation to increase iodization of salt to increase household consumption.
[1]
Political
commitment in the form of evidence-based effective national policies and programs, trained
skilled community nutrition workers, and effective communication and advocacy can all work to
decrease malnutrition.
[40]
Market and industrial production can play a role as well. For example,
in the Philippines, improved production and market availability of iodized salt increased
household consumption.
[1]
While most nutrition interventions are delivered directly through
governments and health services, other sectors, such as agriculture, water and sanitation, and
education, are vital for nutrition promotion as well.
[2]

Nutrition Education
Nutrition is taught in schools in many countries. In England and Wales the Personal and Social
Education and Food Technology curricula include nutrition, stressing the importance of a
balanced diet and teaching how to read nutrition labels on packaging. In many schools a
Nutrition class will fall within the Family and Consumer Science or Health departments. In some
American schools, students are required to take a certain number of FCS or Health related
classes. Nutrition is offered at many schools, and if it is not a class of its own, nutrition is
included in other FCS or Health classes such as: Life Skills, Independent Living, Single
Survival, Freshmen Connection, Health etc. In many Nutrition classes, students learn about the
food groups, the food pyramid, Daily Recommended Allowances, calories, vitamins, minerals,
malnutrition, physical activity, healthy food choices and how to live a healthy life.
A 1985 US National Research Council report entitled Nutrition Education in US Medical
Schools concluded that nutrition education in medical schools was inadequate.
[70]
Only 20% of
the schools surveyed taught nutrition as a separate, required course. A 2006 survey found that
this number had risen to 30%.
[71]

History
Humans have evolved as omnivorous hunter-gatherers over the past 250,000 years. The diet of
early modern humans varied significantly depending on location and climate. The diet in the
tropics tended to be based more heavily on plant foods, while the diet at higher latitudes tended
more towards animal products. Analysis of postcranial and cranial remains of humans and
animals from the Neolithic, along with detailed bone modification studies have shown that
cannibalism was also prevalent among prehistoric humans.
[72]

Agriculture developed about 10,000 years ago in multiple locations throughout the world,
providing grains such as wheat, rice, maize, and potatoes, with staples such as bread, pasta, and
tortillas. Farming also provided milk and dairy products, and sharply increased the availability of
meats and the diversity of vegetables. The importance of food purity was recognized when bulk
storage led to infestation and contamination risks. Cooking developed as an often ritualistic
activity, due to efficiency and reliability concerns requiring adherence to strict recipes and
procedures, and in response to demands for food purity and consistency.
[73]

From antiquity to 1900
Around 3000 BC the Vedic texts had mentions of scientific research on nutrition.
The first recorded nutritional experiment is found in the Bible's Book of Daniel. Daniel and his
friends were captured by the king of Babylon during an invasion of Israel. Selected as court
servants, they were to share in the king's fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring
vegetables (pulses) and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions. The king's
chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for 10 days
and were then compared to the king's men. Appearing healthier, they were allowed to continue
with their diet.
[74]



Anaxagoras
Around 475 BC, Anaxagoras stated that food is absorbed by the human body and therefore
contained "homeomerics" (generative components), suggesting the existence of nutrients.
[73]

Around 400 BC, Hippocrates said, "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food."
[75]

In the 16th century, scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci compared metabolism to a burning
candle. In 1747, Dr. James Lind, a physician in the British navy, performed the first scientific
nutrition experiment, discovering that lime juice saved sailors who had been at sea for years from
scurvy, a deadly and painful bleeding disorder. The discovery was ignored for forty years, after
which British sailors became known as "limeys." The essential vitamin C within lime juice
would not be identified by scientists until the 1930s.
Around 1770, Antoine Lavoisier, the "Father of Nutrition and Chemistry" discovered the details
of metabolism, demonstrating that the oxidation of food is the source of body heat. In 1790,
George Fordyce recognized calcium as necessary for fowl survival. In the early 19th century, the
elements carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen were recognized as the primary components of
food, and methods to measure their proportions were developed.
In 1816, Franois Magendie discovered that dogs fed only carbohydrates and fat lost their body
protein and died in a few weeks, but dogs also fed protein survived, identifying protein as an
essential dietary component.
[citation needed]
In 1840, Justus Liebig discovered the chemical makeup
of carbohydrates (sugars), fats (fatty acids) and proteins (amino acids). In the 1860s, Claude
Bernard discovered that body fat can be synthesized from carbohydrate and protein, showing that
the energy in blood glucose can be stored as fat or as glycogen.
In the early 1880s, Kanehiro Takaki observed that Japanese sailors (whose diets consisted almost
entirely of white rice) developed beriberi (or endemic neuritis, a disease causing heart problems
and paralysis) but British sailors and Japanese naval officers did not. Adding various types of
vegetables and meats to the diets of Japanese sailors prevented the disease.
In 1896, Baumann observed iodine in thyroid glands. In 1897, Christiaan Eijkman worked with
natives of Java, who also suffered from beriberi. Eijkman observed that chickens fed the native
diet of white rice developed the symptoms of beriberi, but remained healthy when fed
unprocessed brown rice with the outer bran intact. Eijkman cured the natives by feeding them
brown rice, discovering that food can cure disease. Over two decades later, nutritionists learned
that the outer rice bran contains vitamin B
1
, also known as thiamine.
From 1900 to the present
In the early 20th century, Carl von Voit and Max Rubner independently measured caloric energy
expenditure in different species of animals, applying principles of physics in nutrition. In 1906,
Wilcock and Hopkins showed that the amino acid tryptophan was necessary for the survival of
rats. He fed them a special mixture of food containing all the nutrients he believed were essential
for survival, but the rats died. A second group of rats to which he also fed an amount of milk
containing vitamins.
[76]
Gowland Hopkins recognized "accessory food factors" other than
calories, protein and minerals, as organic materials essential to health but which the body cannot
synthesize. In 1907, Stephen M. Babcock and Edwin B. Hart conducted the single-grain
experiment. This experiment ran through 1911.
In 1912, Casimir Funk coined the term vitamin, a vital factor in the diet, from the words "vital"
and "amine," because these unknown substances preventing scurvy, beriberi, and pellagra, were
thought then to be derived from ammonia. The vitamins were studied in the first half of the 20th
century.
In 1913, Elmer McCollum discovered the first vitamins, fat soluble vitamin A, and water soluble
vitamin B (in 1915; now known to be a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named
vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. Lafayette Mendel and Thomas
Osborne also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B. In 1919, Sir Edward Mellanby
incorrectly identified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency, because he could cure it in dogs with cod
liver oil.
[77]
In 1922, McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil but found it still cured
rickets, and named it vitamin D. Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discovered vitamin
E as essential for rat pregnancy, and originally called it "food factor X" until 1925.
In 1925, Hart discovered that trace amounts of copper are necessary for iron absorption. In 1927,
Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus synthesized vitamin D, for which he won the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1928. In 1928, Albert Szent-Gyrgyi isolated ascorbic acid, and in 1932 proved
that it is vitamin C by preventing scurvy. In 1935 he synthesized it, and in 1937 won a Nobel
Prize for his efforts. Szent-Gyrgyi concurrently elucidated much of the citric acid cycle.
In the 1930s, William Cumming Rose identified essential amino acids, necessary protein
components which the body cannot synthesize. In 1935, Underwood and Marston independently
discovered the necessity of cobalt. In 1936, Eugene Floyd Dubois showed that work and school
performance are related to caloric intake. In 1938, Erhard Fernholz discovered the chemical
structure of vitamin E. It was synthesised by Paul Karrer.
In 1940, rationing in the United Kingdom during and after World War II took place according to
nutritional principles drawn up by Elsie Widdowson and others. In 1941, the first Recommended
Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were established by the National Research Council.
In 1992, The U.S. Department of Agriculture introduced the Food Guide Pyramid. In 2002, a
Natural Justice study showed a relation between nutrition and violent behavior. In 2005, a study
found that obesity may be caused by adenovirus in addition to bad nutrition.
[78]

See also

Food portal

Health and fitness portal
5 A Day
Deficiency
Diabetes
Eating disorders
Food Balance Wheel
Food groups
Food guide pyramid
Healthy eating pyramid
Illnesses related to poor nutrition
Malnutrition
Obesity
Starvation
Further reading
Curley, S., and Mark (1990). The Natural Guide to Good Health, Lafayette, Louisiana,
Supreme Publishing
Galdston, I. (1960). Human Nutrition Historic and Scientific. New York: International
Universities Press.
Hirschfelder, Gunther / Trummer, Manuel (2013). Food and Drink. Leibniz Institute of
European History (IEG).
Mahan, L.K. and Escott-Stump, S. eds. (2000). Krause's Food, Nutrition, and Diet
Therapy (10th ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Harcourt Brace. ISBN 0-7216-7904-8.
Human Nutrition. Readings from Scientific American. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman &
Co. 1978. ISBN 0-7167-0183-9
Thiollet, J.-P. (2001). Vitamines & minraux. Paris: Anagramme.
Willett, Walter C.; Stampfer, Meir J. (2003). "Rebuilding the Food Pyramid". Scientific
American 288 (1): 6471. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0103-64. PMID 12506426.
References
1. Progress for Children: A Report Card on Nutrition (No. 4), UNICEF, May 2006, ISBN
978-92-806-3988-9. http://www.unicef.org/nutrition/index_33685.html
2. World Health Organization. (2013). Essential Nutrition Actions: improving maternal,
newborn, infant and young child health and nutrition. Washington,DC:WHO.
http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/infantfeeding/essential_nutrition_actions/en/in
dex.html
3. Berg J, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L (2002). Biochemistry (5th ed.). San Francisco: W.H.
Freeman. p. 603. ISBN 0-7167-4684-0.
4. L. Kathleen Mahan, Janice L. Raymond, Sylvia Escott-Stump (2012). Krausw's Food and
the Nutrition Care Process (13th edition publisher=Elsevier ed.). St. Louis. ISBN 978-1-
4377-2233-8.
5. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, SR26, 2013
6. D. E. C. Corbridge (1995). Phosphorus: An Outline of its Chemistry, Biochemistry, and
Technology (5th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-89307-5.
7. Lippard, S. J. and Berg, J. M. (1994). Principles of Bioinorganic Chemistry. Mill Valley,
CA: University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-73-3.
8. Shils et al. (2005). Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. Lippincott Williams and
Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-4133-5.
9. "Phytochemical". American Cancer Society. 17 January 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
10. Di Pasquale, Mauro G. (2008). "Utilization of Proteins in Energy Metabolism". In Ira
Wolinsky, Judy A. Driskell. Sports Nutrition: Energy metabolism and exercise. CRC
Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-8493-7950-5.
11. http://www.winforum.org/GamePlan-bw.pdf. page 19
12. William D. McArdle, Frank I. Katch, Victor L. Katch (2006). Exercise Physiology:
Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-
8121-0682-2.
13. "Nutrition Healthy eating: Bread, cereals and other starchy foods". BBC. July 2008.
Retrieved 2008-11-09.
14. Berardi, John. "The Big T: How Your Lifestyle Influences Your Testosterone Levels".
Deepfitness.com. Retrieved 8 October 2013.
15. European Society of Cardiology (2007). "European guidelines on cardiovascular disease
prevention in clinical practice: executive summary". European Heart Journal 28 (19):
23752414. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehm316. PMID 17726041.
16. L, Winkler; Schlag B, Kessner C, Maess J, Dargel R. (1980). "Development of brain
lipids in rats receiving a fat-free diet with respect to myelinization". Acta Biol Med Ger
39 (1112): 1197203. PMID 7245988.
17. Haque, ZU; Mozaffar Z. (1992). "Importance of dietary cholesterol for the maturation of
mouse brain myelin". Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 56 (8): 13514.
doi:10.1271/bbb.56.1351. PMID 1369207.
18. Behrman, J. R. (1996). "The Impact of Health and Nutrition on Education". The World
Bank Research Observer 11 (1): 2337. doi:10.1093/wbro/11.1.23. JSTOR 3986477.
19. American College Health Association (2007). "American College Health Association
National College Health Assessment Spring 2006 Reference Group Data Report
(Abridged): The American College Health Association". Journal of American College
Health 55 (4): 195206. doi:10.3200/JACH.55.4.195-206. PMID 17319325.
20. Benton, David; Sargent, Julia (1992). "Breakfast, blood glucose and memory". Biological
Psychology 33 (23): 20710. doi:10.1016/0301-0511(92)90032-P. PMID 1525295.
21. Kanarek, Robin B.; Swinney, David (1990). "Effects of food snacks on cognitive
performance in male college students". Appetite 14 (1): 1527. doi:10.1016/0195-
6663(90)90051-9. PMID 2310175.
22. Whitley JR, O'Dell BL, Hogan AG (September 1951). "Effect of diet on maze learning in
second generation rats; folic acid deficiency". J. Nutr. 45 (1): 15360. PMID 14880969.
23. Umezawa M, Kogishi K, Tojo H, et al. (February 1999). "High-linoleate and high-alpha-
linolenate diets affect learning ability and natural behavior in SAMR1 mice". J. Nutr. 129
(2): 4317. PMID 10024623.
24. Glewwe, Paul; Jacoby, Hanan G; King, Elizabeth M (2001). "Early childhood nutrition
and academic achievement: A longitudinal analysis". Journal of Public Economics 81
(3): 34568. doi:10.1016/S0047-2727(00)00118-3.
25. Guernsey L (1993). "Many colleges clear their tables of steak, substitute fruit and pasta".
Chronicle of Higher Education 39 (26): A30.
26. Duster T, Waters A (2006). "Engaged learning across the curriculum: The vertical
integration of food for thought". Liberal Education 92 (2): 42.
27. Lakhan SE, Vieira KF (2008). "Nutritional therapies for mental disorders". Nutr J 7 (1):
2. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-7-2. PMC 2248201. PMID 18208598.
28. Coren, Michael (2005-03-10). "Study: Cancer no longer rare in poorer countries". CNN.
Retrieved 2007-01-01.
29. Fernndez-Garca JC et al. (2013). "Inflammation, oxidative stress and metabolic
syndrome: dietary modulation". Curr Vasc Pharmacol 11 (October): 15701611.
PMID 24168441.
30. Feldeisen SE, Tucker KL (2007). "Nutritional strategies in the prevention and treatment
of metabolic syndrome". Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism (National
Research Council of Canada Research Press) 32 (1): 4660. doi:10.1139/h06-101.
PMID 17332784. Retrieved November 3, 2013.
31. "Why is too much water dangerous?". BBC News. 2007-01-15. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
32. WHO (2013). Global Nutrition Policy. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. Geneva,
World Health Organization.
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/84408/1/9789241505529_eng.pdf
33. WHO. Child epidemiology, published on the website of the WHO Department of
Maternal, Newborn, Child and Adolescent Health (http://www.who.int/maternal_child_
adolescent/epidemiology/child/en/index.html, accessed 2 July 2012).
[dead link]

34. WHO. World health statistics 2013: a wealth of information on global public health.
Geneva, WHO, 2013.
[page needed]

35. Liu, Li; Johnson, Hope L; Cousens, Simon; Perin, Jamie; Scott, Susana; Lawn, Joy E;
Rudan, Igor; Campbell, Harry; Cibulskis, Richard; Li, Mengying; Mathers, Colin; Black,
Robert E; Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group of WHO UNICEF (2012).
"Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: An updated systematic analysis
for 2010 with time trends since 2000". The Lancet 379 (9832): 215161.
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60560-1. PMID 22579125.
36. UNICEF, WHO, World Bank. UNICEF-WHO-World Bank Joint child malnutrition
estimates. New York, Geneva & Washington DC, UNICEF, WHO & World Bank, 2012
(http://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/estimates/en/index.html, accessed 27 March 2013)
37. Black, Robert E; Victora, Cesar G; Walker, Susan P; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A; Christian, Parul;
De Onis, Mercedes; Ezzati, Majid; Grantham-Mcgregor, Sally; Katz, Joanne; Martorell,
Reynaldo; Uauy, Ricardo; Maternal Child Nutrition Study Group (2013). "Maternal and
child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries". The
Lancet 382 (9890): 42751. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60937-X. PMID 23746772.
38. Murray C, Lopez A (1997). "Global mortality, disability, and the contribution of risk
factors: Global Burden of Disease Study". Lancet 349 (9063): 143642.
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(96)07495-8. PMID 9164317.
39. Black RE et al. (2008). Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures
and health consequences. Lancet, 371:243260.
40. IMPROVING CHILD NUTRITION > UNICEF. (April 2013). IMPROVING CHILD
NUTRITION: The achievable imperative for global progress.
http://www.unicef.org/publications/index_68661.html
41. Darnton-Hill, Ian, C. Nishida and W.P.T. James, A life course approach to diet, nutrition
and the prevention of chronic diseases, Public Health Nutrition, vol. 7, no. 1A, 2004, pp.
101121.
42. Finucane, Mariel M; Stevens, Gretchen A; Cowan, Melanie J; Danaei, Goodarz; Lin,
John K; Paciorek, Christopher J; Singh, Gitanjali M; Gutierrez, Hialy R; Lu, Yuan;
Bahalim, Adil N; Farzadfar, Farshad; Riley, Leanne M; Ezzati, Majid; Global Burden of
Metabolic Risk Factors of Chronic Diseases Collaborating Group (Body Mass Index)
(2011). "National, regional, and global trends in body-mass index since 1980: Systematic
analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with 960 country-
years and 9 1 million participants". The Lancet 377 (9765): 55767. doi:10.1016/S0140-
6736(10)62037-5. PMID 21295846.
43. WHO (2011a). Global status report on noncommunicable diseases 2010. Geneva, World
Health Organization.
http://www.who.int/nmh/publications/ncd_report2010/en/index.html
44. WHO. Iron deficiency anemia: assessment, prevention, and control. A guide for program
managers. Geneva, WHO, 2001
[page needed]

45. WHO (2001). Iron deficiency anemia: Assessment, prevention, and control. A guide for
program managers. Geneva, World Health Organization.
46. WHO, Centers for Disease Control. Worldwide prevalence of anemia 19932005: WHO
global database of anemia. Geneva, WHO, 2008.
[page needed]

47. W Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic,
boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon,
vanadium, and zinc. Washington DC, National Academy Press, 2001
[page needed]

48. Algarn, Cecilia; Peirano, Patricio; Garrido, Marcelo; Pizarro, Felipe; Lozoff, Betsy
(2003). "Iron Deficiency Anemia in Infancy: Long-Lasting Effects on Auditory and
Visual System Functioning". Pediatric Research 53 (2): 21723.
doi:10.1203/01.PDR.0000047657.23156.55. PMID 12538778.
49. WHO. Mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks. Geneva,
WHO, 2009 (http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_
report_full.pdf, accessed 17 May 2013).
[dead link][page needed]

50. WHO (2009). Global prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in populations at risk 1995
2005. WHO Global Database on Vitamin A Deficiency. Geneva, World Health
Organization. http://www.edu-
lib.us/whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241598019_eng.pdf
51. WHO. Global prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in populations at risk 19952005:
WHO Global database of vitamin A deficiency. Geneva, WHO, 2009.
52. Sommer A, West KP Jr. Vitamin A deficiency: health, survival, and vision. New York,
Oxford University Press, 1996
[page needed]

53. Lozoff, Betsy; Jimenez, Elias; Wolf, Abraham W. (1991). "Long-Term Developmental
Outcome of Infants with Iron Deficiency". New England Journal of Medicine 325 (10):
68794. doi:10.1056/NEJM199109053251004. PMID 1870641.
54. Andersson M, Karumbunathan V, Zimmermann MB (2012). Global iodine status in 2011
and trends over the past decade. Journal of Nutrition, 142:744-750.
55. Jones, Gareth; Steketee, Richard W; Black, Robert E; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A; Morris, Saul S;
Bellagio Child Survival Study Group (2003). "How many child deaths can we prevent
this year?". The Lancet 362 (9377): 6571. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13811-1.
PMID 12853204.
56. WHO. Report of the expert consultation on the optimal duration of exclusive
breastfeeding. Geneva, WHO, 2001.
[page needed]

57. Ramakrishnan, U; Yip, R (2002). "Experiences and challenges in industrialized countries:
Control of iron deficiency in industrialized countries". The Journal of nutrition 132 (4
Suppl): 820S4S. PMID 11925488.
58. Black, Robert E; Allen, Lindsay H; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A; Caulfield, Laura E; De Onis,
Mercedes; Ezzati, Majid; Mathers, Colin; Rivera, Juan (2008). "Maternal and child
undernutrition: Global and regional exposures and health consequences". The Lancet 371
(9608): 24360. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61690-0. PMID 18207566.
59. FAO (2012). The state of food insecurity in the world 2012: Economic growth is
necessary but not sufficient to accelerate reduction of hunger and malnutrition. Rome,
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/en/ (Accessed 7 December 2012.).
60. UNSCN (2009). Global financial and economic crisis The most vulnerable are at
increased risk of hunger and malnutrition. United Nations Standing Committee on
Nutrition.
http://www.unscn.org/en/publications/nutrition_briefs/#Nutrition_impacts_of_global_foo
d_and_financial_crises.
61. IBRD, World Bank (2012). Global Monitoring Report 2012: Food prices, nutrition, and
the Millennium Development Goals. International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD)/World Bank, Washington, DC..
62. http://www.mypyramid.gov/downloads/sample_menu.pdf
63. UN (2011b). The Millennium Development Goals report 2011. New York, United
Nations. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/statistics/mdg-report-2011.html.
64. World Health Organization, European Health Report 2005: Public health action for
healthier children and populations, WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, 2005.
65. WHO (2013b). World health statistics. Geneva, World Health Organization.
http://www.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/81965/1/9789241564588_eng.pdf
66. Van de Poel E, et al. (2008). Socioeconomic inequality in malnutrition in developing
countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 86(4):241320..
67. B. Polhamus et al., Pediatric Nutrition Surveillance 2003 Report, U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, 2004,
Table 18D, accessed at <http://www.cdc.gov/pednss/pednss_tables/pdf/
national_table18.pdf>..
68. Lassi, Zohra S; Haider, Batool A; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A (2010). "Community-based
intervention packages for reducing maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality and
improving neonatal outcomes". In Bhutta, Zulfiqar A. Cochrane Database of Systematic
Reviews (11): CD007754. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007754.pub2. PMID 21069697.
69. Nabarro, David (2013). "Global child and maternal nutritionthe SUN rises". The
Lancet 382 (9893): 6667. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61086-7. PMID 23746773.
70. Commission on Life Sciences. (1985). Nutrition Education in US Medical Schools, p. 4.
National Academies Press.
71. Adams KM, Lindell KC, Kohlmeier M, Zeisel SH (April 2006). "Status of nutrition
education in medical schools,". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 83 (4): 941S4S. PMC 2430660.
PMID 16600952.
72. Villa, P.; Bouville, C.; Courtin, J.; Helmer, D.; Mahieu, E.; Shipman, P.; Belluomini, G.;
Branca, M. (1986). "Cannibalism in the Neolithic". Science 233 (4762): 4317.
doi:10.1126/science.233.4762.431. PMID 17794567.
73. History of the Study of Nutrition in Western Culture (Rai University lecture notes for
General Nutrition course, 2004)
74. Daniel 1:5-16 (alternative translation)
75. Smith, R. (2004). "'Let food be thy medicine'". BMJ 328 (7433): 0g.
doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7433.0-g. PMC 318470.
76. Heinemann 2e Biology Activity Manual by Judith Brotherton and Kate Mundie
[page needed]

77. "Unraveling the Enigma of Vitamin D". United States National Academy of Sciences.
April 29, 2002.
78. Whigham, Leah D.; Israel, Barbara A.; Atkinson, Richard L. (2006). "Adipogenic
potential of multiple human adenoviruses in vivo and in vitro in animals". American
Journal of Physiology 290: R1904. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00479.2005. PMID 16166204.
Lay summary The American Physiological Society (January 30, 2006).
External links
Find more about Human nutrition at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions and translations from Wiktionary

Media from Commons

Quotations from Wikiquote

Source texts from Wikisource

Textbooks from Wikibooks

Learning resources from Wikiversity
Diet, Nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases by a Joint WHO/FAO Expert
consultation (2003)
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Frequently asked questions
[1] Understanding the choices - Health Journey
UN Standing Committee on Nutrition In English, French and Portuguese
Health-EU Portal Nutrition
[show]
v
t
e
Food science
[show]
v
t
e
Allied health professions
[show]
v
t
e
Public health
[show]
v
t
e
History of medicine
Categories:
Applied sciences
Food science
Health
Health sciences
Home economics
Nutrition
Self care
Navigation menu
Create account
Log in
Article
Talk
Read
Edit
View history
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikimedia Shop
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
Print/export
Languages

etina
Deutsch
Espaol


Polski
Ripoarisch
/ srpski

Ting Vit
Edit links
This page was last modified on 19 April 2014 at 02:00.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy
Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-
profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Mobile view