r

...... ......
SANDIA REPORT
SAND880152 G UC261
Unlimited Release
Printed March 1988
4
Three-Dimensional nd Simulation
Prepared by
Sandia National Laboratories
Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185 and Livermore, California 94550
for the United States Department of Energy
under Contrect DE-AC04-76DPO0789
SF2900Q(881 J
I ssued by Sandi a Nati onal Laboratori es, oper ated for the Uni ted States
Department of Ener gy by Sandi a Corporati on.
NOTI CE: Thi s r epor t was prepared as an account of wor k sponsored by an
agency of the Uni ted States Government. Nei ther the Uni ted States Gover n-
ment nor any agency ther eof, nor any of thei r empl oyees, nor any of thei r
contractors, subcontractors, or thei r empl oyees, makes any warranty, express
or i mpl i ed, or assumes any l egal l i abi l i ty or responsi bi l i ty for the accuracy,
compl eteness, or useful ness of any i nformati on? apparatus, product, or process
di scl osed, or represents that i ts use woul d not i nfri nge prwatel y owned ri ghts.
Refer ence herei n to any speci fi c commerci al product, process, or servi ce by
trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwi se, does not necessari l y
consti tute or i mpl y i ts endorsement, recommendati on, or favori ng by the
Uni ted States Government, any agency ther eof or any of thei r contractors or
subcontractors. The vi ews and opi ni ons expressed herei n do not necessari l y
state or r efl ect those of the Uni ted States Government, any agency ther eof or
any of. thei r contractors or subcontractors.
Pri nted i n the Uni ted States of Ameri ca
Avai l abl e from
Nati onal Techni cal I nformati on Ser vi ce
U.S. Department of Commer ce
5285 Por t Royal Road
Spri ngfi el d, VA 22161
NTI S pri ce codes
Pri nted copy A03
Mi crofi che copy: AO1
SAND88-0152
Li mi mi ted Rel ease
Pri nted March 1988
Di stri buti on
UC-261
Three-Dimensional Wind Simulation
Paul S. Veers
Appl i ed Mechani cs Di vi si on I V
Sandi a Nati onal Laboratori es
Al buquerque, New Mexi co 87185
Abstract
A method for numeri cal l y si mul ati ng a three-di mensi onal fi el d of turbul ent wi nd-
speed (the Sandi a method) for use i n the aerodynami c and structural anal yses of
wi nd turbi nes i s presented. The requi red i nputs are si ngl e poi nt power spectral den-
si ti es (PSDs) and the coherence functi on. Suggesti ons for appropri ate i nputs and an
exampl e cal cul ati on are i ncl uded. The si mul ati on method i s used to obtai n rota-
ti onal l y sampl ed PSDs, whi ch are compared wi th measurements obtai ned by Paci fi c
Northwest Laboratori es. The resul ts show that the Sandi a method i s capabl e of pro-
duci ng si mul ati ons that agree wi th the measurements, especi al l y when the coherence
functi on i s augmented from the usual form to i ncl ude the rati o of spati al separati on
over hei ght rai sed to the 0.25 power. The method i s speci al i zed for hori zontal axi s
wi nd turbi ne anal ysi s by phase l aggi ng the si mul ati ons at each poi nt i n space so that
wi nd speeds are si mul ated onl y when the turbi ne bl ade passes the poi nt, reduci ng
storage requi rements and computati on ti me by about an order of magni tude. For
verti cal axi s appl i cati ons, where i nterpol ati on wi l l be requi red, the error i nduced by
the i nterpol ati on i s esti mated and el i mi nated by the addi ti on of whi te noi se.
...
1 1 1
Speci al thanks are due
Laboratori es, who provi ded
Acknowledgements
to Davi d Powel l and James Connel l of Paci fi c Northwest
assi stance i n di scoveri ng the sources of model i ng di screp-
anci es and i n understandi ng the l anguage of atmospheri c sci enti sts. Gregory Homi cz
of the Sandi a Aerodynami cs depatrment provi ded consi derabl e i nput and extensi ve
edi tori al comments. Thanks are al so due to Cl ark Dohrmann of the Sandl a Appl i ed
Mechani cs department for careful checki ng of the equati ons.
i v
Contents
1! I ntroducti on . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Revi ew of the Si mul ati on Method . . . .
3. Turbul ence Power Spectral Densi ti es (PSDS)
4: Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Rotati onal Sampl i ng . . . . . . . .
6 Effi ci ent Si mul ati on for HAWT Appl i cati ons
7 Spati al I nterpol ati on . . . . . . . .
8 Concl usi ons . . . . . . . . . . .
p references . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 Appendi x A Si mul ati on Exampl e . . .
. . . . . . . . ,. 2
. . . . . . . . . . 3
. . . . . . . . . . 6
. . . . . . . . . . 9
. . . . . . . . . . 11
. . . . . . . . . . 15
. . . . . . . . . . 20
. . . . . . . . . . 25
. . . . . . . . . . 26
. . . . . . . . . . 28
1. Introduction
Wi nd si mul ati on has become an i mportant part of both verti cal and hori zontal
axi s wi nd turbi ne structural anal ysi s. Because of the hi ghl y nonl i near rel ati onshi p
between atmospheri c turbul ence and aerodynami c l oads on wi nd turbi ne bl ades, there
conti nues to be i nterest i n numeri cal l y si mul ati ng the wi nds and then cal cul ati ng ti me
ser i es of bl ade l oads. For mi d-to-l arge si ze wi nd turbi nes, spati al vari ati ons i n the
turbul ence must be consi dered and three-di mensi onal wi nd si mul ati on i s requi red.
The basi c approach of the Sandia method [1]i s to si mul ate wi nd-speed ti me
ser i es at several poi nts i n a pl ane perpendi cul ar to the mean wi nd di recti on and to
propagate the ti me ser i es i n the mean wi nd di recti on at the mean wi nd speed (i .e.,
usi ng Tayl ors frozen turbul ence hypothesi s ). Thi s i s a ful l -fi el d method i n that
i t compl etel y fi l l s a three-di mensi onal bl ock of space wi th a gri d of i nstantaneous
wi nd speeds. Thi s i s especi al l y useful for VAWT appl i cati ons where the bl ades sweep
back and forth through the turbul ence as i t propagates through the rotor. Even
one-di mensi onal turbul ence i nputs have been shown to produce some unexpected
aerodynami c effects on VAWT l oads [2]. Each poi nt on a HAWT bl ade fol l ows a
si mpl er path traci ng a ci r cl e i n a verti cal pl ane. An i mprovement to the Sandi a
method i s obtai ned (for HAWT appl i cati ons) by speci al i zi ng the si mul ati on for the
poi nts i n space and ti me occupi ed by rotati ng HAWT bl ades.
The Sandi a method for ful l fi el d wi nd si mul ati on has al ready been appl i ed to
both HAWT [3,4] and VAWT [5,6] structural anal ysi s. Very l i ttl e computer ti me i s
needed to produce a ful l fi el d of si mul ated wi nds. The l i mi ti ng factor i s the rather
hefty storage requi rement. To si mul ate a ti me ser i es of l ength Al at N poi nts i n
space requi res more than AL?( N2 + N )/2 storage l ocati ons. For HAWT appl i cati ons,
thi s storage requi rement can be si gni fi cantl y reduced by usi ng the effi ci ent si mul ati on
techni que descri bed i n thi s report.
The requi red i nput i ncl udes the si ngl e poi nt, turbul ence PSDS for al l N poi nts
and the coherence functi on, whi ch descri bes how turbul ence i s correl ated as a functi on
of spati al separati on, mean wi nd speed, and frequency. The coherence i s assumed to
be i sotr opi c i n the cross-wi nd pl ane and the cr oss spectral densi ti es are assumed to
be real val ued. Nei ther of these assumpti ons are necessary for the method to work,
but they both si mpl i fy i mpl ement at i on and are consi stent, wi th current, knowl edge of
turbul ence stati sti cs. I f i mproved turbul ence descri pti ons are found, they coul d be
i ncl uded wi th mi nor modi fi cati ons.
2. Review of the Simulation Method
The three-di mensi onal wi nd si mul ati on met hod descri bed i n Ref. 1 and revi ewed
i n thi s secti on i s based on a method devel oped by Shi nozuka [7] and more cl earl y
outl i ned by Smal l wood [8]. I t creates N correl ated ti me ser i es based on the spectral
matri x, S. The di agonal s of S are the power spectral densi ti es (PSDS). Each off-
di agonal term, Sj~, i s the cr oss spectral densi ty between poi nts j and k.
For the purpose of numeri cal si mul ati on, a di scr ete representati on of each el e-
ment i n the spectral matri x i s requi red. The conti nuous, one-si ded PSD at poi nt j,
Gjj( j), i s di screti zed by di vi di ng i t i nto frequency bands Aj Hertz wi de wi th the
center frequency of each band desi gnated as j~. The correct vari ance i s rnai nt ai ned
by l etti ng Sjj(~~ ) = Gjj(~~ )A~/2. 1 Each entry i n the spectral matri x must contai n
l kf/2 frequency components to get a ti me ser i es of l ength A4 usi ng an FFT.
The magni tude of the cr oss spectrum between poi nts j and k can be defi ned i n
ter ms of the PSDS and the coherence functi on, Cohjkl by
[Sjk(.fm)l = co~jk(.fm, A~j)c, ~jk)
J===
(2.1)
where the coherence i s a functi on of frequency (~~ ), di stance between poi nts j and
k (Arjk ), and mean Wi nd speed at poi nts j and k ([Tjk ). By assumi ng that there i s
an average phase of zero between any two poi nts, the i magi nary parts of the cr oss
spectra are zero. Thus, the enti re spectral matri x i s defi ned by the PSDS and the
coherence.
The N correl ated ti me ser i es are generated by l i near combi nati ons of N i nde-
pendent, whi te-noi se processes. I n thi s case, S can be wri tten as the product of a
transformati on matri x, H, and the transpose of i ts compl ex conjugate [7].
S(j~) = H(f~)H*~(j~) (2.2)
where each entry i n S and H i s a functi on of frequency.
Because S i s real , H must al so be real and H = H*. Because S i s symmetri c, i t
contai ns (N2 + N)/2 i ndependent entri es whi l e ti l e ful l H contai ns N2 entri es; H i s
therefore not uni quel y defi ned. I f H is assumed to be l ower tri angul ar, however, the
1Sjj (f~ ) i s the two-si ded Fouri er ampl i tude of the ~~h frequency component. The normal i zati on factor
(1/2 i n thi s case) must be uni ty i f your FFT routi ne assumes a one-si ded i nput.
3
nonzero entri es wi l l be uni quel y defi ned and can be determi ned by a si mpl e recursi ve
set of equati ons:
Hl ~ = S:{2
HZ*= s2~/H~~
~22 = (s22 H;J1/2
H~~ = s~~/H~*
(2.3)
The el ements of the H matri x can be thought of as the wei ghti ng factors for the
l i near combi nati on of N i ndependent, uni t-magni tude, whi te-noi se i nputs that wi l l
yi el d N correl ated outputs wi th the correct spectral matri x. Each row of H gi ves
the contri buti ons of al l the i nputs to the output at poi nt k. Each col umn gi ves the
contri buti ons of the j~ i nput to al l of the outputs.
The i ndependent, uni t -magni tude, whi te-noi se i nputs are cent ai ned i n an N x N
di agonal matri x X such that
(2.4)
where i i s @ and dk~ i s the phase angl e associ ated wi th the kth i nput poi nt and
the mt~ frequency component. dk~ i s a uni forml y di stri buted random vari abl e on the
i nterval (O, 27r). Thi s i nsures that the ti me ser i es wi l l approach a Gaussi an process
as the number of frequency components becomes l arge.
The matri x equati on for the N x 1 vector of compl ex Fouri er coeffi ci ents of the
si mul ated wi nd speed, V, i s gi ven by
where 1 i s an N x 1
The operati ons
V=HX1 (2.5)
vector of ones.
may be more easi l y vi sual i zed i n summati on notati on where i t
i s evi dent that the vector 1 i s onl y present for the purpose of summi ng across each
row of HX.
~(.f~) = ~Hjk(.fm)Xkk(.fm) = ~ ~jk(fm) eiekm
(2.6)
k=l k=l
Because X has al l uni t magni tude entri es, the onl y effect i t has i s to appl y a
random phase to each col umn of H. The summati on form shows that the Vj depend
4
on the i nputs from al l the earl i er poi nts (k < j), whi ch are wei ghted by the Hj~. The
fact that each output does not depend on all the i nputs i s an arti fact of sel ecti ng
a l ower tri angul ar form for H. Assumi ng that H has other forms (e. g., symmetri c)
coul d el i mi nate the order dependence, but woul d al so el i mi nate the si mpl e recursi ve
met hod of sol vi ng for the el ements of H. A smal l exampl e i s shown i n Appendi x A
to hel p i l l ustrate how the above method works i n practi ce.
The ti me ser i es are obtai ned by taki ng the i nverse Fouri er transform of each
el ement of V, resul ti ng i n a si mul ated wi nd speed at every ti me step for al l N poi nts
i n space. Whi l e thi s ful l -fi el d representati on may be necessary for VAWT appl i ca-
ti ons, i t produces many unused data for HAWT appl i cati ons. Secti on 6 outl i nes how
these extra data can be el i mi nated for the rotati onal sampl i ng empl oyed i n HAWT
appl i cati ons.
5
3. Turbulence Power Spectral Densities (PSDS)
The basi c i nput to any method of three-di mensi onal turbul ence si mul ati on i s
the wi nd speed PSD, Many model s of turbul ence PSDS have been proposed, starti ng
wi th von Karman i n 1948 [9]. Reference 1 used the PSD suggested by Fr ost [10]
whi l e Powel l and Connel l [11] suggest (ri ghtl y) that the Kai mal spectrum [12] i s a
more accurate representati on. The Fr ost (GF( ~)), Kai mal (GK (f)), and von Karman
(Gv(f))model s are shown i n Fi g. 3.1, i n the tradi ti onal form of l ogari thmi c SPeCtra
(~G(j) vs ~, where .f i s the frequency i n Hz). The formul as for these l SDS are:
G=(j) =
12.3tr10z~l n((10 /zO) + l )l n((.z/zO) ~ 1)]-1
1 + 192[(jz/L~10) l n((10/zO) + 1)/l n((~/~0) + @
GK(f) =
l o5zf:z/r
(1+ 33(f2/u))~
10
Frost
.............................,,.....
Kai mal
.....................
. . ------ -------- -.
~
..
,.. ...
,..
von Karman -
u
,.,
W
8
...
u
u
3
0
-*
G
.A
u
m
WJ
Q
d
1(i 3
1 1 1 1 111I I 1 I #1 t 1I I I 1 1 1 I 11, I I 1 1 1 1 111
!
10-3 10-2 10- 10 10
(3.1)
(3.2)
Fkequency (Hz)
Fi gure 3.1. Turbul ence PSD model s by Fr ost [10], Kai mal [12], and von Karman
[9] for ZO= .Ol m, L. = 120m,t~lo = 8772/s, and z = 30m.
6
Gv(f) =
4(5.7 u:)Lz/u
1.339(1 + 39.48(jLz/U)2):
(3.3)
where:
f i s the frequency i n Hertz
z i s the hei ght above ground i n meter s
.zOi s the surface roughness coeffi ci ent i n meters
Z710 i s the I neal l wi nd speed i n In/S at a hei ght of 10 meter s
t~ i s the mean wi nd speed i n m/s at a hei ght of z meter s
Lz i s the i ntegral l ength scal e
z~*i s the shear vel oci ty, u.= J;~~O ~
(The shear vel oci ty i s rel ated to the turbul ence vari ance, u:, i n the von Karman
spectrum by a: % 5.7u~. )
Fi gure 3.1 shows that al l three PSDS have the same sl ope i n the i nerti a~ subrange
(hi gh frequency). The Fr ost spectrum i s si gni fi cantl y di fferent than the other two
because i t i s deri ved from the Kai mal spectrum wi th a stabl e atmosphere whi l e the
others appl y to neutral atmospheres. The Kai mal and von Karman spectra are qui te
si mi l ar except that the Kai mal spectrum i s sl i ghtl y l ower i n the i mportant regi on
bel ow one Hertz and, therefore, resul ts i n a turbul ence i ntensi ty about 15%0l ower
than the von Karman spectrum, for the parameter val ues used i n Ref. 11 (:0 = .Ol nz,
L. = 120rn, UI O = 8Tn/ s, and z = 307n). These val ues resul t i n di fferent vari ances
for al l three PSDS, as shown i n Fi g. 3.1.
A recent revi ew of the wi nd turbul ence l i terature by Sol ari [13] hi ghl i ghts the
uncertai nty i n determi ni ng the coeffi ci ents of any PSD model of atmospheri c turbu-
l ence. Sol ari suggests that a deter mi ni sti c representati on for the turbul ence PSD i s
dzusory. He suggests that the basi c form of the von Karrnan and Kai mal PSDS be
retai ned, but that the parameter of the PSD be a random vari abl e. Sol ari s PSD
(Gs(.f)) i s of the form
G.(f) =
2.21u:/325z/u
(1 + 3.31( f@5z/u)):
where
p = Pm + @B
i n whi ch
{
7.5 Zo < 0.03
@n = 4.5 0.8561n(zo) 0.03< SO<1.0
4.5
1.() <20
(3.4)
{
2.5 20<0.03
A/3 = 2.0 0.1431n(zO) 0.03< zo <1.0
2.0
1.0< Zo
7
10-3I
1 I 1 1 I I 111 1 I I I 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 11
10-3
1 1 1 I 1 I 1 t
10-2
-1
mequel~cy (Hz)
10
10
Fi gure 3.2. Turbul ence PSDS by Sol ari [13] wi th the
val ues of the random vari abl e ~.
and pp i s a uni forml y di stri buted random vari abl e on
mi ni munl and maxi mum
the i nterval (-1,1).
When /3 i s vari ed i n thi s way, i t represents the scatter that i s found i n measured
turbul ence spectra. The two extremes of the Sol ari PSD are shown i n Fi g. 3.2 for
the case of 20<0.03. The vari ance of the turbul ence, tY~,i s roughly @u~. It may be
argued that a uni form di stri buti on on pp is arti fi ci al ; one si mpl e i mprovement woul d
be to preserve the mean and standard devi ati on whi l e substi tuti ng a conti nuous,
one-si ded di stri buti on (e.g., I ?ei bul l ). The i mportant change i s that ,/3, and therefore
the l ow frequency part of the PSD, i s a random vari abl e. The hi gh frequency part
matches both the von Karman and Kai ma.1 PSDS,
4. Coherence
The coherence functi on i s a frequency dependent measure of the amount of
correl ati on between the wi nd speeds at two poi nts i n space. The usual form of
the coherence functi on i s exponenti al ; the one gi ven by Fr ost [1O] (and previ ousl y
suggested for use i n the Sandi a method [1]) i s
Cohjk = exp
(-%)
(4.1)
where Arjk i s the di stance (i n meters) between poi nts ~ and k.
The constant, C, (cal l ed the cohe~ence decrement) has been esti mated often for
cross-wi nd separati ons wi thout much agreement on any si ngl e val ue. Sol ari reports
val ues rangi ng from 2 to 27 (Frost suggested C = 7.5 for l ateral spaci ng) wi th the
l arger val ues of C tendi ng to be associ ated wi th l arger rati os of Ar/z, whi ch suggests
that tl i e exponenti al form may not be capabl e of representi ng the ful l range of possi bl e
spaci ngs of poi nts. The form suggested by Sol ari i s the same as Eq. 4.1 except that.
U = Ujk i s defi ned as the average of the mean wi nd speeds at poi nts j and k (a mi nor
revi si on) and that C = Cjk i s a functi on of the spaci ng between poi nts, A?j&, and
the mean hei ght of the two poi nts, .zm= (~j + ~ )/2, gi ven by
()
Arj~ 0-25
Cjk=b
Zm
i n whi ch
b=12+5pb
As i n the case of the spectral densi ty, the coherence decrement i s model ed as a random
vari abl e by defi ni ng ~b to be uni forml y di stri buted on the i nterval (-1,1).
The most i mportant change i s that the coherence functi on has been augmented
025 thereby i ncreasi ng the coherence when by the di mensi onl ess parameter (Ar/zn ) ,
(A~/z~ ) <1 and decreasi ng the coherence at greater spaci ngs, as shown i n Fi g. 4.1
for four di fferent frequenci es. The sel ecti on of the 0.25 exponent i n Eq. 4.2 provi des
a good fi t to the data, but seems to be somewhat arbi trary.
9
1
0.75
$
G
e
0.50
2
$
0.25
0
L
..
1
I 1
\
.
.
, .
s, .
h
88
Standard Form
U*
.
, .,
.
Sol ari Form
.
s ,
. . . . . . . ------- . . . . . . .
.
.
-.cld
-.
1
I
o 0.5
1
1.5 2
Separation / Height (Ar/z)
Fi gure 4.1. The coherence functi on i s pl otted as a functi on of spati al separati on
eval uated at four frequenci es (~ = .012, .037, .11, and .33 Hz). The
sol i d l i nes are the standard exponenti al form and the cl ashed l i nes are
Sol ari s suggested form (wi th U = 8111/s, b = 12, and z = 30m).
10
5. Rotational Sampling
The ter m rotational sampling was born out of an experi ment i n whi ch anemome-
ter s were arranged around a ci r cl e i n a verti cal pl ane perpendi cul ar to the mean wi nd
di recti on. Wi nd speeds were then sampl ed successi vel y from each anemometer to
form a composi te ti me ser i es made up of wi nd speeds as seen by a rotati ng HAWT
bl ade [14]. Experi ments were l ater conducted wi th an anemometer on a rotati ng
boom and wi th a Li dar scanner (l aser anemometer). Rotati onal sampl i ng i s one
met hod of checki ng si mul ati ons of spati al l y di stri buted turbul ence. Unl i ke the P SD
observed at a stati onary poi nt, the rotati onal PSD has peaks at the i nteger mul ti pl es
of the rotati ng frequency. 1
Rotati onal sampl i ng wi th the Sandi a method i s accompl i shed by sel ecti ng wi nd
speeds out of the ful l fi el d at poi nts i n space and ti me that correspond to posi ti ons
of a rotati ng HAWT bl ade. A rotati onal l y sampl ed PSD can then be esti mated from
the sampl ed ti me ser i es wi th the ai d of a Fouri er transform.
Si mul ati on techni ques have been devi sed by Paci fi c Northwest Laboratory,( PNL)
to generate the wi nd speeds for a poi nt On rotati ng HAWT [14] and VAWT [15] bl ades.
The PNL method anal yti cal l y deri ves a rotati onal l y sampl ed PSD and then uses the
i nverse Fouri er transform to produce a ti me seri es. The major shortcomi ng of thi s
method i s that i t can onl y si mul ate the wi nd speed at a si ngl e poi nt on one turbi ne
bl ade, whi l e structural response i s sensi ti ve to the di stri buti on of wi nd speed over
the enti re bl ade. The Sandi a method, by si mul ati ng the wi nd speed at many poi nts
i n space for al l ti me steps and then sampl i ng at the movi ng posi ti on of the turbi ne
bl ade, can provi de wi nd speed at many poi nts on several bl ades. The di sadvantage
i s that wi nd speeds are al so generated at poi nts i n space and ti me that the bl ades
wi l l never occupy. The cost of obtai ni ng wi nd speed at many poi nts al ong the bl ades
i s therefore a l arge i ncrease i n the requi red storage space for si mul ati on program
executi on.
The val i di ty of rotati onzd sampl i ng wi th the Sandi a method has recentl y been
questi oned i n a PNL report by Powel l and Connel l [11]. I n compari sons wi th nl ea-
sured rotati onal l y sampl ed wi nd speeds and wi th empi ri cal l y adjusted theoreti cal
resul ts [16], the Sandi a method was cl ai med to be l ess accurate. No expl anati on for
the di fferences was reported.
l l nteger ~Ul ti P]e~of the I otatl ng frequency are abbreviated as per revfrequenci es i .e., 1 Per r ev
( 1P) i s the rotati onal frequency; 2 per r ev (2P) i s twi ce the rotati onal frequency, etc...
11
The reasons for the reported defi ci ency, whi ch wi l l be expl ai ned bel ow, are l i sted
here
1.
9
4,
3.
4.
i n order of decreasi ng i mportance:
Stati sti cal vari ati ons i n per rev spectral content were not accounted for i n the
PNL report.
Di fferent i nput turbul ence PSDS were used i n the two approaches reported by
PNL.
The exponenti al form of the coherence functi on previ ousl y suggested i n the
l i terature and used i n the Sandi a method i s i ncapabl e of matchi ng the measured
rotati onal l y sampl ed PSDS at al l per rev frequenci es.
An error i n the code suppl i ed by Sandi a to PNL decreased the i nput coherence
decrement by a factor of two.
The di screpancy i s not due to any fundamental fl aw i n the Sandi a method, as
wi l l be shown bel ow. By usi ng i nput turbul ence and coherence model s based on the
recent synthesi s of wi nd data by Sol ari [13], a better fi t to the measured resul ts can
be obtai ned usi ng the Sandi a method than from other rotati onal sampl i ng methods
wi thout l osi ng the abi l i ty to generate wi nd speed at several poi nts on the turbi ne
bl ades.
To i l l ustrate the effects of changes i n turbul ence PSD and coherence, si mul ati ons
usi ng the Sandi a method, wi th vari ous spectral and coherence i nputs, are compared
to the test case of Ref. 11. Rotati onal sampl i ng i s done about a ci r cl e wi th a 20m
radi us centered 30m above the ground at a rotati onal speed of (2/3 )Hz. The sampl i ng
i nterval i s 0.125sec (12 poi nts per revol uti on) and the record l ength i s 1024 poi nts
(128sec). The mean wi nd speed i s 8m/s and the surface roughness coeffi ci ent (ZO) i s
O.Ol m.
Tabl e 5.1 l i sts the total vari ance of the turbul ence and the di stri buti on of vari ance
i n the per rev peaks for the ezact PNL resul ts (from Ref. 11) and for several di fferent
i nputs to the Sandi a method. The ezact resul ts are the PNL method resul ts adjusted
by empi ri cal correcti ons that make the per rev vari ances agree wi th measured data
[16]. Vari ances are l i sted i n uni ts of meter s per second squared and (i n parenthesi s)
normal i zed by the ezaci resul ts, whi ch are l i sted i n the fi r st l i ne of the tabl e. (The
ezaci total vari ance was not publ i shed. ) The resul ts fl agged wi th an * are from Powel l
and Connel l [11].
The Sandi a method resul ts reported by PNL i n Ref. 11, usi ng both the Fr ost
and Kai mal PSDS, have far from the desi red di stri buti on of vari ance, especi al l y at
one per rev (1P), as can be seen i n Tabl e 5.1. The SNL esti mates usi ng the Sandi a
12
Tabl e 5.1. The Di stri buti on of vari ance over the per rev harmoni cs are shown for
the PNL method (fi rst two rows) and for the Sandi a method usi ng
vari ous PSD and coherence model s. Vari ance i s i n uni ts of (m/s )2; the
numbers i n parentheses are the per rev vari ances normal i zed by the
exact (corrected) val ues gi ven i n the fi r st row.
PSD Coherence Cob. Dec. Total Per Rev Vari ance
Model Model c Vari ance 1P 2P 3P 4p 5p
Exact (cor r ected) PNL Resul ts* .263 .097 .054 .038 .033
Uncorrected PNL Resul ts* .837 .359 .111 .055 .034 .024
(1.37) (1.14) (1.02) (0.90) (0.73)
Fr ost* Standard 3.75 1.10 .152 .089 .060 .052 .047
(PNL) (0.58) (0.92) (1.11) (1.38) (1.42)
Fr ost Standard 3.75 1.17 .201 .090 .058 .045 .041
(SNL) (0.76) (0.93) (1.07) (1.19) (1.24)
Kai mal * Standard 10.0 .532 .086 .065 .044 .043 .040
(PNL) (0.33) (0.67) (0.82) (1.14) (1.21)
Kai mal Standard 10.0 .607 .129 .070 .049 .040 .038
(SNL) (0.49) (0.72) (0.91) (1.06) (1.15)
von Karman Standard 12.0 .776 .171 .085 .059 .048 .042
(SNL) (0.65) (0.88) (1.09) (1.27) (1.27)
Sol ari Standard 12.0 1.00 .215 .104 .069 .055 .048
(/3= 7.5) (0.82)(1.07)(1.28)(1.46)(1.45)
Solari (Ar/zm)025 12.0 1.00 .237 .105 .064 .047 .039
(p= 7.5) (0.90)(1.08)(1.19)(1.25)(1.18)
Solari (AT/Z~ )025 Random 1.04 .239 .111 .069 .053 .045
(Random ~) (0.91) [1.14) (1.28) (1.41) (1.36)
Sol ari
(Ar/2rn)00
Random 1.04 .259 .111 .064 .046 .038
jRandom ~) (0.98) (1.14) (1.19) (1.22) (1.15)
Sol ari (Ar/z~)025 Random 1.09 .237 .098 .057 .041 .033
Si mul ati ng one sampl e per rev (0.90) (1.01) (1.06) (1.09) (1.00)
[
* Resul ts taken from Powel l and Connel l , Ref. 11.
13
method wi th the Fr ost and Kai mal PSDS are substanti al l y better. The onl y appar-
ent di fference i s that PNL used onl y one record (125 seconds l ong) to esti mate the
rotati onal l y sampl ed PSD, whi l e the SNL resul ts are the ensembl e average of 100
records. The vari abi l i ty i n per rev vari ance from record to record i s surpri si ngl y
l arge; the coeffi ci ent of vari ati on (standard devi ati on di vi ded by the mean) i s abol l t
0.2 for the hi gher per revs and 0.25 at one per rev. I t i s therefore l i kel y that, most of
the di fference i s due to PNLs fai l ure to account for stati sti cal vari ati ons i n the per
rev vari ances.
The von Karman PSD has sl i ghtl y more l ow frequent y vari ance than the Kai mal
PSD (see Fi g. 3.1), whi ch i s refl ected i n a hi gher total rotati onal l y sampl ed vari ance,
and a better fi t to the exact resul ts. The von Karman PSD i s consi stent wi th the
PNL method for esti mati ng rotati onal l y sampl ed PSDS. Thi s i s another reason that
the PNL method resul ts, whi ch are based on the von Karman PSD, di d not match
the Sandi a method resul ts, whi ch had been based on the Kai mal PSD, i n Ref. 11.
The Sol ari PSD i s about the same as the Kai mal PSD when the random paranl -
eter /3 i s at i ts mi ni mum val ue of 51 and has more l ow frequency vari ance when /? i s
hi gh (see Fi g. 3.2). Tabl e 5.1 shows the rotati onal l y sampl ed per rev vari ances for the
Sol ari PSD wi th ~?fi xed at the mean val ue (/3 = 7.5) and wi th the same exponenti al
form of the coherence as used i n al l the above resul ts. The one per rev vari ance i s
sti l l too l ow anti the hi gher per rev vari ances are too hi gh, Augment i ng the coherence
by (Ar/z~ )025, as Sol ari suggests, makes a substanti al i mprovement on the match
between si mul ated and ezact resul ts. Randomi zi ng the parameters /? and C has a
mi nor i nfl uence on the resul ts. Because augmenti ng by (Ar/ ~~ )025 fi l l s the need
to i ncrease the coherence at smal l separati ons and i ncrease i t at l arge separati ons,
whi l e the choi ce of 0.25 appears somewhat arbi trary, a power of 0.50 was al so tri ed,
resul ti ng i n an i mproved fi t to the erect resul ts (see Tabl e 5.1).
The resul ts i n Tabl e 5.1 i ndi cate that a wi de vari ety of rotati onal l y sampl ed
PSDS can be obtai ned wi th the Sandi a method dependi ng on the i nput model s of
turbul ence PSD and coherence. The Sol ari model s produce a good fi t to the exact
resul ts, better than the uncorrected PNL method. .$n even better fi t i s possi bl e by
usi ng (Ar/ z~ )050 i nstead of (~T/Z,n )0.25 i n the coherence model . However, a better
fi t for thi s one appl i cati on may not be a suffi ci ent reason to overri de Sol ari s choi ce of
0.25. I t i s al so not cl ear that the goal shoul d be to match the ezact resul ts preci sel y.
There i s a great deal of vari abi l i ty i n per rev vari ance i n any gi ven wi nd sampl e; even
the exact resul ts may not be perfectl y representati ve.
14
6. Efficient Simulation for HAWT Applications
I n HAWT appl i cati ons the wi nd speed i s si mul ated at poi nts arranged around
the ci rcul ar path fol l owed by the bl ades. Wi th the method descri bed above, the ti me
ser i es at each poi nt i s si mul ated at a rate of the number of poi nts per revol uti on,
I VP,, ti mes the rot sti ng frequency i n Hertz, 0 (i .e., At = l /l VP,Q). The ti me ser i es at
each poi nt i s onl y sampl ed once per revol uti on by each bl ade, maki ng the sampl i ng
rate equal to the number of bl ades, Nb, ti mes fl . Because NP, i s al ways much greater
than Nb, most of the data i s wasted. I t i s therefore more effi ci ent to si mul ate data
at each poi nt at a rate of ~b~ wi th the ti me of the sampl es shi fted to correspond to
the ti me of bl ade passage.
The tr i ck i s to make each si mul ated data poi nt correspond to the exact ti me that
the wi nd turbi ne bl ade occupi es that poi nt i n space. For evenl y spaced poi nts around
a ci r cl e and constant rotati onal speed, there must be an equal ti me l ag between
si mul ati ons at each poi nt. The ti me l ag i s i mpl emented by shi fti ng the phase of each
frequency component i n the PSD by the appropri ate amount before transformi ng
i nto the ti me domai n.
The method may be i l l ustrated by taki ng the speci fi c exampl e i n Fi g. 6.1, whi ch
has NPr = 12, Nb = 2, and onl y one radi al set of poi nts (N = NP, ). The I VPTpoi nts
are di vi ded i nto Nb groups wi th a l ocati on i ndex, Zj, rangi ng from O to (NP,/Nb) 1
i n each group. The bl ades are i ni ti al l y l ocated at the 13= O poi nts.
Si mul ati ng as above at a frequency of Nb~ wi l l produce one wi nd speed val ue
at each poi nt i n space every ti me the bl ades are at the l j = O l ocati ons. The wi nd
speed at the /j > 0 poi nts must be l agged i n ti me to correspond to the ti me of bl ade
passage. The ti me l ag i s i mpl emented by appl yi ng a phase shi ft, ~j~, that depends
on the l ocati on i ndex, Zj, and the frequency component, f~.
m=(;) R)
(6.1)
Equati on 2.6 then becomes
~
The ti me domai n representati on i s agai n
transform of V. The odd sampl es (1,3,5,... )
obtai ned by taki ng the i nverse Fouri er
i n the Group 1 ti me ser i es bel ong to
15
Fi gure 6.1. Exampl e of the l ocati ons of poi nts for wi nd si mul ati on wi th appl i cati on
to HAWTS.
15=4
p
913=2
Group 1
,12=1
l &3=l
Q
G
19=2
Group 2
16
w
i
n
d
s
P
e
e
d
s
q
u
a
r
:
P
e
r
H
z
lgl
1 0 0
lg-1
1g-z
Fi gure 6.2.
Bl ade 1 and
0 . 1. 2. 3.
.s
4.
1.s 2.5 3.s
FREOUENCV (HZ)
Rotati onal l y sampl ed PSD based on the Sol ari PSD and coherence
usi ng the ful l fi el d Sandi a method.
the even sampl es bel ong to Bl ade 2. The reverse i s true of the Group 2
ti me seri es. Every data sampl e i n the ti me ser i es of every poi nt i s therefore sampl ed
by one of the bl ades so there are no l onger any spurious data. The reducti on i n
storage requi rements and Computati on ti me i s a factor of ~w /~6.
The rotati onal l y sampl ed PSD wi th the ful l fi el d approach usi ng the Sol ari model
for turbul ence and coherence (wi th random parameters) i s shown i n Fi g. 6.2. The
PSD esti mated wi th the one sampl e per Tev method (si mul ati ng wi nd for onl y one
bl ade) i s shown i n Fi g. 6.3. The i ntegrated per rev vari ance i s about the same at
1P and i s sl i ghtl y reduced (about 15Yo) at hi gher per revs, as shown i n Tabl e 5.1.
The per rev vari ance from the one sampl e per rev method i s wi thi n 10% of the ezact
resul ts for the fi r st fi ve per revs a better fi t than any other known method.
The greatest di fference between si mul ati ng the ful l fi el d and onl y si mul ati ng
those data poi nts that wi l l be sampl ed i s the mi ni mum l evel of the PSD. Fi gure 6.2
shows a mi ni mum l evel of PSD content at about .05 (m/s) 2/l l z, whi l e the one sampl e
per rev PSD has mi ni ma around .02 (m/s) 2/l I z. Thi s background l evel comes from
the hi gh frequency porti on of the i nput turbul ence where the coherence i s very smal l
17
. 5
3. 4.
1.s - 2.5 3.5
FREOUENCY (HZ)
Fi gure 6.3. Rotati onal l y sampl ed PSD based on the Sol ari PSD and coherence
si mul ati ng one sampl e per revol uti on for each i nput poi nt.
(see Eq. 4.1 and Fi g. 4.1). The hi gh frequency i nput i s therefore nearl y uncorrel ated,
even at cl osel y spaced poi nts, and shows up as a whi te-noi se background on the
rotati onal PSD. The one sampl e per rev method has a maxi mum frequency (Nyqui st
frequency) of one hal f per rev (fl /2) so the whi te background i s omi tted. The ful l
fi el d method exhi bi ts a si mi l ar decrease i n the mi ni mum when the spectral content
at frequenci es above 0/2 i s set to zero, as shown i n Fi g. 6.4.
The i mproved fi t to the ezact per rev vari ances when si mul ati ng onl y one poi nt
per rev i s due to the el i mi nati on of the background, uncorrel ated, hi gh-frequency
i nput. I t i s not cl ear that thi s i s desi rabl e, because the exact resul ts coul d al so be
sufferi ng from a l ack of hi gh-frequency i nput, whi ch coul d even occur i n measurements
(i .e., due to i nsuffi ci ent anemometer frequency response). The ful l fi el d method
i ncl udes al l of these hi gh frequenci es and may therefore be more accurate. The
uncorrel ated i nput coul d be added to the one sampl e per rev si mul ati on by si mpl y
addi ng whi te noi se wi th vari ance equal to the spectral content of the turbul ence
above a frequency of fl /2. When si mul ati ng wi nd speeds for I VB bl ades, the mi ssi ng
spectral content i s above JVBQ/2.
18
s
P
R
R
L
la. 1. 2. 3.

4.
.> 1 . s 2.5 3.5
FREOUENCY (HZ)
Fi gure 6.4. Rotati onal l y sampl ed PSD based on the Sol ari PSD and coherence
usi ng the ful l fi el d Sandi a method wi th the turbul ence PSD set to zero
at frequenci es above one hal f per rev (0/2).
The structural i mpl i cati ons of the mi ssi ng spectral content between per rev fre-
quenci es i s not obvi ous for two reasons: (1) The aerodynamic loads on the bl ades are
nonl i nearl y rel ated to the i nci dent wi nd speed, and (2) the bl ades may not respond
aerodynamically to fl uctuati ons of such hi gh frequency and smal l scal e. The per rev
spectral content i s between 2 ti mes (at 5P) and 40 ti mes (at l p) greater than the
background l evel (see Fi g. 6.2) and i s therefore the most i mportant part of the PSD
to match.
19
7. Spatial Interpolation
The effi ci ent si mul ati on for HAWT appl i cati ons i n the previ ous secti on can not
be used for VAWT appl i cati ons because of the l oopi ng paths that VAWT bl ades trace
out i n the movi ng fi el d of turbul ence. I t i s therefore necessary to mi ni mi ze the number
of i nput poi nts over the swept area of the wi nd turbi ne and i nterpol ate wi nd speed
val ues between those poi nts. For exampl e, a 4x4 rectangul ar gri d of 16 poi nts was
used to cover the swept area of the 25 meter di ameter VAWT i n Ref. 6. Obtai ni ng
wi nd speed val ues at l ocati ons i n space l yi ng between si mul ati on poi nts can resul t
i n a l oss of vari ance due to the averagi ng i nherent, i n i nt erpol at i on. Si mul ati ng wi nd
speed for arbi trary l ocati ons on a movi ng VAWT bl ade therefore requi res that thi s
l ost vari ance be repl aced before the aerodynami c l oads are cal cul ated.
The wi nd speed, Y, at a l ocati on not at a gri d poi nt can be esti mated by an
i nterpol ated val ue, ~, by taki ng a wei ghted sum of the n surroundi ng si mul ated
val ues, Yj;
n
(7.1)
j=l
The vari ance of ~ i s the expected val ue of ~z (assumi ng a zero mean), gi ven by
E[P2] = ~ ~ lTjW~E[YjY~]
j=l A2 =l
(7.2)
The actual vari ance of Y, E[Y2], maybe known a pri ori , or maybe i nterpol ated from
the gri d poi nts by the same scheme as gi ven i n Eq. 7.1.
I f Yj and Y~ are perfectl y correl ated (and have the same vari ance), then E[YjY~] =
E[Y~] = 13[Y~] and there i s no l oss of vari ance. However, there wi l l usual l y be some
di fference i n vari ance and l ack of correl ati on i n wi nd speed refl ected i n the coherence
functi on and quanti fi ed by the cr oss spectral densi ty, Gj~. (See al so Eq. 2.1 and recal l
that because Gj~(~) i s
i s the mi ssi ng vari ance
expressed as
real val ued, ~O@Gjk ( f )df = ~ [Yj ~7k].) The normal i zed error
di vi ded by the correct vari ance, E [Y2], and can therefore be
(7.3)
.
0.6
0 . 5
0 . 4
Q
0 . 3
0 . 2
0 . 1
0 . 0
__. -_._----, ----------- ! ___ -- _ - _ -- ______ -_-__--, ___________ ! ----------
,
, I ,
+ ----------
,
,
8 ,
-----------: ------ ---._l _______
, ,
----- _____ ; --- ----
---, --------- __
r-----------l- ---------- , ----------
,
-!---------- ,_-----_--_- ~__________
-r--------_-;_- --------
I I I I 1
I
o 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 --
Spacing of Points (meters)
Fi gure 7.1. Potenti al l oss of vari ance, e, as afuncti on of the di stance between
poi nts for i nterpol ati ng wi nd speed (usi ng Sol ari s PSDand coherence).
The potenti al l oss of vari ance for each pai r of poi nts can be expressed by defi ni ng
the parameter 6jk,
j; G j k ( f ) d f
6jk=l
E[Y2]
(7.4)
The potenti al (or maxi mum) l oss of vari ance, ~jk. i s therefore a functi on of the
l evel of correl ati on between poi nts j and k, whi ch i s i n turn a functi on of the di stance
between the poi nts, Ar. The val ue of ~jk i s pl otted as a functi on of the poi nt spaci ng
i n Fi g. 7.1 (usi ng the Sol ari PSD and coherence wi th average val ues for the random
parameters). Thi s potenti al for l oss of vari ance i s al so the i ntegrated di fference
between the PSD and the CSD of any two poi nts, i f the poi nts have i denti cal PSDS.
I Fi gure 7.2 shows how ~jk i s di stri buted over frequency i n thi s case by pl otti ng the
turbul ence CSDS for poi nt spaci ngs of 10, 20, and 30 meters. The actual PSD of
the i nterpol ated data wi l l l i e between the CSD and the Ori gi nal PSD, shown i n
]?i g. ~o~.
....O
.,, .
. . . . .
. .
\
G...,
. .....
. ...
\ . *, . ,
w... II
1 1 1 # 1 r I 1
I I I I 1 I 1 1 I
I 1 1 I I 1 I I T
10
il
Ar = 10m
Ar = 20m
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -.
Ar = 30m
..
Ori gi nal PSD
.,,,...,...,,, ......................
10
10
10-
.
10-
10-2
10-
10
Fr eq. (Hz)
Fi gure 7.2. CSDS of turbul ence for poi nts wi th 10, 20, and 30 meter spaci ngs
compared wi th the PSD at
The normal i zed error i s the fracti on
Eq. 7.4 i nto Eq. 7.3.
n
each poi nt ( ori gi nal PSD ). -
of cj~ actual l y l ost, as shown by substi tuti ng
n
Usi ng the fact that ~jj = O and assumi ng the i nterpol ati on wei ghts have the
usual property that
the expressi on for the error can be reduced to
nl n
r = 2E X Jwk ,,
j=l k=j+l
(7.6)
1.()
Fi gure 7.3. Di stri buti on i n error (l oss of vari ance), as a fracti on of e, for bi l i near
i nterpol ati on over a square regi on.
The error therefore depends on the wei ghts used i n the i nterpol ati on scheme.
For exampl e, consi der a square regi on to be i nterpol ated from the four corner
val ues wi t h a bi l i near i nterpol ati on. Let c = ~j~, where j and k are adjacent cor-
ners, be the characteri sti c potenti al l oss of vari ance for the regi on. Fi gure 7.3 shows
approxi matel y how the error, as a fracti on of e, wi l l be di stri buted over the regi on.
There wi l l be no l oss of vari ance at each corner. The maxi mum error, about 3c/4, i s
at the center. The error at the center of each si de i s e/2.
The l ost vari ance represents the porti on of the process that, i s uncorrel ated be-
tween adjacent si mul ati on poi nts. To si mul ate a ti me ser i es at some l ocati on i nsi de
the regi on, an i nterpol ated ti me ser i es coul d fi r st be generated from the corner poi nts.
The mi ssi ng part coul d be si mul ated independently by taki ng an i nverse Fouri er trans-
form of a wei ghted sum of the di fferences between the PSDS and CSDS i n Fi g. 7.2
(repl ace ~j~ wi th the (PSD - CSD) for each pai r of poi nts i n Eq. 7.6). The two ti me
ser i es coul d then be added together to obtai n a resul t wi th the correct vari ance.
For VAWT appl i cati ons, however, compl ete ti me ser i es at i ntermedi ate l ocati ons
23
are not needed, onl y sampl es of ti me ser i es at i ntermedi ate l ocati ons are needed. Each
wi nd speed sampl e on the movi ng bl ade i s taken from a di fferent l ocati on i n space
where the mi ssi ng hi gh frequency vari ance (see Fi g. 7.2 ) i s rel ati vel y unc,orrel ated,
The mi ssi ng vari ance can therefore be repl aced by addi ng uncorrel atecl Gaussi an
i ncrements (whi te noi se) to the wi nd speed sampl es, where the vari ance of the added
i ncrement i s equal to the mi ssi ng part at that l ocati on i n space. The effect i s the same
as i n the previ ous secti on where there i s mi ssi ng hi gh frequency content when onl y i V~
poi nts per revol uti on of a HAWT are si mul ated. I n both cases, the mi ssi ng frequency
content i s wel l approxi mated by whi te noi se when appl i ed to a bl ade movi ng through
the turbul ence fi el d.
There are two cases i n whi ch the whi te noi se approxi mati on maybe i n error: (I )
where the bl ade i s movi ng sl owl y (near the attachments to the tower), and (2) when
si mul ati ng at very cl osel y spaced poi nts on the bl ade. I n case (1), the error may
be negl ected because poi nts where the bl ade i s movi ng sl owl y are al so poi nts where
the aerodynami c l oads are smal l . I n case (2), there i s potenti al for sl i ghtl y underes-
ti mati ng the contri buti on of the resul ti ng aerodynami c l oads to the l ower modes of
the structure. Care must be taken to avoi d refi ni ng the spaci ng of l ocati ons at whi ch
l oads are cal cul ated beyond the l evel at whi ch the wi nds can be accuratel y si nl u-
l ated. Si mi l arl y, too smal l an i nterval i n bl ade azi muth posi ti on can cause case (I )
type errors, even at the equator. A practi cal l i mi t on the spaci ng of poi nts on the
bl ade woul d be the di stance that the bl ade equator travel s between ti me steps.
24
8. Conclusions
1. The Sandi a method for three-di mensi onal turbul ence si mul ati on i s capabl e of
matchi ng the best esti mates of rotati onal l y sampl ed PSDS better than any other
si mul ati on method current l y avai l abl e. The i nput model s of turbul ence PSD
and coherence are what cl etermi ne the accuracy of the method (see Tabl e 5.1).
2. Model s for atmospheri c turbul ence PSD and coherence wi th coeffi ci ents that
are model ed as random vari abl es (Eqs. 3.4, 4.1, and 4.2) provi de good resul ts
for rotati onal sampl i ng. The recent paper by Sol ari [13] provi des esti mates of
the di stri buti ons of these coeffi ci ents.
3. A coherence that i s exponenti al i n Ar, as previ ousl y assumed, i s not capabl e of
mat thi ng the suggested di stri buti on of vari ance i n rotati onal l y sampl ed P SDS.
Sol ari s suggesti on of augmenti ng by (Ar/.z~ )025 i s a defi ni te i mprovement;
si mul ati ons usi ng (Ar/z~ )050gi ve even better resul ts for thi s one test case. I t
i s recommended that Sol ari s suggesti on (Eq. 4.2 ) be fol l owed.
4. An i mprovement to the Sandi a method for ful l fi el d wi nd si mul ati on per mi ts
si mul ati on of onl y those sampl es that are actual l y used i n rotati onal sampl i ng.
Thi s reduces the storage requi rement and computati on ti me by a factor of
the number of di vi si ons per rev di vi ded by the number of bl ades. The match
between publ i shed rotati onal l y sampl ed PSDS and the si mul ati on resul ts i s
excel l ent (see Tabl e 5.1 ). Thi s i mprovement i s useful for HAWT anal ysi s, but
not for VAWT anal ysi s.
5. When i nterpol ati ng si mul ated wi nd speeds, there wi l l be a reducti on i n vari -
ance of the i nterpol ated data. The error i s quanti fi ed i n ter ms of the cr oss
spectral densi ty functi ons, permi tti ng an esti mate of the mi ssi ng vari ance at
any l ocati on i n space. Because the mi ssi ng part i s uncorrel ated over the re-
gi on of the i nterpol ati on, si mul ati ons of wi nd speed at a poi nt, on a rotati ng
VAWT bl ade can be generated by addi ng uncorrel ated Gaussi an vari ates, wi th
the appropri ate vari ance for each l ocati on, to the i nterpol ated val ues.
25
9. References
1. Veers, P. S., Mode]i ng Stochasti c wi nd Loads on Verti cal Axi s wi nd Tur-
bi nes, sAND83-1909, sancl i a Nati onal Laboratori es, Al buquerque, NM, Septem-
ber, 1984.
2. Homi cz, G. F., VAWT Stochasti c Loads Produced by Atmospheri c Turbu-
l ence, SAND87-1256C, Sandi a Nati onal Laboratori es, Al buquerque, NM, pre-
sented at: 7~ ASi l l .E Wi nd Energy Symposium, New Orl eans, LA, January
10-14, 1988.
3. Lobi tz, D. W., NASTRAN-based Software for the Structural Anal ysi s of Ver-
ti cal and Hori zontal Axi s Wi nd Turbi nes, proceedi ngs, European Wind En-
ergy Conference, Hamburg, F.R. Germany, October 2226, 1984, ed. W. Pal z,
Commission of the European Communities, Publ i shed by H.S. Stephens and
Associ ates, Bedford, Engl and, 1985.
4. oscar, D.S. and T.L. Paez, Anal ysi s of Wi nd Turbi nes on Offshore Support
Structures Exci ted by Random Wi nd and Random Waves, proceedi ngs, 7t~
ASME Wind Energy Symposium, New Orl eans, LA, January 10-14, 1988.
5. Anderson, M. B., S.J.R. Powl es, and E.A. Bossanyi , The Response of a Verti -
cal Axi s Wi nd Turbi ne to Fl uctuati ng Aerodynami c Loads, proceedi ngs, 7t~
British Wind EneTgy Association Conference, Oxford Uni versi ty, March 27-29,
1985.
6. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Turbulent Wind Response Model, Volume I , pre-
pared by I ndal Technol ogi es I nc. on behal f of Sandi a Nati onal Laboratori es,
Al buquerque, NM, Document No. 32-3044, February, 1987.
i . Shi nozuka, M. and C.-M. Jan, Di gi tal Si mul ati on of Random Pr ocesses and
I ts Appl i cati ons, J ournal of Sound and VibTation, Vol . 25, No. 1, pp. 111-128,
1972.
8. Smal l wood, D. O., Random Vi brati on Testi ng of a Si ngl e Test I tem wi th a Mul -
ti pl e I nput Control System, Proceedi ngs, I nstitute of Environments/ Sciences,
Apri l , 1982.
9. von Kari nan, T. Progress i n the stati sti cal Theor y of Turbul ence, Proceedings
of the Nati onal Academy of Science, Vol . 34, 1948.
10. Frost, W., B.H. Long, and R.E. Turner, Engi neeri ng Handbook on the At-
mospheri c Envi ronmental Gui del i nes for Use i n Wi nd Turbi ne Devel opment ,
NASA Techni cal Paper 1359, December, 1978.
11. Powel l , D.C. and J.R. Connel l , Revi ew of Wi nd Si mul ati on Methods for
Hori zontal -Axi s Wi nd Turbi ne Anal ysi s, PNL-5903, Battel l e Paci fi c North-
west Laboratory, Ri chl and, WA, June, 1986.
12. Kai mal , J. C., J.C. Wyngaard, Y. I zumi , and O.R. Cote, Spectral Characteri -
sti cs of Surface-Layer Turbul ence, Quarterly J ournal of the Royal Meteoro-
logical Society, 98, 1972.
13. Sol ari , G., Turbul ence Model i ng for Gust Loadi ng, ASCE Joumaz of Strut.
tural Engi neeri ng, Vol . 113, No. 7, Jul y, 1987.
14. Connel l , J. R., The Spectrum of Wi nd Speed Fl uctuati ons Encountered by a
Rotati ng Bl ade of a Wi nd Energy Conversi on System, PNL-4083, Battel l e
Paci fi c Northwest Laboratory, Ri chl and, WA, November, 1981.
15. George, R. L.,
si mul ati on of Wi nds as Seen by a Rotati ng Verti cal Axi s Wi nd
Turbi ne Bl ade, PNL-4914, Battel l e Paci fi c Northwest Laboratory, Ri chl and,
WA, February, 1984.
16. Powel l , D. C., J.R. Connel l , and R.L. George, Veri fi cati on of Theoreti cal l y
Computed Spectra for a Poi nt Rotati ng i n a Verti cal Pl ane, PNL-5440, Bat-
tel l e Paci fi c Northwest Laboratory, Ri chl and, WA, 1985.
10. Appendix A Simulation Example
To i l l ustrate how correl ated ti me ser i es are constructed from uncorrel ated i nputs,
consi der an exampl e where a si ngl e frequency component, ~~, i s si mul ated at four
poi nts i n space as shown i n Fi g. 10.1. The di stances between poi nts are
Ar12 = Ar13 = Arzd = Ar~A = 1.0
Arz3 = 1.2
Ari a = 1.6
For the sake of si mpl i ci ty, l et the coherence be exponenti al such that,
Cohj~ = e-ArJ k
The coherenc.es i n thi s case are
Cohlz = Cohls = Cohzd = Coh3J = 0.37
Cohzx = 0.30
Cohld = 0.20
Let the PSDS at al l four poi nts be Gjj (~,n ) = 2/A~ such that the di scr ete
representati on i s Sjj(~~ ) = Gjj(~~ )A~/2 = 1.0. The resul ti ng spectral matri x i s
S(fm) =
1.0 .37 .37
.37 1.0 .30
.37 .30 1.0
[ .20 .37 .37
Sol vi ng for H usi ng Eq. 2.3 yi el ds
H(fm) =
1.0 0 0
.37 .929 0
.37 .176 .912
1.20 .319 .263
The matrixofuncorrelated inputsiscomposed
x~~(fm)==e
28
.20
.37
.37
1.0
0
0
0
.888
of the di agonal entri es
.
where the 19~ ~ are uni forml y di stri buted random vari abl es on the i nterval from O to
27r. We can l et t91~be zero and sel ect the other three phases randoml y wi thout l oss
of general i ty.
9~m = 0.0
9z~ = 0.80
e~m = 5.79
9b~ = 3.58
The product HX then gi ves
[ 1.0 eoooi 0 0 0
H(fm)X(f,n) =
.37 Coi .929 eo.aoi o
0
.37 eo.oi .176 e0 . 8 0 i .912 e5.79i 0
[ . 2 0 e 0 . 0 i
.319 eo.so~ .263 ~s.7gi .888 e3.58z
Each entry i n the vector V i s the sum of a row of HX.
V..m= 1.0 f$oi
v2m = 1.216 e0.58i
V3~ = 1.332 e605i
VJ ~ = 0.312 c522i
Fi gure 10.2 i s a phase pl ane pl ot of the random i nputs for the m
~ frequency
component i n thi s exampl e. Noti ce that the i nputs are scattered over the enti re
:phase pl ane. Fi gure 10.3 shows the resul ti ng correl ated outputs i n phase space. The
correl ati on between poi nts has brought the output i nto cl oser phase al i gnment than
the random i nputs. I f the correl ati on had been zero, the off-di agonal ter ms i n H
woul d be zero and the phases woul d have been unchanged. I f the coherence had been
unity,onl y the fi r st col umn of H woul d have been nonzero and al l of the output
phases woul d have been equal to t91~. Val ues of coherence between zero and one
enforce phase al i gnment at di fferent l evel s of str i ctness. For exampl e, poi nts 1 and
2 had an i nput phase di fference of 0.80 radi ans, but, due to the coherence of 0.37,
that di fference i s reduced to 0.58 radi ans.
sel ecti on of ol ~ =
0.0 was done to si mpl i fy
vari abl e just l i ke the other phase angl es. )
Noti ce that the output magni tudes at
The output phases are sti l l random. (The
computati ons; i n practi ce, (?l ~ i s a random
poi nts 2, 3, and 4 are no l onger exactl y 1.0.
The output magni tude depends on the rel ati ve phases of the random i nputs. Over
many poi nts and frequency components, the vari ance wi l l average near the speci fi ed
l evel . I n thi s exampl e the average vari ance of the four outputs i s onl y 9% greater
than the speci fi ed l evel .
29
Fi gure 10.1. Locati ons of poi nts for the wi nd si mul ati on exampl e i n Appendi x A.
G1
2e
4
Fi gure 10.2. Phase pl ane pl ot of the uncorrel ated random i nputs.
I m
Re
Figure10.3. Phase pl ane pl ot of the correl ated outputs.
I I m
I
I
30
DI STRI BUTI ON :
Advanced Alternative
Energy Sol uti ons
5673 W. Las Posi tas Bl vd.
Sui te 205
P.O. BOX 5246
Pl easanton, CA
Attn: Ugur Ortabasi .
Alcoa Technical Center
Aluminum Company of America
Alcoa Center, PA 15069
Attn: D. K. Ai
Amarillo College
Amarillo, TX 79100
Attn: E. Gilmore
American Wind Energy Assoc.
1017 King Street
Alexandria, VA 22314
Dr. A. S. Barker
Trinity Western
7600 Glover Road
Langley, BC
CANADA V3A 4R9
Battelle-Pacific Northwest
Laboratory (3)
P.O. Box 999
Richland, WA 99352
Attn: L. Wendell
J. Connell
D. Powell
Bechtel Group, Inc.
P.O. BOX 3965
San Francisco, CA 94119
Attn: B. Lessley
Dr. George Bergeles
Dept. of Mech. Engineering
National Technical Univ.
42, Patission Street
Athens, GREECE
Burns & Roe, Inc.
800 Kinderkamack Road
Oradell, NJ 07649
Attn: G. A. Fontana
Canadian Standards Assoc.
178 Rexdale Blvd.
Rexdale, Ontario, M9W 1R3
CANADA
Attn: T. Watson
Monique Carpentier
Energy, Mines & Resources
National Research Council
of Canada
Montreal Road
Ottawa, Ontario
CANADA KIA OR6
Prof. V. A. L. Chasteau
School of Engineering
University of Auckland
Private Bag
Auckland, NEW ZEALAND
Colorado State Univ.
Dept. of Civil Engin.
Fort Collins, CO 80521
Attn: R. N. Meroney
Otto de Vries
National Aerospace Lab.
Anthony Fokkerweg 2
Amsterdam 1017
THE NETHERLANDS
DOE\ALO
Albuquerque, NM 87115
Attn: G. P. Tennyson
DOE\ALO
Energy Tech. Liaison Office
NGD
Albuquerque, NM 87115
Attn: Capt. J.L. Hanson,USAF
DOE Headquarters (5)
Wind\Oceans Tech. Division
1000 Independence Avenue
Washington, DC 20585
Attn: L. J. Rogers
P. R. Goldman
31
J. B. Dragt
Nederlands Energy Research
Foundation
(E.C.N.)
Physics Department
Westerduinweg 3 Petten(nh)
THE NETHERLANDS
Electric Power Research Inst.
3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, CA 94304
Attn: E. Demeo
F. Goodman
Alcir de Faro Orlando
Pontificia Uni,ver. Catolica
-PUC\Rj
Mechanical Engineering Dept.
R. Marques de S. Vicente 225
Rio de Janeiro, BRAZIL
Fayette Manufacturing Corp.
P.O. Box 1149
Tracy, CA 95378-1149
Attn: W. Thompson
FloWind Corporation (2)
1183 Quarry Lane
Pleasanton, CA 94566
Attn: L. Schienbein
B. Im
A. D. Garrad
Garrad Hasson
10 Northampton Square
London ECIM 5PA
UNITED KINGDOM
H. Gerardin
Mechanical Engineering Dept.
Faculty of Sciences and
Engineering
Universite Laval-Quebec
GIK 7P4
CANADA
dr. I. J. Graham
Southern University
Dept. of Mech. Engineering
P.O. Box 9445
Baton Rouge, LA 70813-9445
R. T. Griffiths
Univ. College of Swansea
Dept. of Mech. Engin.
Singleton Park
Swansea, SA2 8PP
UNITED KINGDOM
Indal Techn., Inc. (2)
3570 Hawkestone Road
Mississauga, Ontario
CANADA L5C 2V8
Attn: D. Malcolm
C. Wood
Institut de Recherche
dHydro-Quebec
1800, Montee Ste-Julie
Varennes, Quebec, JOL 2P.O.
CANADA
Attn: Bernard Masse
Iowa State University
Agricultural Engineering
Room 213
Ames, IA 50010
Attn: L. H. Soderholm
K. Jackson
West Wind Industries
P.O. Box 1705
Davis, CA 95617
R. E. Kelland
The College of Trades and
Technology
P.O. BoX 1693
Prince Philip Drive
St. Johns, Newfoundland,
AIC 5P7 CANADA
Kinetics Group, Inc.
P.O. Box 1071
Mercer Island, WA 98040
Attn: J. Sladky, Jr.
KW Control Systems, Inc.
RD#4, Box 914C
South Plank Road
Middletown, NY 10940
Attn: R. H. Klein
32
One Ljungstrom
FFA, Aero. Research
Institute
Box 11021
S-16111 Bromma, SWEDEN
Robert Lynette
R. Lynette & Assoc., Inc.
15042 NE 40th Street
Suite 206
Redmond, WA 98052
Massachusetts Inst. of
Technology
77 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02139
Attn: Professor N. D. Ham
W. L. Harris,
Aero\Astro Dept.
US Wind Power (2)
160 Wheeler Road
Burlington, MA 01803
Attn: K. M. McNerney
W. E. Honey
Michigan State University
Div. of Engin. Research
East Lansing, MI 48825
Attn: O. Krauss
Napier College of Commerce
and Technology
Tutor Librarian, Tech. Fat.
Colinton Road
Edinburgh, EH1O 5DT
ENGLAND
New Mexico Engineering
Research Institute
UNM Campus P.O. Box 25
Albuquerque, NM 87131
Attn: G. G. Leigh
Ohio State University
Aeronautical & Astr. Dept
2070 Neil Avenue
Columbus, OH 43210
Attn: Prof. G. Gregorek
Oklahoma State University
Mech. Engineering Dept.
Stillwater, OK 76074
Attn: D. K. McLaughlin
Oregon State Univ. (2)
Mech. Engineering Dept.
Corvallis, OR 97331
Attn: R. E. Wilson
Stel Walker
Ion Paraschivoiu
Depart. of Mech. Engineering
Ecole Polytecnique
CP 6079
Succursale A
Montreal H3C 3A7
CANADA
Jacques Plante
Hydro Quebec
Place Dupuis Ile etage
855 est rue Ste-Catherine
Montreal, Quebec
CANADA H2L 4P5
RANN, Inc.
260 Sheridan Ave., Suite 414
Palo Alto, CA 94306
Attn: A. J. Eggers, Jr.
Dr. R. Ganesh Rajagopalan
Aerospace Engineering Dept.
Iowa State University
404 Town Engineering Bldg.
Ames, IA 50011
Riso National Laboratory (3)
Postbox 49
DK-4000 Roskilde
DENMARK
Attn: Troels Friis Pedersen
Helge Petersen
Peter Hauge Madsen
Dr. Ing. Hans Ruscheweyh
Institut fur Leichbau
Technische Hochschule Aachen
Wullnerstrasse 7
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY
33
Beatrice de Saint Louvent
Establissement dEtudes
et de Recherches
Meteorologigues
77 Rue de Serves
92106 Boulogne-Billancourt
Cedex, FRANCE
Gwen Schreiner
Librarian
National Atomic Museum
Albuquerque, NM 87185
Arnan Seginer
Professor of Aerodynamics
Technion-Israel Institute
of Technology
Aeronautical Engin. Dept.
Haifa
ISRAEL
Farrell Smith Seiler, Editor
Wind Energy News Service
P.O. BOX 4008
St. Johnsbury, VT 05819
David Sharpe
Dept. of Aeronautical Engin.
Queen Mary College
Mile End Road
London, El 4NS
UNITED KINGDOM
Kent Smith
Instituto Tech. Costa Rico
Apartado 159 Cartago
COSTA RICA
Solar Energy Research Inst.
1617 Cole Boulevard
Golden, CO 80401
Attn: R. W. Thresher
Bent Sorenson
Roski l de Uni v. center
Energy Group, Bl dg. 17.2
I MFUFA
P.O. BOX 260
DK-400 Roski l de
DENMARK
Peter South
ADECON
32 Rivalda Road
Weston, Ontario, M9M 2M3
CANADA
G. Stacey
The University of Reading
Department of Engineering
Whiteknights, Reading,
RG6 2AY ENGLAND
Dr. Derek Taylor
Alternative Energy Group
Walton Hall
Open University
Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA
UNITED KINGDOM
R. J. Templin
Low Speed Aerodynamics Lab.
NRC-National Aeronautical
Establishment
Montreal Road
Ottawa, Ontario, KIA OR6
CANADA
Texas Tech University
Mechanical Engineering Dept.
P.O. BOX 4289
Lubbock, TX 79409
Attn: J. W. Oler
K. J. Touryan
Moriah Research
6200 Plateau Dr.
Englewood, CO 80111
Tulane University
Dept. of Mech. Engineering
New Orleans, LA 70018
Attn: R. G. Watts
United Engineers and
Constructors, Inc.
P.O. BOX 8223
Philadelphia, PA 19101
Attn: A. J. Karalis
*
34
Universal Data Systems
5000 Bradford Drive
Huntsville, AL 35805
Attn: C. W. Dodd
University of California
Institute of Geophysics
and Planetary Physics
Riverside, CA 92521
Attn: Dr. P. J. Baum
University of Colorado
Dept. of Aerospace Engin.
Sciences
Boulder, CO 80309
Attn: J. D. Fock, Jr.
Univ. of Massachusetts
Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering Dept.
Amherst, MA 0 1 0 0 3
Attn: Dr. D. E. Cromack
University of Oklahoma
Aero Engineering Dept.
Norman, OK 73069
Attn: K. Bergey
University of Sherbrooke
Faculty of Applied Science
Sherbrooke, Quebec,
JIK 2R1 CANADA
Attn: A. Laneville
P. Vittecoq
USDA, Agricultural Research
Service
SW Great Plains Research Ctr.
Bushland, TX 79012
Attn: Dr. R. N. Clark
W. A. Vachon
W. A. Vachon & Associates
P.O. Box 149
Manchester, MA 01944
Dirk Vandenberghe
State Univ. of Ghent
St. Pietersniewstraat 41
9000 Ghent
BELGIUM
Washington and Lee Univ.
P.O. Box 735
Lexington, VA 24450
Attn: Dr. R. E. Akins
West Texas State Univ.
Govt. Depository Library
Number 613
Canyon, TX 79015
West Texas State Univ.
Department of Physics
P.O. BoX 248
Canyon, TX 79016
Attn: V. Nelson
West Virginia University
Dept. of Aero Engineering
1062 Kountz Avenue
Morgantown, WV 26505
Attn: R. Walters
Wichita State University
Aero Engineering Dept. (2)
Wichita, KS 67208
Attn: M. Snyder
W. Wentz
Wind Power Digest
P.O. Box 700
Bascom, OH 44809
Attn: Michael Evans
Giovanni Solari
Instituto di Scienza
dells Construzioni
University of Geneva
Via Montallegro, 1
16145 Geneva, ITALY
M. Shinozuka
Dept. of Civil Engin.
Columbia University
632 Mudd
New York, NY 10027
Steven R. Winterstein
Dept. of Civil Engin.
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305
35
C. Allin Cornell
110 Coquito Way
Portola Valley, CA 94025
Holt Ashley
Dept. Aero. & Astro. Eng.
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305
Michael B. Anderson
Sir Robert McAlpine & Sons, LTD
P.O. Box 74
London WCIN lLG
UNITED KINGDOM
Mircea Grigoria
Dept of Civil Engr.
Cornell University
Ithica, NY 14853
1510 J. W. Nunziato
1520 C. W. Peterson
1521 R. D. Krieg
1522 R. C. Reuter, jr.
1522 D. W. Lobitz
1523 J. H. Biffle
1524 A. K. Miller
1524 C. R. Dohrmann
1524 P. S. Veers (40)
1530 L. W. Davison
1550 R. C. Maydew
1552 J. H. Strickland
1556 G. F. Homicz
2525 R. P. Clark
3141 S. A. Landenberger (5)
3151 W. L. Garner (3)
3154-1 C. H. Dalin (8)
for DOE\OSTI (Unlimited
Release)
3160 J. E. Mitchell (15)
6000 D. L. Hartley
6200 V. L. Dugan
6220 D. G. Schueler
6225 H. M. Dodd (30)
6225 T. D. Ashwill
6225 D. E. Berg
6225 T. C. Bryant
6225 L. R. Gallo
6225 P. C. Klimas
6225
6225
6225
6225
6225
6225
6225
6225
7544
7544
7544
8024
9100
9122
S. D. Nicolaysen
D. S. Oscar
M. E. Ralph
D. C. Reda
M. A. Rumsey
L. L. Schluter
W. A. Stephenson
H. J. Sutherland
D. O. Smallwood
T. G. Carrie
J. Lauffer
P. W. Dean
R. G. Clem
T. M. Leonard
36