Chapter 7 : Respiration

1

7.1 Respiratory process
7.1.1 Energy for living processes

1. All living processes require energy.
a) Movements (muscle contractions, movement of chromosomes, cell movements)
b) Catalytic processes (break up complex molecules release energy)
c) Anabolic processes (build up complex molecules ; build new cells)
d) Maintaining constant body temperature
(generate heat energy to maintain optimum internal environment)
e) Active transport (across plasma membrane against concentration gradient)
f) Secretions (enzymes and mucus secreted, packaged, transported)

2. Energy is
a) locked up as chemical bonds (as chemical energy) in organic food
molecules (mainly carbohydrates)
b) released during oxidation of food substances in mitochondria of cells
c) supplied in the form that can be used by body cells (ATP)

3. Respiration = oxidation of food substances in the mitochondria of cells to
release energy



7.1.2 Main substrate (reactants) for energy production

1. Main substrate (primary energy source) >> glucose
In plants,
i. glucose molecules are synthesised from H
2
O and CO
2
during
photosynthesis (in chlorophyll with the presence of sunlight)
ii. some glucose molecules >> oxidised by plant to produce
energy
iii. extra glucose molecules >> converted to startch/a.a (food
reserves)
In other heterotrophs (cannot synthesise food, only feed on others),
i. glucose molecules are obtained from the digestion of
complex
carbohydrates in their food

2. Other substrate (secondary energy sources) >> proteins, fats
Must be converted to glucose in liver to produce energy

7.1.3 Types of respiration























Respiration
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Cell respiration Gaseous exchange
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Aerobic respiration (respiration that uses oxygen)
Breakdown of glucose to produce energy in the presence of oxygen
i. Breakdown of glucose is complete (release useful ATP +body heat)
ii. Release more energy than anaerobic resp. >> more efficient


(A) Gaseous exchange (external respiration / breathing)
i. Involve mechanical process of inhalation and exhalation of air into
and out of our lungs
ii. Transfer oxygen from surrounding medium (air & H
2
O) to cells
iii. Eliminate products of respiration (CO
2
& H
2
O) to surrounding
medium

(B) Cell respiration (internal respiration / tissue respiration)
i. Involve oxidation of glucose molecules to produce E, CO
2
, H
2
O
ii. Site : mitochondria of living cells (plants and animals)

Energy production from glucose
1. Glucose is gradually oxidised in a series of enzyme-catalysed
reactions.
2. Some energy is lost as body heat
Some energy is used to synthesise ATP molecules (energy store)
3. Synthesis of ATP (store energy in A-P-P~P chemical bond)
Add 3
rd
P to ADP using energy from oxidation of glucose


1 glucose molecule 2898kJ energy 38ATP + body heat

4. Breaking up of ATP (releases energy stored in A-P-P~P bond)
Separated ADP and P is recycled back to an ATP using energy
from oxidation of glucose.
Anaerobic respiration (respiration that takes place in the absence of oxygen)
Breakdown of glucose to produce energy in the absence of oxygen
i. Breakdown of glucose is incomplete
ii. Only release a small amount of energy >> inefficient

(A) In animals (human muscle cell) produce lactic acid and energy

Vigorous activity
Muscle cells contract repeatedly and rapidly
Demand for oxygen increases
Oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen supply

Anaerobic respiration takes place
In the absence of oxygen, glucose is broken down into lactic
acid and energy (150kJ)


Energy is used to synthesise 2ATP (from 2ADP + 2P)



Oxygen debt (build-up of lactic acid in muscles)
Lactic acid : toxic, cause muscle fatigue, pain & cramps

Lungs
Continuous deep & rapid breathing : repay oxygen debt
Lactic acid is transported from muscles to liver

Liver

lactic acid is oxidised to produce energy (2ATP)

Energy converts

lactic acid back to glucose

Muscles
Glucose returns to muscles
Excess glucose is converted to glycogen for storage
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(B) In yeast (fungi) and plants produce ethanol, CO
2
and energy
a) Anaerobic respiration in yeast = alcohol fermentation
Used in bread, beer and wine production
b) In the absence of oxygen, yeast produces enzyme zymase to
catalyse conversion of ethanol, CO
2
and energy


c) Only small amount of energy from glucose is released.
The rest of energy : store in chemical bonds of ethanol
Similarities
Both are cellular respiration
Both break up glucose molecules (catabolism)
Both produce ATP molecules (anabolism)
Both take place in living organisms (animal and plant cells)
Both produce heat energy as by-product
Involve energy expenditure
Differences
Aerobic respiration Aspect Anaerobic respiration
Required
Oxygen
requirement
Not required
Complete
Breakdown of
glucose
Incomplete
CO
2
+ H
2
O Products
Yeast : CO
2
+ ethanol ;
Muscle cells : lactic acid

Large amount (2880 kJ)
Energy produced
per glucose
molecule
Small amount
(210 kJ in fermentation
150 kJ in muscle cell)
32 38 molecules
Number of ATP
produced per
glucose molecule
2 molecules of ATP
In cell mitochondria Location In cell cytoplasm
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7.2 Respiratory structures and breathing mechanisms
7.2.1 Respiratory structures and adaptations

1. Breathing
Involve pumping movements to ventilate the respiratory surface
i. In humans, chest movements inflate and deflate lungs
ii. In fish, mouth movements allow water to pass over gills
To maximise the process of gaseous exchange
Only take place in complex organism (amoeba, planarian, earthworm)

2. Respiratory structure
organisation and arrangement of different parts of a respiratory
system (to be well adapted for gaseous exchange)








3. Respiratory surface / membrane
thin and moist membrane that allows oxygen to diffuses into the
body and carbon dioxide to diffuses out of the body
Adaptations of respiratory surfaces
i. Large surface area
o maximise the exchange of gases
ii. Moist respiratory surface
o diffuse gases in fluid (before diffusing across resp. surface)
iii. Thin respiratory surface (one-cell thick)
o for effective diffusion of gases
iv. Network of blood capillaries (beneath respiratory surface)
o provide a rich blood supply to transport gases to and
from respiratory surface (except protozoa and insects)
Surface area : Volume Ratio (

; SA/V)

1. SA/V ratio = surface area available for gaseous exchange per unit
volume of organisms body

2. For small organisms (planarians ; protozoa amoeba, paramecium)
Respiratory surface = body surface
Has high SA/V ratio >> high rate of gaseous diffusion (sustain life)
Respiratory surface area is large enough for efficient diffusion of
gaseous through its body volume >> to sustain life

3. For large organisms (mammals)
Has low SA/V >> low rate of gaseous diffusion (cannot sustain life)
Cannot exchange gas by simple diffusion through body surface
Has developed specific respiratory structures (trachea, gills, lungs)
Contain large respiratory surface areas (for effective gaseous exchange)
i. In fish filaments and lamellae
ii. In amphibians and mammals air sacs or alveoli in lungs


Chapter 7 : Respiration

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Conclusion
a) When the size of an organism increases (x), the value of SA/V ratio
decreases rapidly.
b) Thus, it is impossible for large organisms to sustain life just by
exchanging gases through their body surface.
(A) Respiratory structure of protozoa (amoeba and paramecium)









3
1. Protozoa = aquatic unicellular animals (inactive)

2. Protozoa has no specific respiratory structures
No breathing mechanism is required

3. Respiratory surface = plasma membrane
The plasma membrane is fully permeable to gases
Diffusion of gases occurs all over the whole plasma membrane in
aqueous solution

4. Diffusion of gases involve
i. Oxygen diffuses from surrounding aqueous solution into
cell, down the concentration gradient of O
2

ii. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cell into external aqueous
solution, down the concentration gradient of CO
2


5. Has high SA/V ratio
diffusion of gases is highly efficient
sufficient to sustain life

Length, x (cm) Surface area, SA (cm
2
) Volume, V (cm
3
) SA/V (cm
-3
)
1 6 1 6
2 24 8 3
3 54 27 2
4 96 64 1.5
5 150 125 1.2
6 216 216 1
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(B) Respiratory structure of fish (multicellular aquatic animal)












1. Structures
a) Impermeable scales cover the skin of bony fish
b) Gills resp. structure (allow gaseous exchange to occur)
Four pairs of gills in the pharynx two pairs on each side
c) Gill arch / bony arch
Support each gill
Has 2 rows of gill filaments (arranged in V-shape)
d) Gill filaments (thin flaps that lie on top of each other, like book pages)
Has vertical folds called gill lamellae
e) Gill lamella (resp. surface)
Allow gaseous exchange to occur

2. Has small SA/V ratio needs a breathing mechanism to sustain life

3. Breathing mechanism ventilation of gills

To take in water To force water out
Mouth Opens Closes
Operculum (gill cover)
Closes against body
wall
-
Floor of mouth Lowers down Rises upwards
Volume of buccal cavity Increases Decreases
Pressure of buccal cavity Decreases Increases
Movement of water Forced into the mouth
Forced back over gills ;
Operculum is forced
open by flowing water,
water flows out

4. Gas exchange at respiratory surface

a) Blood vessels bring deoxygenated blood to gill filaments, and
through tiny capillaries in gill lamellae.
b) In capillaries, blood flows in opposite direction to the flow of water
over lamellae. This helps in absorption of oxygen.
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(C) Respiratory structure of amphibian (frogs and toads)










1. Amphibian : spend its life partly in water and partly on land
Its respiratory structure is adapted for both water & land respiration

2. Cutaneous respiration (supply most of the oxygen required by amphibian)
Thin and moist skin (has mucous glands in skin)
Skin has network of blood capillaries (well supplied with blood)
Atmospheric oxygen dissolves in the mucus and diffuses into blood
capillaries

3. Buccal respiration
Buccal cavity and pharynx
o Covered by thin epithelium
o Has underlying blood capillaries network
Ventilation of buccal cavity
i. Mouth closes, buccal floor lowers, volume of air in buccal
cavity increases, air pressure decreases in the buccal cavity.
ii. Atmospheric air is sucked through nostrils.
iii. Oxygen from buccal air dissolves in the epithelial moisture,

4. Pulmonary respiration (when need for oxygen is great swimming, jumping)
Has a pair of lungs connected to a short bronchus, which opens to
the pharynx through glottis
o Each lung is moist
o Has several hundreds of tiny alveoli (air sacs)
o Each alveolus has a network of blood capillaries
underneath a thin layer of epithelium
In the lungs, oxygen dissolves in the moisture on the epithelium
before diffusing across the thin epithelium into blood capillaries
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood capillaries into the lungs

5. Breathing mechanism ventilation of buccal cavity and lung
(A) Inspiration
a) Fill buccal cavity with air
Glottis closes, floor of mouth lowers, nostrils open
Air is sucked into buccal cavity
b) Force air into lungs
Nostrils close, glottis opens, floor of mouth rises
Air is forced into lungs
c) Both steps repeat to take in more air, pumping frogs to
considerable size
(B) Expiration
a) Nostrils and glottis open, air flows out of its lungs


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(D) Respiratory structure of insects (active animal, need lots of oxygen)














1. Respiratory system of insects = tracheal system
Has network of small tubes that channel oxygen directly from
atmosphere outside to every cell of body
Gases are not transported by blood

2. Spiracles
Spiracle = valve-like opening (allow air to enter the body of insect)
Located on both sides of the thorax and abdomen of most insects
One pair of spiracles (one spiracle on each side) per body segment
Most adult insects have 2 pairs in thorax and 8 pairs in abdomen

3. Trachea (a system of large tubes) and tracheoles (branch of trachea)
Are kept open by stiff rings of chitin (protein made exoskeleton)
Trachea branch in a tree-like network of smaller tracheoles
Tracheoles end on plasma membrane of every cell in body cells of
insects

4. Gas exchange at respiratory surface
a) Tracheoles no chitin lining, have thin, moist & permeable wall
i. Oxygen dissolves in fluid-filled tips of tracheoles in resting
muscles
ii. When muscles contract, the fluid with dissolved oxygen is
drawn deep into muscle cells, making diffusion of oxygen into
the cells faster
iii. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells into the tracheoles and
trachea down the concentration gradient of CO
2

b) Atmospheric air moves through spiracle into tracheal system
i. Mainly by diffusion
ii. Oxygen diffuses from atmosphere into tracheal system
iii. Carbon dioxide diffuses from tracheal system into atmosphere

5. Breathing
a) Smaller or less active insects : entirely by simple diffusion
b) Larger or more active insects : breathe to ventilate tracheal system
i. Muscles in abdomen contract and compress inwards
force air out of the trachea
ii. Muscles relax to spring abdomen back to its normal volume
suck in fresh air
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(E) Respiratory structure of humans
















1. Structures of human respiratory system
a) Nose and nasal cavity
b) Pharynx
c) Larynx
d) Trachea
e) Bronchi and bronchioles
f) Lungs (left and right)

2. Passage of air : nostrils nasal cavity pharynx glottis larynx
trachea bronchus bronchiole alveoli

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3. Mechanism of respiration
a) Breathing mechanism : replenish supply of oxygen in lungs and
expel excess carbon dioxide from it
b) Lungs are covered by a double layer of pleural membrane
contains pleural fluid
pleural fluid : lubricant between lungs and thorax during
breathing
c) Lungs do not have any muscles
The expansion and contraction of lungs are caused by
i. Movement of rib cage
a. external intercostal muscle
running downward toward sternum
pull ribs together
raise rib cage during respiration
b. internal intercostal muscle
running at right angle to external intercostal muscle
lower rib cage during expiration
ii. Movement of diaphragm
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4. Manipulating models to explain breathing mechanism in human
(A) Bell Jar Lung Model








a) To demonstrate movement of diaphragms during respiration
b) Assembling the model
i. Bell jar = thorax
ii. Y-glass tube = trachea and bronchi
iii. Balloons attached to open ends of Y-glass tube = lungs
iv. Balloon rubber membrane = diaphragm
c) Mechanisms of bell jar lung model
i. Inspiration
Pull down diaphragm
Volume of cavity ( ) Pressure of cavity ( )
Outside air rushes in to equalize the pressure
balloons inflate
ii. Expiration
Push up diaphragm
Volume of cavity ( ) Pressure of cavity ( )
Air in balloons is being forced out deflate

(B) Rib cage Model









a) To demonstrate the rib cage movements caused by intercostal
muscles during respiration
b) Assembling the model
i. Plywood of suitable sizes & shapes Rib cage model
= sternum, ribs, vertebrae column
ii. Rubber band that slants forwards and downwards =
external intercostal muscles
iii. Rubber band that slants backwards and upwards =
internal intercostal muscles
c) Mechanisms of rib cage model
i. Inspiration
External intercostal muscles contract
Internal intercostal muscle relax
Rib cage is raised upwards and outwards
ii. Expiration
Internal intercostal muscles contract
External intercostal muscles relax
Rib cage is pulled downwards and inwards
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7.3 Gaseous exchange across respiratory surfaces and
transport of gases in humans
7.3.1 Process of gaseous exchange (alveolus & capillaries)

1. Characteristics of respiratory surface in alveoli
Large surface area (about 70m
2
)
Thin one-cell thick epithelial surface
Moist and permeable epithelial surface
Has underlying capillary network (one-cell thick)

2. Partial pressure of a gas = pressure exerted by a particular gas
can be said as concentration of the gas (higher conc, high p.pressure)
diffusion at respiratory surface (to exchange respiratory gases)
o from high partial pressure region to low partial pressure
region (down the partial pressure gradient)



Gas
Partial pressure in
Effects
Alveolar
air
Alveolar
capillaries
O
2
High Low O
2
diffuses from alveolar air into capillaries
CO
2
Low High CO
2
diffuses from capillaries into alveolar air
Gas
Partial pressure in
Effects
Tissue
capillaries
Body cells
O
2
High Low O
2
diffuses from tissue capillaries into body cells
CO
2
Low High CO
2
diffuses from body cells into tissue capillaries
Exchange of O
2
and CO
2
between alveolus and blood capillaries in lungs
Deoxygenated blood:
a) enters the capillaries around alveolus
b) has less O
2
(low PO2) and more CO
2
(high PCO2) than alveolar air
c) oxygen diffuses from alveolar air into blood capillaries down the
partial pressure of oxygen
o oxygen combines with haemoglobin (respiratory pigment that
has strong affinity for oxygen) to form oxyhaemoglobin
o oxyhaemoglobin is transported away from lungs to other
body parts
d) carbon dioxide diffuses from blood capillaries into alveolar air
down the partial pressure of carbon dioxide



















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7.3.2 Transport of respiratory gases
































Transport of O
2
(lungs to respiring body cells) and gaseous exchange
1. In the form of
a) Dissolved gas molecules in blood plasma (1%)
b) Oxyhaemoglobin in red blood cells (99%)



o Oxygen is constantly being used up by body cells
o Partial pressure of oxygen in body cells >> low
o Oxyhaemoglobin gives up oxygen to body cells
(that has low PO2)

Transport of CO
2
(respiring body cells to lungs) and gaseous exchange

1. In the form of
a) Dissolved gas molecules in blood plasma (5%)
b) Carbamino-haemoglobin in red blood cells (10%)



c) Bicarbonate/Hydrogen carbonate ions in blood plasma (85%)



2. When blood carrying CO
2
reaches the lungs,
a) Bicarbonate ions : convert back to CO
2
and diffuse into alveolar air



b) Carbamino-haemoglobin : breaks down to release CO
2
and diffuse
into alveolar air



c) Dissolved CO
2
in blood plasma : diffuses from capillaries into
alveolar air down the partial pressure gradient of CO
2


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Composition of inhaled and exhaled air
1. Inhaled air = air we breathe in
Has normal percentage composition of different atmospheric gases
2. Alveolar air = air inside alveolus
Contains atmospheric air + residual air (air already in the lungs)
Oxygen : lowest % composition
o O
2
diffuse into blood capillaries
Carbon dioxide : highest % composition
o CO
2
diffuse directly from blood capillaries into alveolar air
Water vapour : saturated
o the by-product of cellular respiration is excreted
Nitrogen : similar % composition
o not used up by body cells
3. Exhaled air = air we breathe out
Oxygen : lower % than inhaled air, higher than alveolar air
Carbon dioxide : lower % than alveolar air
o diluted by residual air in trachea and bronchi
Water vapour : saturated
Nitrogen : similar % composition


Chapter 7 : Respiration

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7.4 Regulatory mechanism in respiration
7.4.1 Change in the rate of respiration after vigorous exercise

Rate of respiration = number of breaths (inhalation + exhalation) per min.
determined by counting no. of times the chest rises or falls per min.
increase during exercise, excitement, pain, fever
decline during relaxation and sleep
normal rate = 14 20 times per minutes

Correlation between rate of respiration with O
2
and CO
2
contents in body

1. Vigorous physical activities increase metabolic rate causing:
a) an increase in oxygen consumption for cell respiration to release
more energy
b) an increase in carbon dioxide production

2. When oxygen is low and carbon dioxide is high, the body reacts by:
a) raising rate of respiration
bring in more O
2

eliminate excess CO
2

b) increasing rate of heart beat
transport more O
2
to respiring body cells
transport excess CO
2
to lungs
c) dilating the arteries of body cells
increase O
2
supply
speed up removal of CO
2



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Regulatory mechanism of oxygen and carbon dioxide contents in body

1. Regulation of breathing (or ventilation) is automatic
Can still exercise voluntary control over breathing muscles (esp.
during singing, shouting, blowing, stop breathing)

2. Respiratory centre
is a group of cells situated in the medulla oblongata (hind brain)
consists of inspiratory centre and expiratory centre
regulates basic rhythm of breathing (breathing rate)
o by controlling the intensity & frequency of contractions of:
intercostal muscles
diaphragm (muscles)

3. Chemoreceptors = sensory receptors in the body that responds to
chemical stimuli (conc. of CO
2
main stimuli ; conc. of oxygen)
a) Central chemoreceptors
i. Located in the medulla oblongata
ii. Detect the increase of CO
2
in blood indirectly
Sensitive to the formation of H
+
that enters the
cerebrospinal fluid (fluid flowing around brain &
spinal cord protect brain & spinal cord)
b) Peripheral chemoreceptors
i. Consist of carotid bodies on carotid arteries and aortic
bodies on aorta
ii. Sensitive to
pH values
greatly reduced amount of oxygen

4. General respiratory regulatory system
a) When the body exercises vigorously, it uses up O
2
and releases CO
2
.
b) Chemoreceptors detect the high conc. of CO
2
and low conc. of O
2
.
c) Nerve impulses are sent to the respiratory centre.
d) The respiratory centre will send nerve impulses for body to react.
o by adjusting the contractions of intercostal muscles and
diaphragm causing more rapid and deeper breathing











Chapter 7 : Respiration

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Regulation of respiration by central chemoreceptors (detect CO
2
through H
+
)

1. Central chemoreceptors are sensitive to H
+
in cerebrospinal fluid.

2. Increased physical activity increases production of carbon dioxide.

3. Carbon dioxide dissolves in blood plasma to form carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid dissociates into bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions.



4. The H
+
ions in blood plasma enter into the cerebrospinal fluid.

5. The central chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata detects the
increase of H
+
ions. Nerve impulses are sent to the respiratory centre.

6. The respiratory centre then send nerve impulses to the intercostal
muscles and the diaphragm muscles.
Stronger and more rapid contraction is produced

7. Breathing becomes faster & deeper CO
2
levels return to normal.

Regulation of respiration by the peripheral chemoreceptors (detect O
2
level)

1. Peripheral chemoreceptors are sensitive to oxygen level in blood.
Only activated when oxygen level drops to very low value
o E.g. at high altitudes where atmospheric oxygen is very thin

2. At high altitudes (4000m above sea level, 40% less oxygen than at sea level)
May experience mountain sickness hypoxia (shortage of O
2
)
o Breathlessness, headache, nausea, vomiting, heart
palpitations
Chemoreceptors in carotic and aortic bodies
o detect stimulus ( PO2) send nerve impulse to medulla
oblongata
o medulla oblongata is stimulated to increase
rate of respiration and rate of heartbeat
o unpleasant symptoms wear off acclimatized

3. Oxygen levels are secondary stimuli (normally not important to increase
respiration)
For healthy people, oxygen level rarely decrease to the point of
stimulating respiration

Chapter 7 : Respiration

18

Human respiration in different situations

Relaxing
Vigorous
activities
Fear
Rate of
respiration
(breathing)
At optimal
level
(14 20 times
per minute)
Increase
increase supply of oxygen
eliminate carbon dioxide
Rate of
heart beat
At optimal
level
(60 70 times
per minute)
Increase
pump more blood around the body
transport more oxygen to muscle cells
remove carbon dioxide and water to lungs
to be exhaled
Rate of cell
respiration
At optimal
level
Increase
produce energy for the body to react
Explanation
To maintain
all normal
body
functions
Body
require lots
of energy
for
muscular
contractions
Brain stimulates adrenal
glands to release adrenalin
into bloodstream.
Adrenaline is carried through
body and reaches lungs, heart
and muscles.
Prepare the body for flight or
fight response

7.5 Ways of maintaining a healthy respiratory system

Good habits
1. Eat a healthy diet
to maintain good general health

2. Exercise daily
to stay fit and strong

3. Breathe in through the nose, instead of mouth
hairs in the nose can filter off airborne particles
mucus in the nose can trap the airborne particles

4. Practice breathing exercises
Breathe from the diaphragm, breathe in slowly and deeply

Harmful habits
1. Avoid breathing in polluted air (wear proper protective device: facial masks)
Has airborne particle (dust, pollen, mould, dirt, soil, ash, soot)
o easily inhaled deep into lungs and absorbed into body
o may cause lung problems

2. Do not smoke and avoid breathing in secondary cigarette smoke
Cigarette smoke enters lungs and poisons the cells
o Tar : collects in lungs when tobacco smokes cool
carcinogenic, bronchitis, damage lung tissue, break
down alveoli, decrease TSA for gaseous exchange
o Nicotine : cause addiction, high b.p. (narrow arteries) and
heart rate, sticky blood (easy to clot stroke)
o Carbon monoxide : limit ability to transport O
2
(breathless)
combines irreversibly with haemoglobin to form
carboxyhaemoglobin
o may cause asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer
Chapter 7 : Respiration

19



7.6 Respiration in plants
7.6.1 Energy requirement in plants

1. Need energy for all their living processes
Photosynthesis
Growth and development
Active transport
Reproduction
2. Carry out cell respiration to produce energy
Need less energy compared to animals
Animals need to :
o move from place to place
o keep their bodies warm (esp. homeotherm)
o maintain their metabolic rate

7.6.2 Intake of oxygen by plants for respiration

1. For unicellular plants (diatoms algae)
absorb oxygen by diffusion throughout cell surface >> large SA/V
2. For green plants (mesophytes and xerophytes)
Has thick cuticle (wax) on epidermis
o prevent excessive water loss through evaporation
o but make simple diffusion = impossible
need special structures to allow diffusion of oxygen
a) stomata (tiny pores on leaves and young stems)
o 90% of total intake of oxygen & carbon dioxide takes place
o each stoma is surrounded by 2 guard cells
o stoma allows exchange of gases between atmospheric air
and internal tissues of leaf
b) lenticels (on old woody tree trunks and roots)
c) roots
o oxygen diffuses from air spaces between soil particles into
root tissues by diffusion
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Intake of oxygen during the night
1. At night (dark condition), photosynthesis does not take place.
2. Oxygen cannot enter into the leaf as stomata are closed.
3. Aerobic respiration can still occur because respiring cells can use
a) oxygen from air trapped in
i. substomatal air spaces
ii. intercellular air spaces
b) oxygen taken in through lenticels and root hairs of plants
o oxygen dissolves in the thin layer of moisture on the walls
of cells
o then dissolves into respiring cells down the oxygen gradient

Intake of oxygen during the day
1. During daytime (has sunlight), photosynthesis takes place.
2. Atmospheric carbon dioxide diffuses through the stomata into
chloroplasts of leaves.
Carbon dioxide is used in photosynthesis and oxygen is produced.
3. As rate of photosynthesis increases, it exceeds the rate of respiration.
More oxygen is produced to be used up by the respiring plant cells
Some oxygen diffuses from chloroplasts into the mitochondria
Some oxygen diffuses into the intercellular air spaces and
substomatal air spaces

4. Partial pressure of oxygen in substomatal air spaces is higher than the
atmospheric air oxygen diffuses out from the substomatal air spaces
through stomata into atmospheric air down the partial pressure
gradient of oxygen
Net exchange of gases in a leaf

Daytime Night-time
Main reaction Photosynthesis (has sunlight) Respiration (no sunlight)
Net intake CO
2
O
2

Net output O
2
CO
2

Compensation point
1. In the dark, green plant cannot undergo photosynthesis.
Respiration still continues
Taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide.
2. When light intensity increases (sunrise), rate of photosynthesis increases
Oxygen is released, amount of oxygen released increases gradually
3. Compensation point (light compensation point // point of light intensity)
No net exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
o all the released oxygen (by photosynthesis) is used up in cell
respiration
o all the released carbon dioxide (by cell respiration) is used up in
photosynthesis
4. If rate of photosynthesis and rate of respiration remain at this point:
a) No growth and development in green plants
o No extra materials (glucose) are synthesised by photosynthesis
b) Oxygen-breathing living organisms will die of suffocation
o Oxygen used is not replenished by photosynthesis
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7.6.3 Type of respiration in plants

Aerobic respiration
1. Take place in the mitochondria of plant cells in the presence of oxygen
2. Glucose is oxidised to release energy, CO
2
, H
2
O


3. Most energy is kept as ATP molecules, some is released as heat energy.

Anaerobic respiration (certain green plants rice plants)
1. Take place in the absence of oxygen for a certain period of time
When there is a flood, supply of oxygen to roots is cut off
Can only undergo anaerobic respiration
2. Glucose is partially broken down into ethanol and CO
2



3. Most energy is still locked up in the ethanol molecule.
4. When anaerobic situation prolongs, concentration of ethanol increases
ethanol is toxic to cells poison the plants
only plants adapted to flooding can survive >> rice plants
5. Rice plants (high tolerance to ethanol)
Has large air spaces (hollow aerenchyma along the stem)
o allowO
2
to penetrate through the root (that submerged in water)
Has shallow roots
o allow easy access to oxygen that diffuses into surface layer
of waterlogged soil

Similarities
Both take place in living cells.
Both involve changes in chemical energy.
Both are necessary for continuity of life.
Both are enzyme-catalysed reactions.
Both are metabolic processes.
Differences
Photosynthesis Respiration
Types of metabolism
Anabolism
(synthesis of organic
materials)
Catabolism
(breaking down organic
materials)
Energy change Stores energy in glucose
Releases energy from
glucose
Organelles involved Chloroplast Mitochondrion
Chemical equation
Reactants H
2
O, CO
2
Glucose and oxygen
Products Glucose and O
2
CO
2
, H
2
O, energy
Chlorophyll
requirement
Yes
(happen only in green plant
cells)
No
(happen in all living
organisms that use oxygen)
Light energy
requirement
Yes
(happen only in the presence
of sunlight)
No
(happen all the time)
Chapter 7 : Respiration

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