Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
com/
Language and Literature
http://lal.sagepub.com/content/7/3/235
The online version of this article can be found at:
DOI: 10.1177/096394709800700304
1998 7: 235 Language and Literature
Sara Mills
Post-feminist text analysis
Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com
On behalf of:
http://lal.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Reprints:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Permissions:
http://lal.sagepub.com/content/7/3/235.refs.html Citations:
What is This?
partner,
and
you may
have to be sent the details of
many people
before that
perfect partner
is found.
Thus,
this advert is
having
to
wage
a discursive battle
against
certain reader
assumptions
about
dating agencies
as a whole. This factor
at KENT STATE UNIV LIB on July 17, 2014 lal.sagepub.com Downloaded from
246
seems to
generate
the statement at the
beginning
of the
questionnaire:
I am
seriously
interested in
meeting
someone
through Dateline,
since
dating agencies
have often been used
by
some males as a
way
of
having relationships
with a
large
number of
women,
rather than as a
way
of
meeting
one
perfect partner.
It is rare
to find
anyone
who will admit to
having
met their
partner through using
a
dating
agency,
since it
may signal desperation
and a distinct lack of romance. Due to
stereotypical
beliefs about
romance,
it is
generally
viewed as a rather unromantic
way
of
meeting
a
partner,
because of the use of
computers
to match
partners.
Within the narrative schema for
romance,
there are
settings
which are
generally
perceived
to be
appropriate
for encounters which lead to romance.l9 This sense of
computer dating being
an
inappropriate starting point
for romance
may
be the
reason that the
paperback
book All
you
need is love is offered to all customers
free of
charge.
Dateline is
having
to
perform
a
great
deal of discursive work to
try
to make this romantic
message
counter these other more commercial and
mechanistic ones.
Thus,
there are discursive
structures,
such as these narrative
pathways
of the
questionnaire
and
romance,
which are at odds with some of the
surface
messages
of the text.
5.5 Omissionslunsaid
What is left out of the
questionnaire
is almost as
important
as what is included. In
terms of the
options
to describe
yourself
in relation to work
(section 4),
Dateline
has chosen not to include the
option
of
housewife;
this
may
be because within
the discourse of
romance,
it is
simply
not
possible
to take the role of
housewife.2 In some
senses,
this could be seen as a feminist
position -
assuming
that women are in work rather than confined to the home.
However,
it
does mean that those women who are full-time mothers or carers
(for example,
looking
after
elderly parents)
have
only
the
option
of
classifying
themselves as
not
working
or
unemployed.
On the
surface,
these two terms are an odd
duplication;
however,
it
might
be seen that
unemployed
refers to men or women
who have had a
job
and who now do
not,
and not
working may
be seen to refer to
those whose work is
principally
concerned with
caring
for children or the
elderly.
This is
directly contrary
to feminist
campaigns
over housework and
child-rearing,
and is in conflict with the surface feminism and
egalitarianism
of the text
(for
a
discussion of these feminist
campaigns,
see Barrett and
McIntosh, 1982; Phillips,
1983; Delphy, 1984). Perhaps,
in
fact,
it is feminist
campaigns
over
employment
rights
and housework which have made the term
houseu:ife
the un-said of this
text
(Macherey, 1978;
Mills and
Pearce, 1996).
This idea of
bringing up
children
not
constituting
real work rears its head in another
way
in the
text,
since children
and
homemaking
are listed as an
option
under section 7: Your interests.
Horrrerrraker is a term which
developed
as a
euphemism
for
lrorrsetvife
in the
1970s.
Despite being,
on the
surface,
unmarked for
gender,
it would be
unlikely
to
be
opted
for
by
males,
because of this association.
However,
interestingly,
the
closest
equivalent
to
homemaking
for
males, DIY,
is not listed as a
possible
at KENT STATE UNIV LIB on July 17, 2014 lal.sagepub.com Downloaded from
247
interest;
it
only
surfaces within the section 5 on Your
Personality
where
practical
is listed as an
option.
Thus,
rather than them
being posed
as work, housework and
bringing up
children are re-classified
and,
as
Fairclough (1991) puts
it,
relexicalized as interests or hobbies on a
par
with
smoking
and
drinking.
In section
8,
the
question
of children surfaces
again,
since when
you
are asked
to
specify
what sort of
partner you
would
like,
you
can
opt
for a
partner
who has
no children or one who has children
living
elsewhere. Because this is such an
issue for women who are
single parents,
the choice of
seemingly non-gendering
the address of the
advert
means that a male-oriented address
begins
to
merge
with
the dominant
reading position
of the text itself
(see further, Mills, 1994b; Pearce,
1997).
Because Datelijre have avoided
gendering
their address on the surface,
and
yet
have
gendered
the terms
through
the
systematic
use of a
range
of
stereotypically gendered collocations, associations,
background knowledge,
narrative
pathways,
and discursive
frameworks,
their readers are forced to make
meanings
within the limits of the
text,
and are thus also forced to
classify
or
relexicalize their own
experience
within the confines of the
implicitly gendered
frameworks of the text.
6 Conclusions
If texts are
overtly
sexist, they
are easier to deal
with,
since overt sexism is now
very easy
to
identify. However,
a
great
number of media texts seem to be
operating
in much the same
way
as this Dateline
text;
on the surface
they appear
to be non-sexist and even
positively
anti-sexist.
They
also
appear
to be
addressing
men and women as if
they
are
equal,
and sometimes as if there is no difference
between men and women.
However,
whilst this is the surface
message,
the
underlying workings
of the text and the
meanings
which readers
negotiate
with
the text are
quite
different. Because of the limited
range
of
options
available to
readers and because of the
background knowledge
needed to make sense of this
text,
there is
clearly
a form of indirect sexism at work here.
What this
type
of
analysis
is concerned with is
trying
to
develop
a more
complex
and more contextualized form of
analysis
and
theory.
Rather than
assuming
that texts
simply represent
women in sexist
ways,
it has been
my
aim to
examine a text which seems on the surface at least to be
non-gender-specific
in its
address,
and which seems to have taken on board certain feminist ideas about
equality
and the
changing
role of women.
However,
it is clear that the
gendered
assumptions
of this text
keep reasserting themselves,
creating
moments of tension
within the
text,
either because
gender-specific
terms have been
used,
or because
the reader is left with a
very
limited
range
of
gender-stereotyped options
to
describe themselves. It is the contention of this
analysis
that there are a
range
of
discursive frameworks which are themselves
gendered
and which would lead
female readers to assume that the text was addressed to them,
whilst
codifying
information which works
largely
in the interests of males. I have also shown that
at KENT STATE UNIV LIB on July 17, 2014 lal.sagepub.com Downloaded from
248
in the
process
of
appearing
to be
non-gender-specific
in terms of
address,
the text
in fact encodes
stereotypically
masculinist attitudes towards housework and child-
rearing, ensuring
that these are classified as interests rather than work.
It is clear that feminist
pressure
around the issue of sexism has had a
major
effect on the
production
and
reception
of texts. Sexism has not been eradicated
but its nature has been transformed into this more indirect form of sexism. What
is
necessary
now is a form of feminist
analysis
which can
analyse
the
complexity
of sexism since it has become more indirect and now that feminism has made
overt sexism more
problematic.
Such an
analysis
would be
open
to the
types
of
information which feminism has sent
underground
and which nevertheless exert
a
pressure
on the text itself.
Thus,
a
post-feminist
text
analysis
would move
away
from a concentration on words and
phrases
which are
processed by
all readers in a
similar
way,
to a more
pragmatic
concern with
mapping
out the discursive
structures and
pressures
which lead to contradictions within
texts,
and indeed
within readers themselves.
Thus,
Toolans
(1997)
call for a
description
of a non-
sexist text can be seen to be
equally
as
utopian
as feminist criticism of certain
texts for their
sexism;
what is needed is a form of
analysis
which can describe the
complexity
of texts and their
processing
in a
post-feminist age.
Notes
1
Early
versions of this
essay
were
given
as
papers
to the
English Department
at Nene
College,
Northampton,
UK;
to
postgraduates
in the Centre for Womens
Studies,
Exeter
University, UK;
and to
postgraduates
in the Discourse
Analysis symposium, Tampere University, Tampere,
Finland. I would like to thank the
participants
at these seminars for their constructive comments.
I would also like to thank the
following people
for comments on draft versions of the
essay: Tony
Brown, Lynne Pearce,
Deirdre
OSullivan,
Keith Green, Yvonne
Hyrenen,
the readers and
editors of
Language
and
Literature,
Jane Sunderland,
Evangelia
Litosseliti
(who
summarized the
comments of the Gender and
Language
Research
Group,
Lancaster
University, UK),
Clare Walsh
and Janine Liladhar. I am indebted to Dateline International for
permission
to
reproduce
the
Dateline advertisement.
2 Like all
post- terms, there is much debate about whether the
post- signifies
an end of a
particular
type
of
influence,
or in fact a
recognition
of the fundamental
importance
of the influence. See
McClintock
(1993)
and Mishra and
Hodge (1993)
for a
thorough
examination of this issue in
relation to
post-colonialism. Perhaps post-feminism
is
slightly
more
complicated
than terms like
post-modernism
and
post-colonialism
because it is
critically engaging
with both
patriarchy
and
earlier feminist
analyses. Obviously,
the
critique
of
patriarchy
is different
politically
to the
critique
of earlier feminist models.
A
great
number of the discussions I have had about the term
post-feminist
have centred on the
possibility
that no matter how much one insists that one intends the more
productive
critical
meaning,
the first
meaning
of the term
(that
there is now no need for
feminism) may
be the one
which asserts itself. This is a
difficulty
of which I am
very keenly
aware. A number of
people
have
suggested
that I
try
to
develop
another term because of this. It is for reasons such as this
that Walter
(1998a) decided to call her book The New Feminism.
3 The
analysis
I detail is indicative of the
type
of directions that this
type
of text
analysis might
pursue.
It does not aim to
present
itself as a
fully
worked out form of
analysis.
4 Much
advertising
addressed to men has moved
away
from the machismo
poses
characteristic of
the 1970s to a location of males within the
family.
Witness the British advertisements for cars
which now tend to stress concern for the
safety
of children rather than how fast a car can
go;
for
example:
Mercedes :
Basically
I had two reasons for
choosing
Mercedes over the other
£20,000
at KENT STATE UNIV LIB on July 17, 2014 lal.sagepub.com Downloaded from
249
cars: Mark
(4)
and Sammie
(6 months) Independent
on
Sunday,
March 1997. This
effectively
manages
to
positively
inflect a New Man concern with
caring
for children with a written-in
concern with status
(£20,000 car). However, compare
Joanna Thornborrows
essay
in this issue
where it is clear that this new trend is
being
worked out
alongside
more conventional
strategies.
5 Some recent feminist text
analysis
seems to indicate that a more
complex analysis
is
necessary;
see the collection of
essays
edited
by
Wales
(1994)
and
my
Feminist
Sylistics (Mills, (1995b).
6 The
Spice
Girls are a British female
pop group
who
developed
the notion of
girlpower
from its
more radical
origin
in the United States to refer to a form of
aggressive
and
fun-loving
behaviour
for
young
women. The Girlie Show was a
late-night
Channel 4
programme
in Britain, hosted
by
women who
challenged many
of the norms of conventional feminine behaviour
through
their
self-presentation,
their behaviour and
language.
Girlie is used in Britain
by
certain
groups
of
women, usually feminist,
to refer in a
playful way
to womens issues. I am not
suggesting
that
the new
meanings
of
girl
and
girlie
have
simply replaced
the older
derogatory meanings,
since it
is clear that
according
to context these
meanings
are still available; but I would
argue
that the
newer
meanings
have altered the
way
that those older
meanings
will be activated. It
may
be the
case, however, that there is a sense in which, in the British
context, girlie
as in
girlie magazine
to
refer to a soft
pornographic magazine
for males
may
be on the
wane,
precisely
because
girlie
has started to be used in other contexts with different
meanings.
7 This
critique
of second-wave feminist text
analysis
is not intended to be
dismissive;
it is
important
to
recognize
our
political
and theoretical indebtedness to these feminist theorists for
the
way
that
they developed analyses
of
patriarchal thinking.
We need to
acknowledge
that one
way
in which theoretical work
progresses
is
by building critically
on
previous
work:
that, for me,
is the essence of
post-feminist theory.
8 There have also been
significant changes
in text
analysis
as a whole which make a
simplistic
form of
analysis
more difficult. When feminists
grapple
with the sexism of a
text,
there are often
charges
that
humour, play
and
irony
are not considered as
part
of the
subtlety
of a texts
meaning.
It is clear that often the move to
locating irony
in a text is
simply
a
way
of
avoiding charges
of
sexism,
but
occasionally
it is indeed an accurate assessment of feminisms
dogged
literalness in
relation to sexism. Feminist
analysis
has to be able to account for and allow for
play
within a
texts
production
of
meaning
without
allowing
the text off the hook.
9 This is not intended to be an
ethnographic study
of readers
responses
but rather constitutes an
attempt
to test out the
assumption
that different readers will
foreground
certain elements within
the text to formulate their
interpretations.
Current readers of this
type
of text
may
be
relatively
tolerant of discursive conflicts within texts,
and the readers I consulted were not
particularly
concerned that there were dissonances within their own
reading
of the text.
10 It
might
be
argued
that this is therefore not a
particularly linguistic analysis (see
the Introduction
to this issue for further discussion of this
point).
This is an inevitable
consequence
of the move
towards contextual
analysis
which
necessarily
has to move
beyond
a
simple analysis
of the
linguistic
constituents of a text
(see
Verdonk and
Weber, 1995).
11 The choice of
analysing
a
single advertising
text
might
be seen to be
problematic,
if what I was
concerned with was
making
claims about the
interpretation
of
advertising texts,
or
dating agency
advertising
texts as a whole. The
analysis
which follows is concerned with
trying
to formulate
ways
in which
post-feminist analysis might
work on a text and so this
analysis
should be seen as
a
testing
out of theoretical ideas
against
a text.
However,
the choice of an
advertising
text rather
than, say,
a
pop song
or a
literary text, was not accidental, since
advertising displays
a
preoccupation
with
gender
that is
hardly
matched in
any
other
genre (Van Zoonen, 1994: 67).
That
preoccupation clearly
cannot be reduced to
simple
sexism.
12 Some of the women readers I consulted
objected
to this omission of Miss as an
option
since
they
felt it
important
to be able to describe themselves as
single.
These same readers considered
Datelines use of address terms to
display
an anti-sexist
position singularly unconvincing.
13 Much of the discursive structure
of femininity
is about the
way
clothes and cosmetics are meshed
into a consumer culture so that these seem to become
part
of a womans
personality (Smith,
1990).
Several
readers, both male and
female, disagreed
with this assessment
of fashionable,
but
what is at issue here is the
stereotypes
of
femininity
associated with the term rather than actual
readers assessment of their own fashion-consciousness.
14 The fact that different readers
disagreed
with some of these claims about
gender
and collocation
whilst others
agreed
with them leads me to assume that within certain
types
of
reading
these
particular
associations will not be activated. But the fact that some readers
picked up
on them
at KENT STATE UNIV LIB on July 17, 2014 lal.sagepub.com Downloaded from
250
suggests
that there is textual evidence for such a
claim; also most of the readers I discussed this
with could
recognize
the association at a
stereotypical
level, even if it was not one which
they
felt
applied
to themselves.
15 A similar
dichotomy
seems to occur around the
terms jogging
and
running, where jogging
in
British
society may
be associated with a
non-serious,
female-restricted form of exercise in
comparison
to the more serious and
manly running.
16
Despite
its theoretical
problems
in
globalizing
womens
speech habits,
Tannens
(1990)
book
was
important
in
stressing
the
way
that cultural norms still allocate the
responsibility
for the
smooth
running
of
relationships
and social
bonding
to women.
17 The
couples
are white and seem to fall within a certain
range
of class
positions
between
upper
working
class and middle class.
They
are
clearly
not lower
working class, upper
middle class or
upper
class. It is difficult to
assign
class
position
on the basis of
photographs,
but there are
signals
which British readers
generally
use to
distinguish
class
positions,
such as
clothing,
jewellery, hairstyle
and so on, and which seem to be used here to
signify
an actual or
aspiring
class
position (see Skeggs, 1997).
18 More
single parents
are women than men, and thus
statistically
it is more
likely
for this
question
to be addressed to women, even
though
there is no
explicit gendering
of the
question.
19 Narrative schemata entail certain choices about roles, settings,
actions and so on which will be
deemed
appropriate
because of
familiarity
with the rules of the
genre.
Chance encounters at
social
gatherings
or work are viewed
positively by many
as
appropriate starting points
or
settings
for romance.
20 At a
very
literal
level,
as some of the readers I consulted about this text reminded
me,
there is the
added factor that
single
women
applying
to Dateline for
help
in
finding
a
partner
would not in
fact be housewives but
single
mothers.
References
Barrett, M. and
McIntosh,
M.
(1982)
The Anti-social
Family.
London: Verso.
Benokraitis, N., ed. (1997) Subtle Sexism:
Current Practice
and Prospects for Change.
London:
Sage.
Bergvall,
V., Bing,
J. and Freed, A.,
eds
(1996) Rethinking Language
and Gender Research:
Theory
and Practice. Harlow:
Longman.
Bing, J.
and
Bergvall,
V.
(1996)
The
Question of Questions: Beyond Binary Thinking,
in V.
Bergvall,
J.
Bing
and A. Freed
(eds) (1996) Rethinking Language
and Gender Research :
Theory
and
Practice, pp.
1-30. Harlow:
Longman.
Brooks, A.
(1997) Postfeminisms: Feminism, Cultural
Theory
and Cultural Forms. London:
Routledge.
Burton,
D.
(1982) Through
Dark Glasses, Through
Glass
Darkly,
in R. Carter
(ed.) Language
and
Literature,
pp.
195-214. London: Allen & Unwin.
Butler,
J.
(1990)
Gender Trouble : Feminism and the Subversion
of Identity.
London:
Routledge.
Cameron, D.,
ed.
(1990)
The Feminist
Critique of Language:
A Reader. London:
Routledge.
Cameron, D.
(1994a)
Problems of Sexist and Non-sexist
Language,
in J. Sunderland
(ed.) Exploring
Gender:
Questions
and
Implications for English Language
Education,
pp.
26-33. Hemel
Hempstead:
Prentice-Hall.
Cameron, D.
(1994b) Words, Words, Words: the Power of
Language,
in S. Dunant
(ed.)
The War
of
the Words: The Political Correctness Debate,
pp.
15-34. London:
Virago.
Cameron,
D.
(1996)
The
Language-Gender
Interface:
Challenging Co-optation,
in V.
Bergvall,
J.
Bing
and A. Freed
(eds) Rethinking Language
and Gender Research:
Theory
and
Practice, pp.
31-53. Harlow:
Longman.
Carroll,
D. and Kowitz, J.
(1994) Using
Concordance
Techniques
to
Study
Gender
Stereotyping
in
ELT
Textbooks,
in J. Sunderland
(ed.) Exploring
Gender:
Questions
and
Implications for English
Language Education, pp.
73-82. Hemel
Hempstead:
Prentice-Hall.
Christie,
C.
(1994)
Theories of Textual Determination and Audience
Agency:
an
Empirical
Contribution to the
Debate, in S. Mills
(ed.) Gendering
the
Reader, pp.
47-66. Hemel
Hempstead:
Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Coates, J.
and
Cameron, D.,
eds
(1989)
Women in their
Speech
Communities: New
Perspectives
on
Language
and Sex. London:
Longman.
at KENT STATE UNIV LIB on July 17, 2014 lal.sagepub.com Downloaded from
251
Crawford, M.
(1995) Talking Difference:
On Gender and
Language.
London:
Sage.
Daly,
M.
(1978) Gyn/Ecology.
London: The Womens Press.
Delphy,
C.
(1984)
Close to Home: A Materialist
Analysis of Womens Oppression.
London:
Hutchinson.
Eagleton,
T.
(1991) Ideology:
An Introduction. London: Verso.
Fairclough,
N.
(1989) Language
and Power. Harlow:
Longman.
Fairclough, N. (1991)
Discourse and Social
Change.
London:
Polity
Press.
Fairclough, N., ed. (1992) Critical
Language Awareness.
Harlow:
Longman.
Foucault, M.
(1979) History of Sexuality,
Vol. I. Harmondsworth:
Penguin.
Foucault,
M.
(1980) Power/Knowledge. Brighton:
Harvester.
Frankenberg,
R.
(1993)
White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction
of
Whiteness. London:
Routledge.
Fuss,
D.
(1989) Essentially Speaking: Feminism, Nature and
Difference.
London:
Routledge.
Gonzalez, A., Houston,
M. and Chen, V.,
eds
(1996)
Our Voices:
Essays
in Culture,
Ethgnicity
and
Communication,
2nd edn. Los
Angeles: Roxbury.
Hall,
K. and Bucholtz, M., eds
(1995)
Gender Articulated:
Language
and the
Socially
Constructed
Self.
New York and London:
Routledge.
Hall, K., Bucholtz, M. and Moonwomon, B., eds
(1992) Locating
Power:
Proceedings of
the 2nd
Berkeley
Women and
Language Conference,
Vol I.
Berkeley: University
of California.
Jarrett-Macaulay,
D., ed.
(1996) Reconstructing Womanhood, Reconstructing
Feminism. London:
Routledge.
Johnson,
S. and Meinhof, U. H., eds
(1997) Language and Masculinity.
Oxford: Blackwell.
Jones,
P.
(1998)
Critical Discourse
Analysis
as Social
Theory,
discussion
paper,
Sheffield Hallam
University,
Sheffield, UK.
Knowles,
E.
(1998) Reading Writing: Contriving
to See Feminist
Voices, unpublished
PhD
thesis,
Edinburgh University,
UK.
Kotthoff, H. and Wodak, R.,
eds
(1997) Communicating
Gender in Context. Amsterdam and
Philadelphia,
PA: John
Benjamins.
Macherey,
P.
(1978)
A
Theory of Literary
Production. London:
Routledge
and
Kegan
Paul.
McClintock, A.
(1993)
The
Angel
of
Progress:
Pitfalls of the Term "Post-colonialism" , in P.
Williams and L. Chrisman
(eds)
Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial
Theory:
A Reader,
pp.
291-305. Hemel
Hempstead:
Harvester Wheatsheaf.
McClintock, A.
(1995) Imperial
Leather: Race, Gender and
Sexuality
in the
Imperial
Context.
London:
Routledge.
McConnell-Ginet, S.,
ed.
(1980)
Women and
Language
in Literature and
Society.
New York:
Praeger.
McNay,
L.
(1992)
Foucault and Feminism. London:
Polity.
Meese,
E. and
Parker, A.,
eds
(1989)
The
Difference
Within: Feminism and Critical
Theory.
Amsterdam and
Philadelphia,
PA: John
Benjamins.
Miller,
C. and
Swift,
K.
(1981) The Handbook
of Non-sexist Writing.
London: The Womens Press.
Mills,
S.
(1992a) Minding your Language: Implementing
Gender-free
Language Policies,
Critical
Survey 4(2):
183-90.
Mills,
S.
(1992b) Knowing
Y/our Place: Marxist Feminist Contextualised
Stylistics,
in M. Toolan
(ed.) Language,
Text and Context, pp.
182-208. London:
Routledge.
Mills, S.
(1994a)
Close Encounters of a Feminist Kind:
Transitivity Analysis
and
Pop Lyrics,
in K.
Wales
(ed.)
Feminist
Linguistics
in
Literary
Criticism.
pp.
137-56.
Woodbridge:
D.S. Brewer.
Mills,
S.
(1994b) Reading
as/like a
Feminist,
in S. Mills
(ed.) Gendering
the
Reader,
pp.
25-46.
Hemel
Hempstead:
Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Mills, S.
(1995a) Working
with Sexism: What can Feminist Text
Analysis Do?,
in P. Verdonk and J.
J. Weber
(eds)
Twentieth
Century
Fiction: From Text to
Context,
pp.
206-20. London:
Routledge.
Mills,
S.
(1995b)
Feminist
Stylistics.
London:
Routledge.
Mills,
S.
(1995c) Discontinuity
and Postcolonial Discourse, Ariel: A Review
of International English
Literature
26(3):
73-88.
Mills,
S.
(1997)
Discourse. London:
Routledge.
Mills, S. and Pearce, L.
(1996)
Feminist
Readings,
Feminists
Reading,
2nd edn. Hemel
Hempstead:
Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Mills,
S. and White,
C.
(1997) Discursive
Categories
and Desire: Feminists
Negotiating
Relationships,
in K.
Harvey
and C. Shalom
(eds) Language
and Desire:
Encoding
Sex, Romance
and
Intimacy, pp.
222-45. London:
Routledge.
at KENT STATE UNIV LIB on July 17, 2014 lal.sagepub.com Downloaded from
252
Mishra, V. and
Hodge,
B.
(1993)
What is
Post(-)colonialism?,
in P. Williams and L. Chrisman
(eds)
Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial
Theory:
A Reader. Hemel
Hempstead:
Harvester
Wheatsheaf.
Pearce,
L.
(1997)
Feminism and the Politics
of Reading.
London: Edward Arnold.
Pearce,
L. and
Stacey, J.,
eds
(1995)
Romance Revisited. London: Lawrence and Wishart.
Phillips,
A.
(1983)
Hidden Hands: Women and Economic Policies. London: Pluto Press.
Rakow, L., ed.
(1992)
Women
Making Meaning.
New York and London:
Routledge.
Showalter,
E.
(1987)
The Female
Malady: Women, Madness and
English
Culture. London:
Virago.
Skeggs,
B.
(1997)
Formations
of
Class and Gender:
Becoming Respectable.
London:
Sage.
Smith, D.
(1990) Texts,
Facts and
Femininity: Exploring
the Relations
of Ruling.
London:
Routledge.
Sunderland, J.,
ed.
(1994) Exploring
Gender:
Questions
and
Implications for English Language
Education. Hemel
Hempstead:
Prentice-Hall.
Tannen, D.
(1990)
You Just Dont Understand. New York: Ballantine Books.
Toolan,
M.
(1997)
What is Critical Discourse
Analysis
and
Why
are
People Saying
Such Terrible
Things
about it?
Language
and Literature
6(2):
83-103.
Tummill, J.
(1997)
The Hard Sell: Advertisers have Discovered a New Tool: the Male Erection,
Independent
on
Sunday.
1 June: 2.
Van
Zoonen,
L.
(1994)
Feminist Media Studies. London:
Sage.
Verdonk, P. and Weber, J. J., eds (1995) Twentieth-Century
Fiction: From Text to Context. London:
Routledge.
Vetterling-Braggin, M.,
ed.
(1981)
Sexist
Language:
A Modern
Philosophical Analysis. Totowa, NJ:
Littlefield Adams.
Wales, K., ed.
(1994)
Feminist
Linguistics
in
Literary
Criticism.
Woodbridge:
D. S. Brewer.
Walter,
N.
(1998a)
The New Feminism. London: Little, Brown.
Wareing,
S.
(1994)
And Then He Kissed Her: the Reclamation of Female Characters to Submissive
Roles in
Contemporary
Fiction, in K. Wales
(ed.)
Feminist
Linguistics
in
Literary Criticism, pp.
117-36.
Woodbridge:
D. S. Brewer.
Wicomb,
Z.
(1994)
Motherhood and the
Surrogate
Reader: Race, Gender and
Interpretation,
in S.
Mills
(ed.) Gendering the Reader,
pp.
99-128. Hemel
Hempstead:
Harvester Wheatsheaf.
at KENT STATE UNIV LIB on July 17, 2014 lal.sagepub.com Downloaded from