30 Nursing Times 18 August 2009 Vol 105 No 32 www.nursingtimes.

net
out. This may be done using a number of
approaches, with the aim of identifying
meaningful information and categorising this
into a set of themes once all texts have been
analysed (Byrne, 2001). These themes will be
issues that are common between several
participants.
Nurses often relate to the phenomenological
approach because it values the individuals
experience and they may feel they already have
some of the necessary skills, such as
interviewing. However, the type of interview
skills they possess may not be appropriate for
this method.
Using examples from my own research
experience, this article aims to examine what
draws nursing to this method and why nurses
think they may be good at it.
For those who are new to this type of
research, the article gives practical points on
how to conduct a good interview, how and
what to transcribe and how to use quotes to
support research.
WHY DO NURSES CHOOSE
PHENOMENOLOGY AS A
METHOD?
An increasing number of nurse researchers
have been drawn to phenomenology; possibly
because, like nursing, it considers the whole
person and values their experience.
Nursing is concerned with understanding
people, being perceptive and sympathising
with them. It recognises the validity of
individuals experiences and supports them in
exercising control over their own health care
(Oiler, 1982).
Nurses are taught to respect individuals,
listen to them and believe them. They can also
relate to the methods used to obtain data.
Nurses are taught to be good listeners, to
empathise and to create rapport, often in a
short period of time.
All these are valuable skills in phenomenology
and nurses may feel they are sufficient to allow
them to conduct a good interview in this type
of research.
However, phenomenological research is not
so straightforward and one must firstly decide
which of two main approaches are to be used.
These are:
l Descriptive phenomenology;
l Interpretative phenomenology.
Many authors agree that if researchers are
not clear which approach they are using from
the start so that they collect data to suit that
method, the value of that research is
significantly reduced (Annells, 2007; Dowling,
2004; Crist and Tanner, 2003).
Descriptive phenomenology, which is
attributed to Husserl (1963; original work
1913), attempted to make phenomenology a
rigorous science within the tradition of its
time, and used the concept of bracketing to
maintain objectivity. Bracketing involves
putting aside what the researcher already
knows about the experience being investigated
and approaching the data with no
preconceptions about the phenomenon
(Dowling, 2004; Lopez and Willis, 2004).
Subsequently, phenomenologists such as
Heidegger (1962) modified and built on
Husserls theories and developed the
interpretative tradition (also known as the
hermeneutic tradition).
Principally, interpretative phenomenologists
believe it is impossible to rid the mind of
preconceptions and approach something in a
completely blank or neutral way. They believe
instead that we use our own experiences to
interpret those of others.
We may also use our experiences to guide
our research questions.
As researchers, we are interpreting
something in which we ourselves exist;
therefore we have no detached standpoint
(Koch, 1995).
For nurses conducting research using
descriptive phenomenology, one would expect
to see some discussion around how they
INTRODUCTION
Phenomenology supports the re-examination
of a taken-for-granted experience and, through
examining the qualities of the experience,
allows us to identify its essence.
Therefore, the goal of phenomenological
research is not to describe a grand theory or
develop a model but to describe accurately a
persons lived experience in relation to what
is being studied. This could be revealed
through asking, for example: What does it feel
like to be told you have cancer? or: What was
your experience when you were discharged
home after a myocardial infarction?
The information (data) for analysis is
collected primarily through interviews, stories
or observations with the relevant people
who have had that experience, that is, the
research participants.
Interviews will be transcribed and, after data
has been collected from several people,
interpretation (data analysis) can be carried
An outline of how to carry out phenomenological research, with advice
for novice nurse researchers on how to use this approach
Practice research methods
Phenomenology in nursing research:
methodology, interviewing and transcribing
KEYWORDS PHENOMENOLOGY | RESEARCH | INTERVIEW | TRANSCRIPTION
AUTHOR Paula Balls, PGCE, BSc, RN, is
practice and education facilitator,
Norfolk and Norwich University
Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust.
ABSTRACT Balls, P. (2009)
Phenomenology in nursing research:
methodology, interviewing and
transcribing. Nursing Times; 105:
32, 3033.
While nurses can relate to the
phenomenological approach because they
see it as sharing the values of nursing, this
may not be sufficient on its own to start
conducting this kind of research.
Using examples from my own research
experience, this article aims to examine
what draws nursing to this method and
why nurses think they may be good at it.
It also offers practical advice on how to
carry out a good interview, how and what
to transcribe and how to use quotes to
support research.
31 Nursing Times 18 August 2009 Vol 105 No 32 www.nursingtimes.net
THIS ARTICLE HAS BEEN DOUBLE-BLIND PEER-REVIEWED
sound check before starting to record and,
although it sounds obvious, ensure the
tape-recorder is switched on.
While not ideal, it may be necessary to ask
participants to speak up. I interviewed one
person who, whenever she said anything
significant, dropped her voice and, during
transcription later on, I missed some parts of
what she said.
Several authors have suggested carrying out
an in-depth interview on a neutral topic with a
volunteer before doing the first bona-fide
research interview and that this is also
transcribed (Green and Thorogood, 2004;
Streubert-Speziale and Carpenter, 2003). I
would certainly support this as valuable
practice and worth the time.
Choosing a volunteer or colleague who can
be trusted to be honest will yield valuable
feedback on performance without prejudice to
the research being undertaken. It will also help
researchers to develop interview and
transcription skills, and allows a realistic test of
the equipment so that any problems can be
identified before data collection starts.
Although nurses use interview skills in their
practice, these may not be the right kind of
skills for this type of research.
Nurses may feel they are good listeners, but
when do we really explore, illuminate and
gently probe someones experiences? As
Colaizzi (1978) put it: The researcher must
realise that his participant is more than merely
a source of data he must listen with
the totality of his being and the entirety
of his personality.
An overeagerness and an urge to problem-
solve can get in the way of a good interview,
where one needs to sit back and quietly
encourage the participant to continue and
open up about a past experience.
The initial question in this type of research
tends to be open, for example: Can you
describe what it is like or: Tell me about.
From this opening, we hope sufficient
information will come forward that allows the
interview to proceed smoothly from topic to
topic while we, as interviewers, have a limited
role in guiding responses.
However, this is not necessarily the case.
Some participants may have said all they wish
to say in the first five minutes so it is a good
idea to have some questions or prompts as
back-up to encourage conversation.
In addition, nurses may have selected a
research topic of interest to them but not to
bracket their preconceptions and ensure a
neutral approach to the topic. This may even
mean not conducting a literature search before
carrying out the research to avoid
contaminating or influencing the interviews.
On the other hand, those conducting
interpretative phenomenological research will
need to show how their own experiences have
shaped the choice of research topic, the
questions and their interpretations. They may
even write down in an appendix to the work
what they expect to uncover.
In short, nurses should make sure they read
around the different types of phenomenology
and use language consistent with the approach
chosen. They should not refer to bracketing if
using interpretative phenomenology and
should not explain how they stand within a
hermeneutic circle if using descriptive
phenomenology.
There has been some debate about whether
nursing research that purports to use
phenomenology conforms to standard
methods and whether the results really
illuminate human experience.
Some authors have considered whether
nurses have a particular way of using
phenomenology that works for the profession,
a nursing phenomenology (Annells, 2007;
Crotty, 1996). While this is being debated, I do
not suggest that nurses invent their own
phenomenology, especially if the research is
for an academic award. Nurse researchers
should follow the advice in Box 1.
THE INTERVIEW PROCESS
As previously discussed, there are several ways
of collecting data for phenomenological
research, including storytelling, tape-
recording, documentary analysis and focus
groups. The most common method is the
unstructured or semi-structured interview
(Wimpenny and Gass, 2000; Colaizzi, 1978).
The researchers role has been described as
that of a facilitator to help respondents talk
freely. Therefore, the only interview
questions should be those that seek
clarification, illustration or further exploration
(Parahoo, 2006).
While the unstructured interview may be the
gold standard in phenomenological research,
nurses should not be surprised if the ethics
committee insists on the presentation of an
interview schedule as part of the application.
Having prepared a schedule or at least
having an opening question researchers need
to consider some practicalities.
An interview area that is quiet and
undisturbed is the ideal location. However, for
nurses who have their own private office, this
is not necessarily the best location. It is
important to minimise any power differential
between researcher and interview participants.
It is also advisable for nurses to promote their
role as a researcher, rather than their role in
the organisation, which may be senior to that
of the person being interviewed.
It is more acceptable to conduct the
interview in a neutral location where
participants are relaxed, or in a location
familiar to them.
Wherever researchers choose, they should
ensure they put a sign on the door stating an
interview is in progress, divert any telephones
and make every effort to avoid disturbances.
Consideration also needs to be given to the
equipment used for recording. A tape recorder
with a built-in microphone is generally not
suitable as it needs to be placed too close to
participants to allow a relaxed conversation
and may pick up too many external noises.
A better option is a recorder with a lapel or
remote microphone where the recorder itself
can be placed on the floor in a less intrusive
position. While these can be relatively
inexpensive, it is worth asking colleagues and
any research areas, audio-visual departments
or teaching centres to borrow one.
Whatever equipment is used, researchers
should try to make the recording process as
unobtrusive as possible. Always conduct a
BOX 1. ADVICE BEFORE STARTING
Before nurse researchers start they should:
Make sure phenomenology is the right
method, consider other methods and be sure
about the aims. For example, will the results
illuminate or explain human experience and its
meaning, or will they describe it?
Ensure they have the time to interview and
re-interview to really understand something
in depth;
Be clear which phenomenological approach
they are using usually descriptive or
interpretative;
Ensure they use language consistent with that
approach throughout and choose a method of
data analysis which is also consistent;
Acknowledge any ways in which they could
not follow the approach as a study limitation,
such as fewer or shorter interviews.
32 Nursing Times 18 August 2009 Vol 105 No 32 www.nursingtimes.net
Practice research methods
anyone else, which means no one has much to
say on it. It is a good idea to pause and reflect
after the first or second interview to ensure
enough data will be gathered. It is
demoralising to try to keep an interview
limping along while trying not to look at your
watch. Pausing and reflecting at this stage may
cause researchers to re-shape their interview
focus, which can help in generating more
useful data for later analysis.
In a similar vein, it is possible to conduct a
wonderful interview but then find it did not
cover the points the researcher wanted it to,
but strayed somewhere and was not pulled
back into focus.
I find that having the research question
written on a piece of paper in front of me and
glancing at it occasionally during the interview
to make sure the data collected is relevant
helps me to keep on track. Gently guiding the
interview back to the topic being investigated
may be necessary.
At the end of the interview it is important to
thank participants and explain any further
interviews necessary. Researchers may also like
to offer them a summary of the results to
thank them for taking part. It is also advisable
to ensure participants have a copy of their
signed consent form.
For novice researchers, if an experienced
researcher offers to let them listen to an
interview they have conducted, or will sit in
on a pilot interview and offer feedback, this
could be a valuable learning experience.
Although it may cause the novice researcher
initial embarrassment it will pay dividends
later. Many writers agree that involving a
more experienced phenomenological
researcher can be helpful in developing
interviewing skills (Streubert-Speziale and
Carpenter, 2003; Drauker, 1999).
In my research, interviewing skills improved
over time and with the aid of reflection and
the use of a research diary (a journal in which
to note my own thoughts).
For tips on interviewing skills, see Box 2.
HOW AND WHAT TO
TRANSCRIBE
Hearing and transcribing ones own voice
can highlight shortcomings in interview
technique which researchers would rather not
have to commit to paper. Nevertheless, it is
important for the integrity of the research
that the spoken word is correctly typed, with
all its faults.
One of the first steps to becoming a
researcher may be defined as the development
of an acute self-awareness of ones own
personal values, perspectives and any biases
(Field and Morse, 1992).
A research diary can be an aid to this and I
used a journal to reflect on my own interview
skills, my opinion of the interviews, including
establishing rapport and whether my own
perceptions had influenced the course and
content of them.
I took no notes during the interview itself as
this could have interfered with establishing a
good rapport, but used my journal once again
to note non-verbal aspects, such as a
preoccupation with the tape-recording
process, nervousness and other impressions
which may not be evident on a later transcript.
Each interview should be transcribed as
soon as practically possible after taking
place. It is important not to underestimate
how long transcription can take. Each
40-minute interview can take up to three
hours to write up, not including re-reading it
and ensuring accuracy.
Transcription in phenomenology should not
be delegated to someone else. Researchers
themselves should transcribe the interviews,
thereby living with the data, familiarising
themselves with and immersing themselves
within it.
The process of transcription may sound
straightforward but it is rarely that simple.
How do you show pauses in conversation?
What about the passages which you cannot
hear? How do you write expressions such as
BOX 2. ADVICE ON INTERVIEWING
SKILLS
Nurse researchers should:
Use the right equipment, preferably not a
recorder with a built-in microphone;
Conduct a pilot interview with a trusted
colleague for feedback;
Find a quiet venue where they will not be
disturbed and where participants feel
comfortable;
Remember they are supposed to be listening,
not speaking or solving problems;
Try to choose a topic about which there is
plenty to say and which is of interest to others to
generate enough data;
Ensure the interview stays on track by
reminding themselves regularly of the interview
question and the type of data being sought.
erm, huh and various others or do you
bother to write them at all?
Listening to my transcripts, it often sounds
like I have asked several questions all together,
when in fact the first question elicited a
non-verbal query and therefore I asked a
second question to clarify.
Sandelowski (1994) recognised the
difficulties inherent in transcription where
only certain features of the interaction can be
preserved, and alerted us to the potential for
misrepresentation. She has written several
texts on transcription and data analysis which
are essential reading before undertaking this
aspect of the study.
For the purposes of my own research, I took
the approach that, as long as I explained in my
write-up what I had transcribed and why, it
should be acceptable. Therefore, while being
faithful to the interview and including all
content, even if ungrammatical, expressions
indicating participants thoughtfulness or
hesitation were not included. Occasionally
laughter was indicated to allow the transcript
to better reflect the spirit of the interview.
I typed my interviews very simply in table
form with two columns, one for who was
speaking and one for what was said.
Sandelowski (1995) also described a method
of proofing the interview, a process which I
followed, whereby the transcript is read again
alongside the source audiotape.
During this proofing process I highlighted
any points that struck me as significant and
added a third column to the transcription to
record the number on my tape-counter. I also
checked back to my research diary for any
significant non-verbal features or impressions
I had at the time of interview.
See Box 3 for advice on transcription.
QUOTATIONS AND INTEGRITY
This article has not addressed the process of
data analysis, which can be undertaken using
many different methods. The one chosen
should be consistent with the type of
phenomenological approach interpretative
or descriptive and researchers should justify
their choice.
Suffice to say here is that whichever method
is chosen, it involves categorising participants
experiences into themes using their own
words. In phenomenology these are presented,
often in relatively extended quotes, to illustrate
the themes.
I had never appreciated until I carried out
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Annells, M. (2007) Whats common with qualitative nursing
research these days? Journal of Clinical Nursing; 16: 2,
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Byrne, M. (2001) Hermeneutics as a methodology for textual
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Colaizzi, P. (1978) Psychological research as the
phenomenologist views it. In: Valle, R., King, M. (eds)
Existential Phenomenological Alternatives for Psychology.
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Crist, J.D., Tanner, A. (2003) Interpretation/analysis in
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Crotty, M. (1996) Phenomenology and Nursing Research.
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Dowling, M. (2004) Hermeneutics: an exploration. Nurse
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Drauker, C.B. (1999) The critique of Heideggerian
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Green, J., Thorogood, N. (2004) Qualitative Methods for
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Wimpenny, P., Gass, G. (2000) Interviewing in
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Journal of Advanced Nursing; 31: 6, 14851492.
BOX 3. TRANSCRIPTION
Nurse researchers should:
Transcribe what they hear, even if this sounds
incorrect, shows researchers in a poor light or
makes punctuation difficult;
Use a research diary to record non-verbal
aspects of the interview including impressions
and their own interview skills;
Type up transcripts themselves and not
underestimate how long this will take;
Decide how they will deal with unintelligible
sections of transcripts and non-verbal aspects or
expressions difficult to write, and explain these
in the write-up.
this type of research how much personal
integrity is required of phenomenological
researchers, especially in presenting results.
In theory, researchers can be extremely
selective about what they choose to quote, and
the omission of certain sections of transcript
can alter participants meaning. Consequently,
researchers have the ability to manipulate their
study data to reflect any underlying agenda
they may have and, to an extent, to select the
required results.
It is generally agreed that the only legitimate
source of phenomenological data is the
individual who has lived the reality being
investigated. The transcript therefore becomes
the vehicle through which we share or borrow
that experience through a description of it.
Researchers have a responsibility to remain
true to participants words and meanings and
to represent their experiences.
The words of individual participants are
extremely powerful and can be very emotive.
One good quote can replace several lines of
explanatory text and often does not need
further clarification.
In phenomenology, several lines of
continuous text are used and should be
presented with the participant identifier in
brackets at the end, usually a letter or a
number. In this way, a word picture can be
built up of the different participants and their
individual experiences.
To attribute false meaning through selecting
quotes is a poor return to participants who
gave their time and commitment to the
project. As registered healthcare professionals,
nurses have a responsibility to act with
integrity (NMC, 2008) and this should extend
to their research activity.
The quality of phenomenological research is
judged on its transparency and whether it can
be audited. Therefore, a description of each
stage of the process and explanation and
justification of the actions taken as a researcher
is essential, especially if the research is for an
academic award.
Jasper (1994) said the question of
generalisability (being able to apply the
research to other settings) is inappropriate in
phenomenology because the aim is not to
produce a theory of general application.
However, if researchers provide sufficient
detail about the study setting, participants and
process, not only can the research be audited
but it may also mean it can be repeated in
other settings.
One way to demonstrate that the results
accurately represent participants experience is
to arrange a second interview after producing
a summary of results and associated quotes,
and share these with participants. In some
types of research this is referred to as member
checking, although the term is not always
associated with phenomenology.
If participants can recognise their own
experience within the results and can perhaps
see their own words used, this lends credibility
to the results.
CONCLUSION
Nurses should not assume that
phenomenological research is an easy option
or that they already possess the necessary
skills to do it. An understanding of the
different approaches in phenomenology is
necessary to direct and inform every stage of
the research process.
Novice researchers should seek guidance and
support but should not be deterred by the
language or complexity of phenomenology or
by the process of interviewing and
transcription.
Carrying out research should be seen as a
learning process and skills will develop over
time and with experience. What the majority
of nurses do have is a level-headed practicality
and reflective approach which, combined with
a good sense of humour and an ability to
admit to mistakes, will help them to develop
research skills and knowledge that will benefit
their patients, colleagues and the wider
nursing community. l
THIS ARTICLE HAS BEEN DOUBLE-BLIND PEER-REVIEWED