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CHEMISTRY
Electrochemistry
Introduction :
Batteries are everywhere in modern societies. They provide the electric current to start our
autombiles and to power a host of products such as pocket caculators, digital watches, heart
pacemaker, radio, and tape recorders.
Electrochemistry is the area of chemistry concerned with the interconversion of chemical
and electrical.A battery is a an electrochemical cell, a device for interconverting chemical
and electrical energy. A battery takes the energy relased by a spontaneous chemical reaction
and uses it to produce electricity.
Electrochemical cell :
It is device for converting chemical energy in to electrical energy.
Electrochemical cell are of two types
Galvanic cells or Voltaic cell Electrolytic cell.
A spontaneous chemical reaction An electric current drives a
generates an electric current. nonspontaneous reaction.
Thetwo types of cells arethereforereverseof eachother
Construction/ Working principle
When ever an metal strip is put in an electrolyte the process of oxidation and reduction takes place
simultaneously within the system. Due to this there is a potential difference between the metal phase
and the liquid phase.
On joining the metal strips through a wire (of negligible resistence) the current flows as long as the
potential difference exists between the metal phase and the liquid phase.
I Anode :
Some metals (which are reactive) are found to have tendency to go into the solution phase when these
are placed in contact with their ions or their salt solutions.
For example : Zn rod is placed in ZnSO
4
solution .
Figure : 1 Figure : 2 Figure : 3
The Zn atom or metal atoms will move in the solution to form Zn
+2
. After some time following equilibrium
will be established. Zn(s) Zn
2+
+2e

There will be accumulation of sufficient negative charge on the rod which will not allow extra zinc ions
to move in the solution. i.e. solution will be saturated with Zn
+2
ions.
The positive charge will be more concentrated nearly the rod.
The extra positive charge of the solution will be more concentrated around the negatively charged rod.
An electrical double layer is developed in the system and hence a potential difference is created
between the rod and the solution which is known as electrode potential
This particular electrode is known as anode :
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CHEMISTRY
On anode oxidation will take place. (release of electron).
To act as source of electrons.
It is of negative polarity.
The electrode potential is represented by E
Zn(s) / Zn
2+
(aq)
II Cathode :
Figure : 1 Figure : 2 Figure : 3
Some metals(Cu, Ag, Au etc.,) are found to have the opposite tendency i.e. when placed in contact
with their aqueous ions, the ions from the solution will get deposited on the metal rod.
The following equilibrium will be established : Cu
2+
+2e

Cu(s).
So rod will have deficiency of electron (positive charge).Extra negative charge will surround this positively
charged rod and form double layer. An electrical double layer is developed in the system and hence a
potential difference is created between the rod and the solution which is known as electrode potential.
This will be known as cathode.
At cathode reduction will take place.(gain of e

will take place)

To act as sink of electron.
Positive polarity will be developed.
Their electrode potential can be represented by : E
Cu
2+
(aq)/Cu(s)
Anode :

sign negative a Has

produced are electrons where Is
occurs oxidation where Is
Cathode :

sign positive a Has

consumed are electrons where Is
occurs reduction where Is
Construction of Cell :
It has two halfcells,each having a beaker containing a metal strip that dips in its aqueous solution.
The metal strips are called electrodes and are connected by an conducting wire.
Two solutions are connected by a salt bridge.
The oxidation and reduction half reactions occur at a separate electrodes and electric current flows
through the wire.
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CHEMISTRY
Selection of electrolyte for Salt Bridge :
The electrolyte in salt bridge should be such that speed of it's cation equals speed of it's anion
in electrical field.
For that charge and sign of the ions should be almost equal.
Transport number of cation = Transport number of anion
or
Mobility of cation = Mobility of anion
KCl is generally preffered but KNO
3
or NH
4
NO
3
can also be used.
If Ag
+
, Hg
2+
, Pb
2+
, Tl
+
ions are present in a cell then in salt bridge KCl is not used because there
can be formation of precipitate of AgCl, Hg
2
Cl
2
, PbCl
2
or TlCl at mouth of tube which will
prevent the migration of ions and its functioning will stop.
Functions of Salt Bridge :
A salt bridge is a Ushaped inverted tube that contains a gel permeated with an inert electrolyte.
It connects the solution of two half cell to complete the circuit.
It minimise the liquid junction potential. The potential difference between the junction of two
liquids.
It maintains the electhical neutrality of the solution in order to give continious flow or generation
of current.
" The simultaneous electrical neutrality of the anodic oxidation chamber and cathodic reduction
chamber is due to same mobility or velocity of K
+
and NO
3

ions taken into salt bridge.

If the salt bridge is removed then voltage drops to zero.
The ions of the inert electrolyte do not react with other ion in the solution and the ions are not
oxidised or reduced at the electrodes.
Generally tube is filled with a paste of agar-agar powder with a natural electrolyte/generally not
common to anodic/cathodic compartment with porous plugs at each mouth of tube.
It prevents mechanical mixing of two electrolytic solution.
Liquid Liquid Junction Potentional :
The potential difference which arises between two solutions when in contact with each other.
Electrode Potential :
The driving force that pushes the negative charge electrons away from the anode and pulls
them towards the cathode is an electrical potential called electromotive force also known as
cell potential or the cell voltage. Its unit is volt
The potential difference devepoled between metal electrode and its ions in solution in known as
electrode potential.
Electrode potential depends upon :
Concentration of the solution.
Nature of the metal.
Nature of the electrolyte.
Pressure temperature coditions.
The potential difference developed between metal electrodes and the solution of its ions at 1 M
concentration at 1 bar pressure and 298 K is known as standard electrode potential.
Oxidation Potential (O.P.) : Reduction Potential (R.P.)
The electrode potential for The electrode potential for
oxidation half reaction reduction half reaction
Tendency to get oxidised. Tendency to get reduced.
Greater the O.P. than greater Greater the R.P. greater will
will be tendency to get oxidised. be tendency to get reduced.
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CHEMISTRY
Type of Electrode Electrode reaction in standard condition Representation
1. Metal electrode Reduction : Zn
2+
+ 2e

Zn(s)
0
) s ( Zn / Zn
2 E + ( SRP)
(Zn electrode, Oxidation : Zn(s) Zn
2+
+ 2e

0
Zn / ) s ( Zn
2 E + (SOP)
Cu electrode etc.)
2. Hydrogen peroxide Reduction : 2e

+ 2H
+
+ H
2
O
2
2H
2
O
0
O H / O H
2 2 2
E
electrode Oxidation : H
2
O
2
O
2
+ 2H
+
+ 2e

0
O / O H
2 2 2
E
3. Redox electrode Reduction : MnO
4

+ 8H
+
+ 5e

Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
0
Mn / MnO
2
4
E +
4. Metal Metal Reduction : AgCl(s) + e

Ag(s) + Cl

0
Cl / ) s ( Ag / ) s ( AgCl
E
salt insoluable Oxidation : Ag(s) +Cl

AgCl(s) + e

0
Cl / ) s ( AgCl / ) s ( Ag
E
electrode
Reference electrode :
The potential of a singal electode cannot be determined what were the potential difference
between two electrodes can be accurately measured using a reference electrode.
An electrode is chosen as a reference with respect to which all other electrodes are valued.
Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) is taken as standard reference electrode. Its electrode potential
is arbitrarily assumed to be 0.00 volt.
Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) consists of a platinum electrode in contact with H
2
gas and
aqueous H
+
ions at standard state conditions (1 atm H
2
gas, 1 M H
+
(aq), 25C).
2H
+
(aq, 1M) + 2e

H
2
(g, 1 atm) E = 0V
H
2
(g, 1atm) 2H
+
(aq, 1M) + 2e

E = 0V
Cell potential :
The difference in electrode potentials of the two half cell reactions (oxidation half cell and
reduction half cell) is known as emf of the cell or cell potential.
The emf of the cell or cell potential can be calculated from the values of electrode potential of
the two half cell constituning the cell. The following three methode are in use :
When oxidation potential of anode and reduction potential of cathode are taken into account :
E
cell
= oxidation potential of anode + reduction potential of cathode
E
ox
(anode) + E
red
(cathode)
When reduction potential of both electrodes are taken into account :
E
cell
= Reduction potential of cathode Reduction potential of anode
= E
cathode
E
anode
C both are reduction potential.
When oxidation potential of both electrodes are taken into account :
E
cell
= oxidation potential of anode Oxidation potential of cathode
= E
ox
(anode) E
ox
(cathode)
The standard cell potential E is the cell potential when both reactants and products are in
their standard states solutes at 1 M concentration, gases at a potential pressure of 1 atm,
solids and liquids in pure from, with all at a specified temperature, usually 25 C.
E
cell
is intensive property so on multiplying/Dividing cell reaction reaction by any number, the
E
cell
value would not change.
Free energy changes for cell reaction :
The free energy change AG (a thermochemical quantity) and the cell potential E(an
electrochemical quantity) both measure the driving force of a chemical reaction.
The values of AG and E are directly proportional and are related by the equation.
AG = nFE
where n = Number of moles of electron transfered in the reaction.
F = Faraday constant = 96485 C/mole e

~ 96500 C/mole e

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CHEMISTRY
Shorthand Notation for Galvanic Cells
We require two half cells to produce an electrochemical cell, which can be represented by follwing few rules;
The anode half-cell is always written on the left followed on the right by cathode half cell.
The separation of two phases (state of matter) is shown by a vertical line.
The various materials present in the same phase are shown together using commas.
The salt bridge is represented by a double slash (||).
The significant features of the substance viz. pressure of a gas, concentration of ions etc. are
indicated in brackets immediately after writing the substance.
For a gas electrode, the gas is indicated after the electrode for anode and before the electrode
in case of cathode. (i.e Pt H
2
/ H
+
or H
+
/H
2
Pt)
Example-1 Write short hand notation for the following reaction, Sn
2+
(aq) + 2Ag
+
(aq) Sn
4+
(aq) + 2Ag(s).
Solution The cell consists of a platinum wire anode dipping into an Sn
+2
solution and a silver cathode
dipping into an Ag
+
solution therefore Pt(s) | Sn
2+
(aq)
,
Sn
4+
(aq) || Ag
+
(aq) | Ag(s).
Example-2 Write the electrode reaction and the net cell reaction for the following cells. Which electrode would
be the positive terminal in each cell ?
(a) Zn | Zn
2+
|| Br

, Br
2
| Pt (b) Cr| Cr
3+
|| I

, I
2
| Pt
(c) Pt | H
2
, H
+
|| Cu
2+
| Cu (d) Cd | Cd
2+
|| Cl

, AgCl | Ag
Solution (a) Oxidation half cell reaction, Zn

Zn
2+
+ 2e

reduction half cell reaction, Br

2
+ 2e

2Br

Net cell reaction Zn + Br

2

Zn
2+
+ 2Br

(Positive terminal : cathode Pt)

(b) Oxidation half reaction, [Cr

Cr
3+
+ 3e

] x 2
reduction half reaction, [I
2
+ 2e

2I

] x 3
Net cell reaction 2Cr + 3I
2

2Cr
3+
+ 6I

(Positive terminal : cathode Pt)

(c) Oxidation half reaction, H
2

2H
+
+ 2e

reduction half reaction, Cu

2+
+ 2e

Cu
Net cell reaction H
2
+ Cu
2+

Cu + 2H
+
(Positive terminal : cathode Cu)
(d) Oxidation half reaction, Cd

Cd
2+
+ 2e

reduction half reaction, [AgCl + e

Ag + Cl

] x 2
Net cell reaction Cd + 2AgCl

Cd
2+
+ 2Ag + 2Cl

(Positive terminal : cathodeAg)

Calculation of electrode potential :
At Anode At Cathode
H
2
(g) 2H
+
+ 2e

2H
+
+ 2e

H
2
(g)
Oxidation potential O.P. =
.) aq ( H / ) g ( H
2
E +
Reduction Potential (R.P.)
) g ( H / H
2
E +
= RP
Under standard state Under standard state.

.) aq ( H / ) g ( H
0
2
E
+
= SOP
0
) g ( H / H
2
E +
= SRP
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CHEMISTRY
For SHE reference potential is taken to be zero at all temperature.
SOP = SRP = 0 for SHE.
To calculate standard potential of any other electrode a cell is coupled with standard hydrogen
electrode (SHE) and it's potential is measured that gives the value of electrode potential of that electrode.
Anode : Zinc electrode
Cathode : SHE
Cell : Zinc electrode || SHE
Cell potential :
E
cell
=
) g ( H / H
2
E +
E
Zn
2+
/Zn
= 0.76 V (at 298 K experimentaly)
So, E
0
Zn
2+
/Zn
= 0.76 V (SRP)
E
0
Zn/Zn
2+
(aq)
= 0.76 V(SOP)
So, w.r.t. H
2
, Zn has greater tendency
to get oxidised.
In similar manner reduction potentials
( SRP) at 298 K f or many ot her
electrodes are calculated and are
arranged in a series increasing order
known as electro chemical series.
Electrochemical Series :
Electrode Reaction SRP (at 298 K)
* Li Li
+
+ e

Li(s) 3.05 V
K K
+
+ e

K (s) 2.93 V
Ba
Ca Ca
+2
+ 2e

Ca(s) 2.87 V
Na Na
+
+ e

Na(s) 2.71 V
Mg Mg
+2
+ 2e

Mg(s) 2.37 V
Al
* Electrolytes (H
2
O) H
2
O(l) + e

2
1
H
2
+ OH

0.828 V
* Zn Zn
+2
+ 2e

Zn(s) 0.76 V
Cr Cr
+3
+ 3e

Cr(s) 0.74 V
* Fe Fe
2+
+ 2e
-
Fe 0.44 V
Cd Cd
+2
+2e

Cd(s) 0.40 V
Co
Ni Ni
+2
+ 2e

Ni(s) 0.24 V
Sn Sn
+2
+ 2e

Sn(s) 0.14 V
Pb Pb
+2
+ 2e

Pb(s) 0.13 V
* H
2
2H
+
+ 2e

H
2
(g) 0.00 V
Cu Cu
2+
+ 2e

Cu(s) 0.34 V
I
2
Fe Fe
3+
+ e

Fe
2+
0.77 V
Hg Hg
2
2+
+ 2e
-
Hg(l) 0.79 V
Ag Ag
+
+ e

Ag 0.80 V
Hg Hg
2+
Hg(l) 0.85 V
Br
2
Br
2
+ 2e

2Br

1.06 V
* Electrolytes
2
1
O
2
+ 2H
+
+ 2e

H
2
O() 1.23 V
* Cr
2
O
7
2
+ 14H
+
+ 6e

2Cr
+3
+ 7H
2
O 1.33 V
* Cl
2
Cl
2
+2e

2 Cl

1.36 V
* MnO
4

+ 8H
+
+ 5e

Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O 1.51 V
* F
2
+ 2e

2F

2.87 V
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CHEMISTRY
Example-3 Calculate E
0
cell
of (at 298 K),
Zn(s) / ZnSO
4
(aq) || CuSO
4
(aq) / Cu(s)
given that E
0
Zn/Zn
2+
(aq)
= 0.76 V
E
0
Cu(s) / Cu
2+
(aq)
= 0.34 V
Solution E
0
cell
= (S.R.P)
cathode
(S.R.P)
anode
= 0.34 ( 0.76) = 1.1 V
Example-4 Given the cell Ag AgCl(s) | NaCl (0.05 M) || Ag NO
3
(0.30) | Ag
(a) Write half reaction occurring at the anode. (b) Write half reaction occurring at the cathode.
(c) Write the net ionic equation of the reaction. (d) calculate E
cell
at 25C.
(e) Does the cell reaction go spontaneous as written ?
(Given E
AgCl,Cl
= + 0.22 volt) ;
0
Ag / Ag
E + = + 0.80 volt)
Solution (a) LHS electrode is anode and half reaction is oxidation.
Ag
+
+ Cl

AgCl(s) + e

... (i)
(b) RHS electrode is cathode and half reaction is reduction.
Ag + e

Ag(s) ... (ii)
(c) From equation (i) and (ii) cell reaction is : Cl

(0.05 M) + Ag
+
(0.30 M)

AgCl(s)
(d) E
cell
= E
right
E
left
= (0.80 0.22 volt = 0.58 volt
(e) Yes, the e.m.f. value is positive, the reaction will be spontaneous as written in the cell reaction.
Example-5 An aqueous solution containing Na
+
, Sn
2+
, Cl

& SO
4
2
ions, all at unit concentration, is
electrolysed between a silver anode and a platium cathode. What changes occcur at the
electrodes when curent is passed through the cell? Given :
0
Ag | Ag
E + = 0.799 V,,
0
Sn | Sn
2
E
+ = 0.14 V,
0
Cr | Cl
2
E
= 1.36 V ,
0
SO | O S
2
4
2
8 2
E = 2 V,,
0
Sn | Sn
2 4 E + +
= 0.13 V
(A) Sn
2+
is reduced and Cl

is oxidized (B) Ag is oxidized and Sn

2+
is reduced
(C) Sn
2+
is reduced and Sn
2+
is oxidized (D) H
+
is reduced and Sn
2+
is oxidised
Solution At anode either Ag can oxidised to Ag
+
or Sn
2+
to Sn
4+
or Cl

to Cl
2
or
2
4
SO to
2
8 2
O S Their
respective oxidation poential values are 0.799 V, 0.13V, 1.36 V and 2 V. From these values,
it is evident that Sn
2+
would be oxidised first, followed by Ag at anode. At cathode, either Na
+
can get reduced to Na. or Sn
2+
to Sn or H
+
to H
2
. The reduction potential value for Na
+
is highly
negative while for Sn
2+
| Sn is 0.14 V and for H
+
+ e

1/2 H
2 |
|
.
|

\
|

= +
7
10
1
log 059 . 0
H | H
E
2
is
0.413 V. Thus Sn
2+
will get reduced at cathode followed by H
+
(C)
Calculation of Electrode Potential of unknown electrode with the help of given (two) electrode.
Obtain the reaction of the 3
rd
electrode with the help of some algebraic operations on reactions of
the given electrodes.
Then calculate AG of the 3
rd
reaction with the help of some algebaric operations of AG
0
of 1
st
and 2
nd
reactions.
Use AG
0
= nF E
0
elec.
to calculate unknown E.P.

0
cell
E is intensive property so if we multiply/Devide electrode reaction by any number the
0
cell
E value
would not changed
i.e. Zn
2+
+ 2e

Zn(s) E = 0.76 V
Multiply by 2
2Zn
2+
+ 4e

2Zn(s) E = 0.76 V (remain same)

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CHEMISTRY
Example-6 Given that E
0
Cu
2+
/Cu
= 0.337 V and E
0
Cu
+
/Cu
2+
= 0.153 V. Then calculate E
0
Cu
+
/Cu
.
Solution (i) Cu
2+
+ 2e

Cu AG
1
(ii) Cu
+
Cu
2+
+ e

AG
2
after adding Cu
+
+ e

Cu
AG
1
+ AG
2
= AG
3
2F
0
1
E F
0
2
E = F
0
3
E
E
3
= 2
0
1
E +
0
2
E
= 2 x 0.337 0.153
= 0.674 0.153 = 0.521 V
Example-7
+
4
2
MnO / Mn
0
E = 1.51 V
2
2
Mn / MnO
0
E
+
= + 1.23 V
2 4
MnO / MnO
0
E

= ? (All in acidic medium)
Solution 4H
2
O + Mn
2+
Mn

4
O + 8H
+
+ 5e

AG
1
(i) Mn

4
O + 8H
+
+ 5e

4H
2
O + Mn
2+
AG
1
2e

+ MnO
2
+ 4H
+
Mn
2+
+ 2H
2
O AG
2
(ii) 2H
2
O + Mn
2+
MnO
2
+ 4H
+
+ 2e

AG
2
(iii) 4H
+
+ Mn

4
O + 3e

MnO
2
+ 2H
2
O AG
3
(i) + (ii) = (iii)
AG
3
= AG
1
AG
2
3E
3
F = 5
0
1
E F + 2
0
2
E F
E =
3
] E 2 E 5 [
2 1
+
=
3
)] 23 . 1 ( 2 ) 51 . 1 ( 5 [ +
=
3
] 46 . 2 55 . 7 [ +
=
3
09 . 5 +
= 1.69 V
Example-8 Will Fe
2+
disproportionate or not
Fe
3+
Fe
2+
Fe

V 77 . 0

V 44 . 0
anode
cathode
-0.036
Solution This is known as latimer diagram.
S.R.P to right of the species greater than SRP of it's left species will undergo disproportionation.
Nernst Equation :
Cell potentials depend on temperature and on the composition of the reaction mixtures.
It depends upon the concentration of the solute and the partial pressure of the gas, if any.
The dependence upon the concentration can be derived from thermodynamics.
From thermodynamics
AG = AG + RT ln Q
nFE = nFE + 2.303 R T log Q
E = E
nF
RT 303 . 2
log Q
Take T = 298 K , R = 8.314 J/mol K , F = 96500 C
Now we get, E = E
n
059 . 0
log Q
Where n = number of transfered electron , Q = reaction quotient
Nernst equation can be used to calculate cell potentials for non standard conditions also.
Nernst equations can be applied to half cell reactions also.
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CHEMISTRY
Applications of Nerst equation
Nernst Equation for Electrode Potential
M
n+
(aq) + ne

M(s)
E
Red
n =
0
red
E
nF
RT
n
(

+ n
M
) s ( M
E
Red
n =
0
red
E
nF
RT 303 . 2
log
(

+ n
M
) s ( M
at 298K ,
E
Red
n =
0
d Re
n E
n
059 . 0
log
(

+ n
M
1
Hydrogen Electrode
H
2
(g) 2H
+
(aq) + 2e

E = E
0

2
0591 . 0
log
(
(

+
2
H
2
P
) H (
Metalmetal soluble salt electrode.
Zn
2+
+ 2e

Zn(s)
E
Red
n =
0
d Re
n E
nF
RT 303 . 2
log
|
.
|

\
|
+2
Zn
1
at 298K
E
Red
n=
0
red
E
2
059 . 0
log
|
.
|

\
|
+2
Zn
1
Gas electrode Hydrogen electrode.
2H
+
+ 2e

H
2
(g)
E
Red
n=
0
d Re
n E
2
059 . 0
log
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ 2
H
] H [
P
2
Redox electrode
4H
2
O + Mn
2+
Mn

4
O + 8H
+
+ 5e

E
OX
=
0
ox
E
5
059 . 0

log
] Mn [
] H ][ MnO [
2
8
4
+
+
Example-9 Calculate R.P. of hydrogen electrode at 298K which is prepared with the help of aq. solution of
acetic acid with 0.1 M conc at 1 atm pressure Ka = 1.8 x 10
5
.
Solution [H
+
] = c Ka =
1 5
10 10 8 . 1


=
6
10 8 . 1

2H
+
+ 2e

H
2
E
Red
n=
0
red
E
2
059 . 0

log
2
H
] H [
P
2
+
(E
0
Red
n = 0)
E
Red
n=
2
059 . 0

log |
|
.
|

\
|

6
10 8 . 1
1
=
2
059 . 0

[6 log (1.8)]
E
Red
n =
2
059 . 0

x 5.74 = 0.169 V
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CHEMISTRY
Example-10 Which is stronger oxidizing agent
(i) K
2
Cr
2
O
7
in solution in which
[Cr
2
O
7
2
] = 0.1 M, [Cr
3+
] = 10
2
Mand [H
+
] = 10
1
M
(ii) KMnO
4
in a solution in which
[MnO
4

] = 10
1
M, [Mn
2+
] = 10
2
M, [H
+
] = 10
2
M
3 2
7 2
Cr / O Cr
0
E
+
= 1.33 V
2
4
Mn / MnO
0
E
+
= 1.51 V
Solution (i) 14H
+
+ Cr
2
O
7
2
2Cr
+3
+ 7H
2
O + 6e

E
Red
n = 1.33
6
059 . 0
log
(
(

14
4
10
10 10
= 1.33
6
059 . 0
x 111
E
Red
n = 1.33
6
649 . 0
= 1.330 0.108 = 1.222 V
(ii) 5e

+ 8H
+
+ Mn

4
O Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
E
Red
n = 1.51
5
059 . 0
log
(
(

1 16
2
10 10
10
= 1.51 0.059 x 3 = 1.51 0.18 = 1.33 V
E
Red
n is more so, good oxidising agent
Nernst Equation for cell Potential :
aA + bB CC + dD
E
cell
=
0
cell
E
nF
RT
lnQ
n no. of electrons which gets cancelled out while making cell reaction.
Equilibrium in electrochemical cell
AG
0
= nF E
cell
AG = nF E
cell
From thermo dynamics
AG = AG
0
+ RTnQ
at chemical eqlibrium AG = 0
E
cell
= 0 cell will be of no use
so, AG
0
= RTn K
eq
at eqlibrium nF E
cell
= 2.303 RT log (K
eq
)
log K
eq
=
RT 303 . 2
nF
E
cell
at 298 K and R = 8.314 J/mol K
log Keq =
059 . 0
n
E
cell
Example-11 Calculate E
cell
of Pt(s)
( )
M 1 . 0 M 01 . 0
M 05 . 0 SO H in Cr , O Cr
M 10
) aq ( Cl
atm 1 . 0
) g ( Cl
4 2
3 2
7 2
2
2
=
+

given that
3
2
7 2 Cr /
0
O Cr
E
+

= 1.33 V
E
0
Cl

| Cl
2
= 1.36 V
Solution 6e

+ 14H
+
+ Cr
2
O
7
2
2Cr
+3
+ 7H
2
O
[2Cl

Cl
2
+ 2e

] x 3
14H
+
+ 6Cl

+ Cr
2
O
7
2
3Cl
2
+ 2Cr
+3
+ 7H
2
O
0
cell
E = 1.33 (+1.36) = 0.03
E
cell
= 0.03
6
059 . 0
log
] O Cr [ ] Cl [ ] H [
] P [ ] Cr [
2
7
2
6 14
3
Cl
2 3
2
+
+
= 0.03
6
23 059 . 0
E
cell
= 0.26 V
"manishkumarphysics.in"
11
CHEMISTRY
Example-12 The E
cell
for the reaction Fe + Zn
2+
Zn + Fe
2+
, is 0.32 volt at 25C. What will be the
equilibrium concentration of Fe
2+
, when a piece of iron is placed in a 1 M Zn
2+
solution ?
Solution We have the Nernst equation at equilibrium at 25C
E =
n
0591 . 0
log K ... (i)
Since E
Cell
for the given reaction is negative, therefore, the reverse reaction is feasible for which
E
cell
will be + 0.32 V, Thus for Zn + Fe
2+
Fe + Zn
2+
; E
Cell
+ 0.32 V
Now , E =
n
0591 . 0
log
] Fe [
] Zn [
2
2
+
+
or 0.32 =
2
0591 . 0
log
] Fe [
1
2+
log [Fe
2+
] = 10.829 Taking antilog,
[Fe
2+
] = 1.483 x 10
11
M
Concentration cells :
A concentration cell consists of two electrodes of the same material, each electrode dipping in a
solution of its own ions and the solution being at different concentrations.
The two solutions are separated by a salt bridge.
e.g. Ag(s) | Ag
+
(a
1
) || Ag
+
(a
2
) | Ag(s) (a
1
< a
2
) a
1
, a
2
are concentrations of each half cell
At LHS electrode Anode : Ag (s) Ag
+
(a
1
) + e

At RHS electrode Cathode : Ag

+
(a
2
) + e

Ag(s)
The net cell reaction is : Ag
+
(a
2
) Ag
+
(a
1
)
The nernst eq. is
E
cell
=
n
059 . 0
log
2
1
a
a
(Here n = 1, Temp, 298 K)
Likewise, the e.m.f. of the cell consisting of two hydrogen electrodes operating at different pressure
P
1
and P
2
(P
1
> P
2
) and dipping into a solution HCl is :
E
cell
=
2
059 . 0
log
2
1
P
P
(at 298 K)
Solubility product and EMF (Metal Metal Insoluble Salt Electrode) :
A half cell containing metal M and its sparingly soluble salt MA in a saturated solution.
i.e M(s) | MA (satd) or a metal, its sparingly soluble salt in contact with a solution of a soluble
salt NaA of the same anion, i.e. M(s) | MA(s) | NaA is set up.
The solubility product of a sparingly doubles salt is a kind of equilibrium constant.
MX (s) M
+
(aq) + X

(aq) K
sp
= [M
+
] [X

]
At Anode At Cathode
M (s) M
+
(aq) + e

+ MX(s) M(s) + X

(aq)
Overall reaction : MX (s) M
+
(aq) + X

(aq)
Cell representation : M | M
+
M

(satd. sol.) || NaA | MX(s) | M (s)

E
cell
= E
red
E
ox
From thermodyanmics AG = nFE
AG = 2.303 RT log K
sp
combining both equations 2.303 RT log K
sp
= nFE
or E =
nF
RT 303 . 2
log K
sp
E =
n
0591 . 0
log K
sp
at 25C
"manishkumarphysics.in"
12
CHEMISTRY
Work done by a cell :
(i) Let 'n' faraday charge be taken out of a cell of EMF 'E' ; then work done by the cell will be calculated
as : work = Charge Potential = nFE
(ii) Work done by cell = Decrease in free energy
so AG = nFE
or W
max
= + nFE where E is standard EMF of the cell
Example-13 Calculate the maximum work that can be obtained from the Daniell cell given below-
Zn(s) | Zn
2+
(aq) || Cu
2+
(aq) | Cu (s). Given that
Zn / Zn
2 E + = 0.76 V and
Cu / Cu
2 E + = + 0.34 V..
Solution Cell reaction is : Zn(s) + Cu
2+
(aq) Cu(s) + Zn
2+
(aq) Here n = 2
E
cell
= E
cathode
E
anode
(On the basis of reduction potenital)
= + 0.34 (0.76) = 1.10 V
We know that : W
max
= AG = nFE
= (2 mol) (96500 C mol) (1.10 V) = 212300 C.V. = 212300 J
or W
max
= 212300 J
Example-14 Calculate K
sp
if (PbSO
4
) E
cell
at 298 K of this electrode is 0.236 V
Pb(s) |PbSO
4
(s)|Na
2
SO
4
(aq)||Pb(NO
3
)|Pb(s)
0.01 M 0.1 M
Solution I E
cell
=
0
cell
E
2
059 . 0
log (

1 . 0
01 . 0
0.236 =
0
cell
E +
2
059 . 0
0
cell
E = 0.236 0.03 = 0.206 0.059 log[K
sp
]
Solution II Let it be conc. cell
Anode Pb(s)
+ 2
) a (
Pb
+2e

Cathode
+ 2
) s (
Pb + 2e

Pb(s)
+ 2
) c (
Pb
+ 2
) a (
Pb
E
cell
=
0
cell
E
2
059 . 0
log
(
(

+
+
c
2
a
2
) Pb (
) Pb (
0.236 =
2
059 . 0
log
(
(

+
+
c
2
a
2
) Pb (
) Pb (
(Pb
2+
)
a
= 10
9
M
K
sp
= (Pb
2+
)
a a
2
4
) SO (

= 10
111
Let if it is not a conc cell
Anode : Pb(s) +
2
4
SO (aq) PbSO
4
(s) + 2e

Cathode : Pb
2+
(aq) + 2e

Pb(s)
Pb
2+
(c) +
2
4
SO (a) PbSO
4
(s)
0
cell
E =
0
Pb / Pb
2 E +
0
Pb | PbSO | SO
4
2
4
E =
0
Pb | Pb
2 E +
(

+
+ + sp
0
Pb | Pb
K log
2
059 . 0
E
2
0
cell
E =
2
059 . 0
log K
sp
0.236 =
2
059 . 0
log K
sp

2
059 . 0
log
(
(

+
a ) SO ( ) Pb (
1
2
4
c
2
= log (

01 . 0 1 . 0
K
SP
= log (

3
SP
10
K
log10
8
K
sp
= 10
11
"manishkumarphysics.in"
13
CHEMISTRY
Calomel Electrode :
A calomel cell consists of a platinum electrode dipping into mercury in contact with calomel
(dimercury (I) chloride, Hg
2
Cl
2
) and potassium chloride solution.
Usually the solution is saturated with potassium chloride.
The cell has E
0
= 0.28 V (with respect of SHE) at 25C
Standrad (normal) calomel electrode when [Cl

] = 1M = 1N
At Anode At Cathode
2Hg()
+ 2
2
Hg (aq) + 2e
+ 2
2
Hg + 2e

2Hg()
+ 2
2
Hg (aq) + 2Cl

Hg
2
Cl
2
(s) Hg
2
Cl
2

+ 2
2
Hg (aq) + 2Cl

(aq)
2Hg() + 2Cl

(aq) Hg
2
Cl
2
(s) + 2e

Hg
2
Cl
2
(s) + 2e

Hg() + 2Cl
-
Cell representation Cell representation
Pt(s) |Hg() | Hg
2
Cl
2
(s) | Cl

(aq)|| cathode (Anode) || Cl

(aq) | Hg
2
Cl
2
|Hg() | Pt(s)
0
Cl Cl Hg | Hg Pt
2 2
E
+
= SOP
0
) ( Hg | Cl Hg | Cl
2 2
E

= SRP
Hg / Cl Hg / Cl
2 2
E
=
0
Hg /
2
Cl
2
Hg / Cl
E


F
RT
n[Cl

]
Pt ) Hg ( M / M
n E +
=
0
Pt ) Hg ( M /
n
M
E
+

F
RT
n[
+ n
M
1
]
Thermodynamics of Cell Potential :
We know that :
AG
0
= nF
0
cell
E
AG = nFE
cell
G = H TS
From thermodynamics H = E + PV enthalpy function.
Substituting G = E + PV TS
By partial differentiation
c G = c E + Pc V + Vc P T c S Sc T ...... (i)
according to 1
st
law of thermodynamics
E = q + W dW = PdV
c E = c q PdV
c q = c E + Pc V ...... (ii)
according to 2
nd
law
ds =
T
dq
= dq = Tds ...... (iii)
From (i), (ii) and (iii)
dG = Vc P Sc T
at constant pressure, which is actually the condition for all normall cell reaction.
dG = Sc T
S =
T
G
c
c
AS =
T
) G (
c
A c
AG = nFE
cell
"manishkumarphysics.in"
14
CHEMISTRY
AS = +nF
T
E
cell
c
c
T
E
cell
c
c
= temperature cofficient of cell reaction.
AG = AH TAS
AH = nF E
cell
+ nFT
T
E
cell
c
c
Kirchoff's equation
ACp =
T c
c
(AH)
Cp (of products) Cp (of reactants) =
T
E nF
cell
c
c
+ nFT
2
cell
2
T
E
c
c
+
T
E nF
cell
c
c
ACp = nFT
2
cell
2
T
E
c
c
Electrolysis & Electrolytic cell :
Electrolysis :
Electrolyte is a combination of cations and anions which in fused state can conduct electricity.
This is possible due to the movement of ions from which it is made of and electrolyte.
The process of using an electric current to bring about chemical change is called electrolysis.
Electrolysis is a process of oxidation and readuction due to current in the electrolyte.
The product obtained during electrolysis depends on following factors.
The nature of the electrolyte
The concentration of electrolyte
The charge density flowing during electrolysis.
The nature of the electrode
Active vs Inactive electrodes :
The metal electrodes in the cell that are active because the metals themselves are components
of the half reactions.
As the cell operates, the mass of the zinc electrode gradually decreases, and the [Zn
2+
] in the
anode half cell increases. At the same time, the mass of the copper electrode increases and
the [Cu
2+
] in the cathode half cell decreases; we say that the Cu
2+
"
plates out" on the electrode.
For many redox reactions, however, there are no reactants or products capable of serving as
electrodes. Inactive electrodes are used, most commonly rods of graphite or platinum, materials
that conduct electrons into or out of the cell but cannot take part in the half -reactions.
In a voltaic cell based on the following half reactions, for instance, the species cannot act as
electrodes :
2I

(aq)

I
2
(s) +2e

[anode ; oxidation]
MnO
4

(aq) + 8H
+
(aq) + 5e

Mn
2+
(aq) + 4H
2
O() [cathode ; reduction]
Therefore, each half cell consists of inactive electrodes immersed in an electrolyte solution that
contains all the species involved in that half -reaction. In the anode half-cell, I

ions are oxidized to solid

I
2
. The electrons released flow into the graphite anode, through the wire, and into the graphite cathode.
From there, the electrons are consumed by MnO
4

ions as they are reduced to Mn

2+
ions.
Examples of Electrolysis
Using inert (pt/graphite) electrodes.
Cathode (red) : Pb
2+
+ 2e

Pb(s) E
0
= 0.126V
Anode : 2Br
-
Br
2
+ 2e
-
E
0
= 1.08 V
E
cell
= 0.126 (0.108) x 10 = 1.206 V
E
ext
> 1.206 V
"manishkumarphysics.in"
15
CHEMISTRY
Electrolysis of CuSO
4
molten
Cathode : Cu
2+
+ 2e

Cu E
0
= +0.34 V
Anode : 2
2
4
SO S
2
2
8
O + 2e

E
0
= 2.05 V
H
2
S
2
O
8
marchall's acid peroxy disulphuric acid.
E
cell
= 0.34 (2.05) = 1.71 V (negative not feasible)
H O S S
O O
O O
O H O O
Electrolysis of aq CuSO
4
Cathode : Cu
2+
+ 2e

Cu(s) E
0
= 0.34 V
2e + 2H
2
O() H
2
(g) + 2OH

(aq) E
0
= 0.83V
Anode : 2
2
4
SO S
2
2
8
O + 2e

E
0
= 2.05 V
2H
2
O() O
2
+ 4H
+
+ 4e

E
0
= 1.23 V
Electrolysis of aq NaBr solution (initially PH = 7)
Cathode : Na
+
(aq) + e

Na(s) E
0
= 2 V
2e

+ 2H
2
O() H
2
+ 2OH

E
0
= 0.83 V
Anode : 2Br
-
Br
2
+ 2e
0
OX
E = 1.08 V
2H
2
O () O
2
+ 4H
+
+ 4e
0
OX
E = 1.23 V
Electrolysis of aq NaCl
Cathode : Na
+
+ e

Na E
0
= 2V
2e

+ 2H
2
O() H
2
(g) + 2OH
-
E
0
= 0.83 V
Anode : 2Cl

Cl
2
+ 2e
0
OX
E = 1.30 V
2H
2
O() O
2
+ 4H
+
+ 4e
0
OX
E = 1.23 V
Rate of production of Cl
2
is more than rate of production of O
2
gas.
Note : According to thermodynamics, oxidation of H
2
O to produce O
2
should take place on anode but
experimentally (experiment from chemical kinetics) the rate of oxidation of water is found to be very
slow. To increase it's rate, the greater potential difference is applied called over voltage or over potential
but because of this oxidation of Cl

ions also become feasible and this takes place on anode.

Electrolysis using attachable (reactive) electrodes.
Electrolysis of aq. CuSO
4
using Cu electrode.
Cathode (reduction) : Cu
2+
+ 2e

Cu E
0
= + 0.34 V
2H
2
O() + 2e

H
2
(g) + 2OH

E
0
= 0.83 V
Anode (oxidation) :
2
4
SO S
2
2
8
O + 2e
0
OX
E = 2.05 V
2H
2
O() O
2
+ 2H
+
+ 4e

E
0
= 1.23 V
Cu(s) Cu
2+
+ 2e E
0
= 0.34 V
electrolytic refining
AgNO
3
(aq) using Cu cathode &Ag anode.
Cathode : Ag
+
+ e

Ag(s) E
0
= 0.8 V
2H
2
O () + 2e

H
2
(g) + 2OH

E
0
= 0.083 V
Anode : NO
3

X (No reaction)
2H
2
O() O
2
+ 4H
+
+ 4e

E
0
= 1.23 V
Ag(s) Ag
+
(aq) + e

E
0
= 0.80 V
"manishkumarphysics.in"
16
CHEMISTRY
Faraday's Law of Electrolysis :
1
st
Law : The mass deposited/released/produced of any substance during electrolysis is proportional
to the amount of charge passed into the electrolyte.
W Q
W = ZQ
Z electrochemical equivalent of the substance.
Unit of Z =
coulomb
mass
= Kg/C or g/C
Z = Mass deposited when 1 C of charge is passsed into the solution.
Equivalent mass (E) : mass of any substance produced when 1 mole of e

are passed through the

solution during electrolysis.
E =
reduction / oxidation in involved e of . no
mass Molar

e.g.
Ag
+
+ e

Ag E =
1
M
Cu
2+
+ 2e
-
Cu(s) E =
2
M
Al
3+
+ 3e

Al(s) E =
3
M
1 mole of e

= 1 Faraday of charge.
96500 C Charge deposite E gram metal charge
1C
|
.
|

\
|
96500
E
g Z =
96500
E
W =
96500
EQ
=
) involved e of . no (
mass Molar
x
96500
Q
}
dQ
= i
}
dt
Q = it W =
96500
t x i
x
) involved e of . no (
mass Molar

2
nd
Law : When equal charge is passed through 2 electrolytic cells and this cells are connected in
series then mass deposited at electrode will be in the ratio of their electrochemical equivalents or in the
ratio of their equivalent masses.
W = ZQ =
96500
EQ
2
1
W
W
=
2
1
z
z
=
2
1
E
E
( Q = same)
Current Efficiency :
current efficiency =
passed e arg ch
y electricit in used actually charge
x 100
current efficiency =
produced been have should that mass
produced actually mass
x 100
"manishkumarphysics.in"
17
CHEMISTRY
Example-15 Calculate volume of the gases liberated at STP if 1 L of 0.2 molar solution of CuSO
4
is electrolysed
by 5.79Acurrent for 10000 seconds.
Solution No. of moles of e

=
96500
10000 79 . 5
=
965
579
= 0.6
Cathode : Cu
2+
+ 2e
-
Cu(s)
0.2 mole 0.4 mole
2H
2
O() + 2e

H
2
+ 2OH

0.2 mole of e

0.1 mole of H
2
at S.T.P..
Anode : 2H
2
O() O
2
+ 4H
+
+ 4e

4 mole of e

1 mole of O
2
0.6 mole of e

0.15 mole of O
2
so, total moles = 0.25 mole
Total volume = 5.6 Ltr.
Example-16 The electrochemical equivalent of copper is 0.0003296 g coulomb
1
. Calculate the amount of copper
deposited by a current of 0.5 ampere flowing through copper sulphate solution for 50 minutes.
Solution According to Faraday's first law, W = 2 It.
W = 0.5 50 60 0.003296 = 0.4944 g
Example-17 An electric current is passed through three cells connected in series containing ZnSO
4
, acidulated
water andCuSO
4
respectively. What amount of ZnandH
2
areliberated when6.25gof Cuis deposited?
Eq. wt. of Cu and Zn are 31.70 and 32.6 respectively.
Solution Eq. of Cu = Eq. of Zn = Eq. of H
2
70 . 31
25 . 6
=
6 . 32
W
Zn
=
1
W
2
H
Example-18 The cell consists of three compartments separated by porous barriers. The first contains a cobalt
electrode in 5.00 L of 0.100 M cobalt (II) nitrate; the second contains 5.00 L of 0.100 M AgNO
3
.
Assuming that the current within the cell is carried equally by the positive and negative ions, tabulate
the concentrations of ions of each type in each compartment of the cell after the passage of 0.100
mole electrons.
Given Co
2+
+ 2e

Co E = .28 V
Ag
+
+ e

Ag E = 0.80 V
Spontaneous reaction is : 2Ag
+
+ Co Co
2+
+ 2Ag E = 1.08 V
Solution In the left compartment. cobalt will be oxidized to cobalt (II) ion. In the right compartment, silver ion
will be reduced to silver. The passage of 0.100 mol electrons will cause the following quantities of
change.
Compartment 1 Compartment 2 Compartment 3
Effect of electrode + 0.0500 mol Co
3+
0.100 mol Ag
+
Positive ion movement 0.0250 mol Co
2+
+ 0.0250 mol Co
2+
+ 0.0500 mol K
+
0.0500 mol K
+
Negative ion movement + 0.0500 mol NO
3

0.0500 mol NO
3

Changing the numbers of mol to concentrators in 5.0 L compartments and adding or subtracting
yields the following results :
Final concentrations (M) Co
2+
0.015 Co
2+
0.00500Ag
+
0.0800
NO
3

0.210 K
+
0.090 NO
3

0.0900
NO
3

0.100 K
+
0.0100
Co Ag
0.20 M NO
3

0.10 M Co
2+
0.10 M NO
3

0.10 M K
+
0.10 M NO
3

0.10 M Ag
+
5.0 L 5.0 L 5.0 L
"manishkumarphysics.in"
18
CHEMISTRY
Electrolytic Conductance :
1. Charge carries are e

1. Charge carries ions (cations/ anions)

2. No chemical changes 2. Decomposition of electrolyte takes place.
3. No transfer of mass 3. Transfer of mass
4. Resistance is because of
collision of s with fixed e

metal atoms.
4. Resistance is because of collision
of ions with solvent molecules & because
of interionic force of attraction
n
5. Temp
6. Low resistance generally
good conductor.
6. High resistance generally
5. Temp R
R
Conductors
Metallic Conductors Electrolytic Conductors
|
|
|
+
Factors Affecting Conductance & Resistance :
1. Solute Solute interactions (Inter Ionic force of attraction) Greater the force of attraction,
greater will be the resistance.
Force Charge
2. Solute Solvent Interaction (Hydration/Solvation of Ions)
Greater the solvation
Solvation Charge
size
1
greater will be resistance
Li
+
(Hydrated largest) Cs
+
(Hydrated smallest)
resistance of LiCl > resistance of CsCl
3. Solvent solvent interaction (Viscosity) : greater the viscosity greater will be resistance
4. Temperature
T
|
R
+
5. Nature of electrolyte
Weak electrolyte high resistance strong electrolyte Low resistance
Resistance :
R =
I
V
(Ohm's law (
O
))
R =
A

resistivity/specific resistance
resistance of unit length wire of unit area of cross section = constant = (
O
m)

RA
Resistivity of a solution is defined as the resistance of the solution between two electrodes of 1 cm
2
area of cross section and 1 cm apart.
or
Resistance of 1 cm
3
of solution will be it's resistivity.
Conductance :
=
R
1
= mho =
O
1
= S (Siemens)
"manishkumarphysics.in"
19
CHEMISTRY
Conductivity/specific conductance
K =

1
=
RA

=
A

unit
O
1
cm
1
= conductivity of 1 cm
3
of solution
o concentration of ions
K =

1
G =
R
1
K ( no. of ions) no. of charge carries
Since conductivity or resistivity of the solution is dependent on it's concentration, so two more
type of conductivities are defined for the solution.
Molar conductivity/molar conductance (
m
) :
Conductance of a solution containing 1 mole of an electrolyte between 2 electrodes which are 1cm
apart.
Let the molarity of the solution 'C'
C moles of electrolyte are present in 1 Lt. of solution.
so molar conductance = K

m
= KV
m
=
C
1000 K

m
=
molarity
1000 K
Its units are Ohm
1
cm
2
mol
1
Equivalent conductance : Conductivity of a solution containing 1 g equivalent of the electrolyte.

eq
equivalent conductivity/conduction.

eq
=
Normality
1000 K
Its units are Ohm
1
cm
2
eq
1
Ionic Mobility
Ionic Mobility = speed of the ion per unit electrical field
=
field electrical
speed
=
gradient potential
speed
Its units are v
1
cm
2
sec
1
Ionic mobility = u =
96500
0
M

=
F
0
M

Transport Number
Transport Number of any ion is fraction of total current carried by that ion.
Transport Number of cation =
e electrolyt
0
M
0
M

Example-19 If resistivity of 0.8 M KCl solution is 2.5 x 10
3
O
cm calculate
m
of the solution.
Solution = 2.5 x 10
3
O
cm
K =
5 . 2
10
3
= 4 x 10
2

m
=
8 . 0
10 1000 10 4
2

= 5 x 10
5
O
1
cm
2
mole
1
"manishkumarphysics.in"
20
CHEMISTRY
Variation of conductivity and molar conductivity with concentration
Conductivity always decreases with the decrease in concentration both for weak and strong
electrolytes.
The number of ions per unit volume that carry the current in a solution decreases on dilution.
Molar conductivity increases with decreases in concentration. This is because the total volume,
V of solution containing one mole of electrolyte also increases.
Molar conductivity is the conductance of solution.
When concentration approaches zero, the molar conductivity is known as limiting molar
conductivity and is represented by the symbol
A
.
Strong Electrolytes :
For strong electrolytes.
A
increses slowly with dilution and can be represented by the equation
A
=
A
A CC
1/2
The value of the constant 'A' for a given slovent and temperature depends on the type of electrolyte
i.e. the charges on the cations and anion produced on the dissociation of the electrolyte in the
solution.
Example : Thus NaCl, CaCl
2
, MgSO
4
are known as 1-1 , 2-1 and 2-2 electrolyte respectively.
All electrolytes of a particular type have the same value for 'A'.
Weak electrolytes
Weak electrolytes like acetic acid have lower degree of dissociation at higher concentration and hence
for such electrolytes, the change in
A
with dilution is due to increases in the number of ions in total
volume of solution that contains 1 mol of electrolyte.
At infinite dilution (i.e. concentration c zero) electrolyte dissociates
completely (o = 1),but at such low concentration the conductivity of
the solution is so low that it connot be measured accurately.
Molar conductivity versus c
1/2
for acetic acid
(weak electrolyte) and potassium chloride
(strong electrolyte in aqueous solutions.
Kohlarausch's Law :
"At infinite dilution, when dissociation is complete, each ion makes a definite contribution towards
equivalent conductance of the electrolyte irrespective of the nature of the ion with which it is associated
and the value of equivalent conductance at infinite dilution for any electrolyte is the sum of contribution
of its constituent ions."
i.e.,

=
+
+

At infinite dilution or near zero concentration when dissociation is 100%, each ion makes a definite
contribution towards molar conductivity of electrolyte irrespective of the nature of the other ion. (because
interionic forces of attraction are zero)
"manishkumarphysics.in"
21
CHEMISTRY

0
m electrolyte
=
+
v
0
m
+

v
0
m

+
v
= no. of cation in one formula unit of electrolyte

v
= no. of anions in one formula unit of electrolyte
For NaCl
+
v = 1

v = 1
For Al
2
(SO
4
)
3 +
v = 2

v = 3
0
eq

electrolyte
=

+

eq
+

eq
0
eq+
=
cation the on e arg ch
0
m

0
eq
.Al
3+
=
3
Al
3 0
m
+

0
eq
=
anion the on e arg ch
0
m

0
eq
, electrolyte =
anion on e arg ch ve total
or
cation on e arg ch ve total
e electrolyt
0
m

0
eq
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
=
0
eq
Al
3+
+
0
eq

2
4
SO =
3
Al
3 0
m
+

+
2
SO
2
4
0
m

0
eq
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
=
6
SO 3 2
2
4
0
mAl
3

+ +
Example-20
0
m
Na
+
= 150 O
1
cm
2
mole
1
;
0
eq
Ba
2+
= 100 O
1
cm
2
eq
1
0
eq

2
4
SO = 125 O
-1
cm
2
eq
1 ; 0
m
Al
3+
= 300 O
1
cm
2
mole
1
0
m

+
4
NH = 200 O
1
cm
2
mole
1 ; 0
m
, Cl

= 150 O
1
cm
2
mole
1
Then calculate
(a)
0
eq
, Al
3+
(b)
0
eq
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
(c)
0
m
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4
(d)
0
m
NaCl, BaCl
2
. 6H
2
O (e)
0
m
, (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
. 24H
2
O (f)
0
eq
NaCl
Solution (a)
0
eq
Al
3+
=
3
300
= 100 (b)
0
eq
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
= 100 + 125 = 225
(c)
0
m
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4
= 2 x 200 + 2 x 125 = 650
(d)
0
m
NaCl.BaCl
2
.6H
2
O = 150 + 200 + 3 x 150 = 800 r
1
(e)
0
m
, (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
. 24H
2
O
0
m
(NH
4
)
2
= 400 + 600 + 4 x 250 = 2000
(f)
0
eq
NaCl = 300 O
1
cm
2
eq
1
Example-21 To calculate
0
m
or
0
eq
of weak electrolyte
0
COOH mCH
3
=
0
COO mCH
3

+
0
m
H
+
= (
0
COO mCH
3

+
0
mNa
+ )
0
mNa
+ +
0
mH
+ +
0
mCl
+
0
mCl

0
COOH CH
3
=
0
COONa mCH
3
+
0
mHCl

0
mNaCl

"manishkumarphysics.in"
22
CHEMISTRY
Example-22 Calculate
0
m
of oxalic acid, given that
0
eq
Na
2
C
2
O
4
= 400 O
1
cm
2
eq
1
0
m
H
2
SO
4
= 700 O
1
cm
2
mole
1
0
eq
Na
2
SO
4
= 450 O
1
cm
2
eq
1
Solution
0
m
H
2
C
2
O
4
= 700 + 800 900 = 600 O
1
cm
2
mole
0
eq
= 400 +
2
700
450
2
m

= 350 50 = 300
m
= 600
Applications of Kohlaraushch's law
Calculate
A
for any electrolyte from the
A
of individual ions.
Determine the value of its dissociation constant once we known the
A
and
A
at a given concentration c.
Degree of dissociation : At greater dilution the ionization become 100%, therefore called infinite dilution.
At lower dilution the ionization (dissociation into ions) is less than 100% and equivalent conductance
become lower,
i.e.,
eq
<
eq
degree of dissociation
o = 0
eq
eq

=
dilution inite inf at at ce tan conduc equivalent
ion concentrat given a at ce tan conduc equivalent
Dissociation constant of weak electrolyte :
K
C
=
o
o
1
C
2
; o = degree of dissociation
C = concentration
The degree of dissociation then it can be approximated to the ratio of molar conductivity
c
A at the
concentration c to limiting molar conductivity,
A
, Thus we have :
o =
A
/
A
But we known that for a weak electrolyte like acetic acid.
K
a
=
) 1 (
C
2
o
o
=
( ) A A A
A
/ 1
c
2
=
( ) A A A
A
2
c
Solubility(s) and K
SP
of any sparingly soluble salt.
Sparingly soluble salt = Very small solubility
Solubility = molarity = 0
so, solution can be considered to be of zero conc or infinite dilution.

m
, saturated =

M
=
ility lub So
1000 K
S = 0
M
1000 K

K
SP
= S
2
Example-23 If conductivity of water used to make saturated solution of AgCl is found to be 3.1 x 10
5
O
1
cm
1
and conductance of the solution of AgCl = 4.5 x 10
5
O
1
cm
1
If
0
M
AgNO
3
= 200 O
1
cm
2
mole
1
0
M
NaNO
3
= 310 O
1
cm
2
mole
1
calculate K
SP
of AgCl
"manishkumarphysics.in"
23
CHEMISTRY
Solution
0
M
AgCl = 140
Total conductance = 10
5
S =
140
1000 10 4 140
5


=
14
10 4 . 1
4

S = 5.4 x 10
4
S
2
= 1 x 10
8
Example-24 To calculate K
W
of water
H
2
O() + H
2
O() H
2
O
+
(aq) + OH

(aq)
m
=
0
O H , M
2
=
0
M
H
+
+
0
M
OH

=
molarity
1000 K
- Concentration of water molecules 100% dissociated Ask
molarity = [H
+
] = [OH

] =

M
1000 K
K
W
= [H
+
][OH

] =
2
0
M
1000 K
(
(

K
a
or K
b
=
O H
] OH ][ H [
2
+
Variation of K,
m
&
eq
of solutions with Dilution
K conc. of ions in the solution. In case of both strong and weak electrolytes on dilution the concentration
of ions will decrease hence K will decrease.

m
or
eq
(K C) strong electrolyte

m
=
normality
K 1000
(K c K
a
) weak electrol.

eq
=
normality
K 1000
For strong electrolyte

m

C
K

C
C
= constant
For weak electrolyte

m

C
K

C
c K
a

C
1
Some Primary Cells
Primary cells : These cells can not be recharge dry cell (lechlanche cells)
mercury cells (miniature cell used in ethes electronic devices)
E
cell
= constant
as all substances used are either pure solids or pure liquids.
Secondary cells : Lead storage batteries used is automobiles (Cars/bikes)
Anode : Pb(s)
Cathode : PbO
2
(s)
H
2
SO
4
(conc.) about 38% sollution of H
2
SO
4
is taken.
Anode : Pb(s) Pb
2+
(aq) + 2e

Pb
2+
(aq) +
2
4
SO (aq) PbSO
4
(s)
Pb(s) +
2
4
SO (aq) PbSO
4
+ 2e

most of the PbSO

4
(s) ppt sticks to the lead rod.
"manishkumarphysics.in"
24
CHEMISTRY
Cathode : 2e

+ 4H
+
+ PbO
2
(s) Pb
2+
(aq) + 2H
2
O()
Pb
2+
(aq) +
2
4
SO (aq) +4H
+
+ 2e

PbSO
4
(s) + 2H
2
O()
PbSO
4
(s) sticks to cathode rod.
Pb(s) + PbO
2
+ 4H
+
+ 2
2
4
SO (aq) 2PbSO
4
(s) + 2H
2
O()
E
cell
= 2.05 V
Note : During the working of the cell discharge H
2
SO
4
will be consumed so it's concentration in the solution
hence density of the solution will decrease during charging of the cell PbSO
4
will get converted into
Pb(s) and, PbO
2
(s) and H
2
SO
4
will be produced.
Nickel cadmium battery.
E
cell =
constant as cell reaction has pure solide/liquids only.
Anode : Cd(s)
Cathode : NiO
2
(s)
electrolyte : KOH
Cd + 2OH

Cd(OH)
2
+ 2e

2e

+ NiO
2
+ 2H
2
O Ni(OH)
2
(s) + 2OH

Cd(s) + NiO
2
(s) + 2H
2
O() Cd(OH)
2
(s) + Ni(OH)
2
(s)
Fuel cells (H
2
O
2
cell) :
Anode : H
2
2H
+
+ 2e

x 2
Cathod: 4e

+ 4H
+
+ O
2
2H
2
O

2H
2
+ O
2
2H
2
O()

CH
4
O
2
fuel cells :
Anode : 2H
2
O + CH
4
CO
2
+ 8H
+
+8 e

Cathod : 4e

+ 4H
+
+ O
2
2H
2
O

CH
4
+ 2O
2
CO
2
+ 2H
2
O()
Mechanism of corrosion
Oxidation : Fe(s) Fe
2+
(aq) + 2e

Reduction : 2O
2
(g) + 4H
+
(aq) 2H
2
O(I)
Atomospheric
oxidation : 2Fe
2+
(aq) + 2H
2
O(l) + 1/2O
2
Fe
2
O
3
(s) + 4H
+
(aq)
Example-25 During the discharge of a lead storage battery the density of H
2
SO
4
falls from
1
g/cc to
2
g/
C, H
2
SO
4
of density of
1
g/C. C is X% by weight and that of density of
2
g/c.c is Y% by
weight. The battery holds V litre of acid before discharging. Calculate the total charge released
at anode of the battery. The reactions occurring during discharging are.
At anode : Pb +
2
4
SO PbSO
4
+ 2e

At cathode : PbO
2
+ 4H
+
+ SO
4
2
+2e

PbSO
4
+ 2H
2
O
"manishkumarphysics.in"
25
CHEMISTRY
Solution Mass of acid solution before discharge of lead storage battery (LSB) = (V x 10
3
x
1
) g
= (1000 x V
1
)g
Mass of H
2
SO
4
before discharge of LSB =
|
.
|

\
|

100
X
V 1000
1 g = (10 x V
1
X)g
Net reaction during discharging : Pb + PbO
2
+ 2H
2
SO
4
PbSO
4
+ 2H
2
O
From the reaction, it is evident that the moles of electron exchanged (lost at anode and gain at
cathode) is equal to the moles of H
2
SO
4
consumed or moles of H
2
O produced. Let the moles of
H
2
SO
4
produced be x, then
Mass of H
2
O produced during discharge of LSB = (18x) g
Mass of H
2
SO
4
consumed during discharge of LSB = (98x) g
Mass of H
2
SO
4
after discharge of LSB = [(10
1
V X)] 98x] g
Mass of acid solution after discharge of LSB = [(1000
1
V ) 98x + 18x] = [(1000
1
V ) 80x]g
% of H
2
SO
4
after discharge of LSB =
e arg disch after solution acid of Mass
e arg disch after SO H of Mass
4 2
100
Y =
] x 80 ) V 1000 [(
] x 98 ) V 1000 [(
1
1


x 100 x can be calculated as all other quantities are known.
Total charge released at cathode, Q = nF = xF..
Example-26 A lead storage cell is discharged which causes the H
2
SO
4
electrolyte to change from a
concentration of 34.6% by weight (density 1.261 g ml
1
at 25C) to one of 27% by weight. The
original volume of electrolyte is one litre. Calculate the total charge released at anode of the
battery. Note that the water is produced by the cell reaction as H
2
SO
4
is used up. Over all
reaction is.
Pb(s) + PbO
2
(s) + 2H
2
SO
4
() 2PbSO
4
(s) +2H
2
O()
Solution Before the discharge of lead storage battery,
Mass of solution = 1000 x 1.261 = 1261 g
Mass of H
2
SO
4
=
100
6 . 34 1261
= 436.3 g.
Mass of water = 1261 436.3 = 824.7 g
After the discharge of lead storage battery,
Let the mass of H
2
O produce as a result of net reaction during discharge
(Pb + PbO
2
+ 2H
2
SO
4
2PbSO
4
+ 2H
2
O) is x g
Moles of H
2
O produced =
18
x
= moles of H
2
SO
4
consumed
Mass of H
2
SO
4
consumed =
18
x
x 98
Now, mass of solution after discharge = 1261
18
x 98
+ x
% by the mass of H
2
SO
4
after discharge =
e arg disch after solution of Mass
left SO H of Mass
4 2
x 100 = 27
=
x
18
x 98
1261
18
x 98
3 . 436
+

x 100 = 27 x = 22.59 g
"manishkumarphysics.in"
26
CHEMISTRY
Summary
Electrochemistry is the area of chemistry concerned with the interconversion of chemical and electrical
energy. Chemical energy is converted to electrical energy in a galvanic cell, a device in which a spontaneous
redox reaction is used to produce an electric current. Electrical energy is converted to chemical energy in an
electrolytic cell, a cell in which an electric current drives a nonspontaneous reaction. Its convenient and
reduction occur at separate electrodes.
The electrode at which oxidation occurs is called the anode, and the electrode at which reduction occurs is
called the cathode. The cell potential E (also called the cell voltage or electromotive force is an electrical
measure of the driving force of the cell reaction. Cell potentials depend on temperature, ion concentrations,
and gas pressure. The standard cell are in their standard states. Cell potentials are related to free-energy
changes by the equations AG = nFE and A G
0
= nFE
0
, where F = 96,500 C/mol e

is the faraday, the

charge on 1 mol of electrons.
The standard reduction potential for the a half-reaction is defined relative to an arbitrary value of 0 V for the
standard hydrogen electrode (S.H.E.):
2H
+
(aq, 1 M ) + 2 e

H
2
(g, 1 atm) E
0
= 0V
Tables of standard reduction potentials--- are used to arrange oxidizing and reducing agents in order of
increasing strength, to calculate E
0
values for cell reactions, and to decide whether a particular redox reaction
is spontaneous.
Cell potential under nonstandard-state conditions can be calculated using the Nernst equation,
E = E
0
Q log
n
V 0592 . 0
in volts, at 25
0
C
where Qis the reaction quotient. The equilibrium constant K and the standard cell potential E
0
are related by
the equation
E
0
= K log
n
0592 . 0
in volts, at 25
0
C
A battery consists of one or more galvanic cells. A fuel cell differs from a battery in that the reactants are
continuously supplied to the cell. Corrosion of iron (rusting) is an electrochemical process surface and
oxygen is reduced in a cathode region. Corrosion can be prevented by covering iron with another metal, such
as zinc, in the process called galvanizing, or simply by putting the iron in electrical contact with a second
metal that is more easily oxidized, a process called cathodic protection.
Electrolysis, the process of using an electric current to bring about chemical change, is emploged to
produce sodium, chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and aluminum ( Hall-Heroult process) and is used in
electrorefining and electroplating. The product obtained at an electrode depends on the reduction potentials
and overvoltage. The amount of product obtained is related to the number of moles of electrons passed
through the cell, which depends on the current and the time that the current flows.
"manishkumarphysics.in"
27
CHEMISTRY
E = E
n
0592 .
log
) ts tan ac (Re
) oducts (Pr
E = E
n
0592 .
log
) ion concentrat ion Cathodic (
) ion concentrat ion Anodic (
"manishkumarphysics.in"
28
CHEMISTRY
MISCELLANEOUSSOLVEDPROBLEMS(MSPs)
1. Na-amalgam is prepared by electrolysis of NaCl solution using liquid Hg as cathode. How long should
the current of 10 amp. is passed to produce 10% Na Hg on a cathode of 10 gm Hg. (atomic mass of
Na = 23).
(A) 7.77 min (B) 9.44 min. (C) 5.24 min. (D) 11.39 min.
Sol. (A)
90 gm Hg has 10 gm Na
10 gm Hg =
10 x
90
10
=
9
10
gm Na
weight of Na =
n
M
x
96500
t x i
9
10
=
1
23
x
96500
t x 10
[ Na
+
+ e Na]
t =
23 x 10 x 9
96500 x 10
= 7.77 min
2. We have taken a saturated solution of AgBr. K
sp
of AgBr is 12 10
14
. If 10
7
mole of AgNO
3
are added
to 1 litre of this solution then the conductivity of this solution in terms of 10
7
Sm
1
units will be
[Given

) Ag (
+

= 4 10
3
Sm
2
mol
1

) Br (

= 6 10
3
S m
2
mol
1
,

) NO (
3

= 5 10
3
Sm
2
mol
1
]
(A) 39 (B) 55 (C) 15 (D) 41
Sol. (A)
The solubility of AgBr in presence of 10
7
molar AgNO
3
is 3 10
7
M.
Therefore [Br

] = 3 10
4
m
3
, [Ag
+
] = 4 10
4
m
3
and [NO
3

] = 10
4
m
3
Therefore k
total
=
k
Br
+ +
k
Ag
+
k
3
NO
= 39 Sm
1
3. Ahydrogen electrode Xwas placed in a buffer solution of sodiumacetate and acetic acid in the ratio a : b and
another hydrogen electrode Y was placed in a buffer solution of sodium acetate and acetic acid in the ratio
b : a. If reduction potential values for two cells are found to be E
1
and E
2
respectively w.r.t. standard hydrogen
electrode, the pK
a
value of the acid can be given as
(A)
118 . 0
E E
2 1

(B)
118 . 0
E E
2 1
+
(C)
118 . 0
E
E
2
1

(D)
118 . 0
E E
1 2

Sol. (B)
H
+
+ e

2
1
H
2
(g)
E
1
= 0 .0591 log
1
) H (
1
+
E
1
= 0 + .0591 log [H
+
]
1
= .0591 pH
1
E
2
= .0591 pH
2
pH
1
= pk
a
+ log
Acid
Salt
pH
1
= pk
a
+ log
b
a
.............. (1)
pH
2
= pk
a
+ log
a
b
pH
2
= pk
a
log
b
a
.............. (2)
Add (1) & (2)
pH
1
+ pH
2
= 2 pk
a
2pk
a
=
0591 . 0
E
0591 . 0
E
2 1

pk
a
= (

+
118 . 0
E E
2 1
"manishkumarphysics.in"
29
CHEMISTRY
4 At what
] CO [
] Br [
2
3

does the following cell have its reaction at equilibrium?

Ag(s) |Ag
2
CO
3
(s) | Na
2
CO
3
(aq)|| KBr(aq)|AgBr(s) |Ag(s)
K
SP
= 8 10
12
for Ag
2
CO
3
and K
SP
= 4 10
13
for AgBr
(A) 1 10
7
(B) 2 10
7
(C) 3 10
7
(D) 4 10
7
Sol. (B)
anode : Ag(s)

Ag
+
(aq) + 1e

cathode : Ag
+
(aq) + 1e

Ag

net :
+
) AgBr (
Ag


e 1
+
) CO Ag (
3 2
Ag
0 = 0 +
1
059 . 0
log
] CO [
CO Ag K
] Br [
AgBr K
2
3
3 2 SP
SP

|
|
.
|

\
|

] Br [
AgBr K
SP

=
] CO [
CO Ag K
2
3
3 2 SP

12
13
10 8
10 4

=
] CO [
] Br [
2
3

] CO [
] Br [
2
3

=
2
10
7
5. A resistance of 50O is registered when two electrodes are suspended into a
beaker containing a dilute solution of a strong electrolyte such that exactly half
of the themare submerged into solution. If the solution is diluted by adding pure
water (negligible conductivity) so as to just completely submerge the electrodes,
the newresistance offered by the solution would be
(A) 50 O (B) 100 O (C) 25 O (D) 200 O
Sol. (A)
R =
A k
1
The k is halved while theAis doubled. Hence Rremains 50 O.
6. Calculate the cell EMF in mV for
Pt | H
2
(1atm) | HCl (0.01 M) ||AgCl(s) |Ag(s) at 298 K
if AG
f
values are at 25C
109.56
mol
kJ
for AgCl(s) and
130.79
mol
kJ
for (H
+
+ Cl

) (aq)
(A) 456 mV (B) 654 mV (C) 546 mV (D) None of these
Sol. (A)
0
reaction cell
G A = 2 ( 130.79) 2 ( 109.56)
= 42.46 kJ/mole
(for H
2
+ 2AgCl

2Ag + 2H
+
+ 2Cl

0
cell
E =
96500 2
42460


= + 0.220 V
Now E
cell
= + 0.220 +
2
059 . 0
log
4
) 01 . 0 (
1
= 0.456 V = 456 mV..
"manishkumarphysics.in"
30
CHEMISTRY
7. Consider the cell Ag(s)|AgBr(s)|Br

(aq)||AgCl(s) | Cl

(aq)| Ag(s) at 25 C . The solubility product constants
of AgBr & AgCl are respectively 5 x 10
13
& 1 x 10
10
. For what ratio of the concentrations of Br

& Cl

ions would the emf of the cell be zero ?

(A) 1 : 200 (B) 1 : 100 (C) 1 : 500 (D) 200 : 1
Sol. (A)
0
Ag AgBr Br
E =
0
Ag Ag
E + +
1
059 . 0
log K
SP
AgBr =
0
Ag Ag
E + 0.7257
and
0
Ag AgCl Cl
E =
0
Ag Ag
E + +
1
059 . 0
log K
SP
AgCl =
0
Ag Ag
E + 0.59
Now cell reaction is
Ag + Br

AgBr + 1e

AgCl + 1e

Ag + Cl

Br

+ AgCl

e 1
Cl

+ AgBr
0 = (0.7257-0.59) +
1
059 . 0
log
] Cl [
] Br [

] Cl [
] Br [

= 0.005
8. The conductivity of a solution may be taken to be directly proportional to the total concentration of the
charge carries (ions) present in it in many cases. Using the above find the percent decrease in conductivity
(k) of a solution of a weak monoacidic base BOH when its 0.1 M solution is diluted to double its original
volume. (K
b
= 10
5
for BOH)( take
50
= 7.07) (Mark the answer to nearest integer)
Sol. Initially [OH

] =
1 . 0 10
5

= 10
3
[ions]
total
= 2 10
3
M
later [OH

] =
20
1
10
5

=
50
10
4
M
[ions]
total
=
50 2
10
4
M
% change on [ions]
total
=
20
20 50 2
100 = 29.29%
Ans. 29
9. At 0.04 M concentration the molar conductivity of a solution of a electrolyte is 5000 O
1
cm
2
mol
1
while at
0.01 M concentration the value is 5100 O
1
cm
2
mol
1
. Making necessary assumption (Taking it as strong
electrolyte) find the molar conductivity at infinite dilution and also determine the degree of dissociation of
strong electrolyte at 0.04 M.
Sol.
From the graph we can see the

M
value of 5200 O
1
cm
2
mol
1
. Hence
o =
5200
5000
= 0.9615 ~ 0.96
Ans. 96