MACHINE VISION

Machine vision can be defined as the acquisition of image data, followed by the processing and interpretation of these
data by computer for some useful application. Machine vision (also called computer ,islon, since a digital computer is
required to process the image data) is a rapidly growing technology, with its principal applications in industrial
inspection. In Ihis section, we examine how machine vision works and its applications in QC inspection and other areas.
Vision systems are classified as being either 2-D or 3-D. Two-dimensional systems view the scene as a 2-D image. This is
quite adequate for most industrial applications, since many situations involve a 2-D scene, Examples include dimensional
measuring and gaging, verifying the presence of components. and checking for features on a flat (or semiflat) surface.
Other applications require 3Danalysis of the scene, and 3-D vision systems are required for this purpose. The operation
of a machine vision system can be divided into the following three functions: (1) image acquisition and digitization. (2)
image processing and analysis, and (3) interpretation. These functions and their relationships are illustrated
schematically in Figure 23.10
















Types of CMMs
The ANSI/ASME B89 standard formally
classifies CMMs into ten different types
based on design. All ten types employ
three axes of measurement along
mutually perpendicular guideways. They
differ in the arrangement of the three movable components, the direction in which they move, and which one of them
carries the probe, as well as where the workpiece is attached or mounted. However, among the many different designs of
CMMs, each with its own strengths, weaknesses, and applications, there are only two fundamental types: vertical and
horizontal. They are classified as such by the axis on which the probe is mounted and moves. The ANSI/ASME B89
Performance Standard classifies coordinate measuring
machines as:
Vertical Horizontal
Fixed-table cantilever Moving ram, horizontal arm
Moving-table cantilever Moving table, horizontal arm
Moving bridge Fixed table, horizontal arm
Fixed bridge
L-shaped bridge
Column
Gantry
In addition, the two types of machine can be characterized to some degree by the levels of accuracy they each achieve
(although there is a considerable degree of overlap based on the design of an individual machine), by the size of part they
can handle, and by application. The prospective buyer/user of a CMM cannot make an intelligent choice of the type of
machine that will best meet his needs, let alone the specific make and model of CMM, until he thoroughly evaluates and
plans both the specific intended application of the CMM and the overall manufacturing and quality context in which it
will operate.
Cantilever-type CMMs employ three movable components moving along mutually perpendicular guideways. The
probe is attached to the first component, which moves vertically (z-direction) relative to the second. The second
component moves horizontally (y-direction) relative to the third. The third component is supported at one end only,
cantilever fashion, and moves horizontally (x-direction) relative to the machine base. The workpiece is supported on the
worktable. A typical machine of this configuration is shown in Fig. 2(a). A modification of the fixed-table cantilever
configuration is the moving-table cantilever CMM shown in Fig. 2(b).



Bridge-type CMMs employ three movable components moving along mutually perpendicular guideways. The probe
isattached to the first component, which moves vertically (z-direction) relative to the second. The second component
moves horizontally (y-direction) relative to the third. The third component is supported on two legs that reach down to
opposite sides of the machine base, and it moves horizontally (x-direction) relative to the base. The workpiece is
supported on the base.
The fixed-bridge configuration (Fig. 3b) provides a very rigid structure and allows a relatively light moving x-z
structure that can achieve fast x-z moves. The moving table in larger machines can become massive, with decreased
throughput capability. The influence of part weight on accuracy becomes a consideration for large parts.
L-Shaped Bridge. Another modification of the bridge configuration has two bridge-shaped components (Fig. 3c).
One of these bridges is fixed at each end to the machine base. The other bridge, which is an inverted L-shape, moves
horizontally (x-direction) on guideways in the fixed bridge and machine base.
The column CMM goes one step further than the fixed bridge in providing a very rigid z-axis configuration, and a
two axis saddle that allows movement in the horizontal (x-y) directions (Fig. 6). High accuracy can be achieved with this
design. As in the fixed-bridge configuration, however, part mass and table considerations can restrict measuring volume
and speed.
Gantry CMMs employ three movable components moving along mutually perpendicular guideways (Fig. 7). The
probe is attached to the probe quill, which moves vertically (z-direction) relative to a crossbeam. The probe quill is
mounted in a carriage that moves horizontally (y-direction) along the crossbeam. The crossbeam is supported and moves
in the xdirection along two elevated rails, which are supported by columns attached to the floor.



Horizontal-Arm CMMs. Several different types of horizontal-arm CMMs are available. As with all CMMs, the
horizontal-arm configuration employs three movable components moving along mutually perpendicular guideways.
Horizontal-arm CMMs are used to inspect the dimensional and geometric accuracy of a broad spectrum of machined or
fabricated workpieces. Utilizing an electronic probe, these machines check parts in a mode similar to the way they are
machined on horizontal machine tools. They are especially suited for measuring large gearcases and engine blocks, for
which high-precision bore alignment and geometry measurements are required. Four-axis capability can be obtained by
incorporating a rotary table. Horizontal arms for large machines have a lower profile than vertical arms. For some
applications, horizontal access is desirable. For others, it is restrictive and a rotary table is usually required, thus
increasing the cost.
Moving-Ram Type. In this design, the probe is attached to the horizontal arm, which moves in a horizontal y-
direction (Fig. 8a). The ram is encased in a carriage that moves in a vertical (z) direction and is supported on a column that
moves horizontally (x-direction) relative to the base.

Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy is defined as, "The ability of a measurement to match the actual value of the quantity being measured".
Precision is defined as, "(1) The ability of a measurement to be consistently reproduced" and "(2) The number of
significant digits to which a value has been reliably measured".
Accuracy in measurement describes how closely the measurement from your system matches the actual or true
measurement of the thing being measured. It is the difference between the observed average of measurements and the true
average.
Precision in measurement describes how well a measurement system will return the same measure; that is
its Repeatability. As the targets above show, it is important to be both Accurate and Precise if you are to get useable
information from your measurement system. But the repeatability has two components- that of the measurement system
(gage) itself and that of the operator(s). Differences resulting from different operators using the same measurement
device- this is called Reproducibility.




Use of Computers in the Field of Metrology.
In the field of metrology computer can be used for (i) controlling the function of a piece of measuring
equipment (for which the movements of the measuring instrument machine have to be motorised) and (ii)
processing the output of the measurement process. Most manufaturers of measuring machines suitable for
computer control offer a specific computer, and a range of general purpose software to cater for all the
functions andcapabilities of the machine. In these machines the measuring system is linked to the
movement of motors in such a way that the movement will come to a halt in a precise predetermined position.
The operation may be either fully automatic, (entirely unattended) which when once initiated, will run the
machine till the task is complete or be semi-automatic. In automatic process, hundreds of readings may be
taken, processed, analysed andhard copy results produced. Universal probes are used to carry out
automatic inspection. In the semi-automatic operation, operator intervention is required at different
stages and thus operation stops at different stages for operator to note and analyse and give command for
further operation to continue.
The software for computer may be either written by the user, which is usually a difficult task, or be supplied by
the manufacturer, or the computer be programmed to compile an operating program from the procedure used
when a sample component is being measured manually. In the last technique, the procedure followed whilst
measuring the sample will be automatically followed for subsequent components. The application of using
computer for processing the output of measuring instruments is unlimited. Nowadays micrometer screw
gauges, vernier calipers, height gauges, etc. are available so that they can produce output in digitised form
which can be fed into computers. A hand held computer is connected to these devices to store and process
the inputs it collects from measuring instruments. It can also feed its contents into the large capacity central
computer. The central computer can thus be fed with large quantities of data from different inspection
locations in the plant andanalyses them collectively. The output, after analysing, can be presented as numerical
tabulations, or in a variety of graphical forms, or as three dimension represenation of complex profiles so that
same surface is visible on CRT screen as would be viewed from all the corners.