1

NOTES ON RESEARCH METHODS

Michael Wood (email: michael.wood@port.ac.uk )
Portsmouth University Business School, anuary !""#
These notes are at http://userweb.port.ac.uk/~woodm/rm/norm.doc
Contents
Introduction to research methodology
Strate$ies %or research pro&ects
Research aims or !uestions "
#eneral issues concerning research$ %hiloso%hy& etc '
Understandin$ the present, predictin$ the %uture, and improvin$ the %uture
Positivism and phenomenolo$y, and similar distinctions
'he de$ree o% $enerality
'heories: (uildin$, testin$, amendin$, usin$
(olitics and ethics )
Research design )
)mpirical methods
Surveys
)*periments and +uasi,e*periments
-ase studies and small sample research
.ction research
/odellin$
. $eneral desi$n %or a typical /asters de$ree pro&ect
0inkin$ methods to research aims or +uestions
Data collection methods "
1nterviews
2uestionnaires
Samplin$
Trust*orthiness +
3alidity
4elia(ility
5(&ectivity
'rian$ulation
Statistical hypothesis tests
Data analysis )
'ypes o% measurement
-omputer so%tware
Writing the re%ort ,
'he critical attitude
Pu(lishin$ your research
Chec-list *hen starting a %ro.ect /// and 0inishing it "1
Re0erences "1
A%%endices ""
. note on 6theory6
)*ample to show analysis o% +uestionnaire data
Introduction to research methodology
'his is an area where there is considera(le disa$reement on the de%inition o% concepts, and what is
!
ri$ht and wron$. .ccordin$ly you should read widely and critically7 never assume that you need
to accept every concept and every assertion. 8ou will pro(a(ly (e a(le to %ind an e*ception to
every rule (see 9eyera(end, 1:;<, %or an e*treme version o% this principle).
'hese notes are intended as a (rie% overview o% the main issues. 1t is important that you
read in more depth on the speci%ic issues o% particular concern to you. 9or e*ample, i% you intend
to conduct some interviews or a +uestionnaire survey, it is important that you consult a suita(le
source o% $uidance on surveys, interviews and +uestionnaires = e$ Saunders et al (!"">), 4o(son
(!""!), )aster(y,Smith et al (!""!).
1 will use the word 6method6 %or a speci%ic research method such as a +uestionnaire
survey. 'he word 6methodolo$y6 re%ers to the study o% methods in the same way as 6psycholo$y6
is the study o% the psyche. . research 6strate$y6 is the overall approach to the pro&ect , which may
include the use o% several methods.
'he word 6research6 in this conte*t covers everythin$ that academic researchers do: the
$atherin$ o% in%ormation a(out the world, the discovery and creation o% theories and models to
make sense o% this in%ormation, reviewin$ and collatin$ research done (y others, as well as
conceptual, mathematical and computational analysis.
Strategies 0or research %ro.ects
'he strate$y %or carryin$ out a research pro&ect is lar$ely a matter o% common sense. 1t is
important not to let &ar$on and technicalities o(scure this. (1 am usin$ the term strate$y here in
the sense o% a $eneral answer to the +uestion 6?ow do 1 $o a(out research@6 , takin$ all aspects
into account. 8ou will %ind other authors may use the term in a sli$htly di%%erent sense.)
. simple (asic strate$y %or any research pro&ect is:
1 Aecide what you want to achieve , the aims o% the pro&ect, or the +uestions it will answer.
! Aecide how you are $oin$ to achieve these aims or answer these +uestions , the desi$n o%
your research pro&ect. (/ost aspects o% research tend to take lon$er than anticipated, so it
is important to plan the timescale care%ully to take this into account.)
> -arry out the research, analyse the results and state the conclusions and (i% appropriate)
recommendations.
# -heck that you have in %act achieved the aims o% the pro&ect. 1% you have not, work out
your e*cuses, try a$ain, or pretend that you were really tryin$ to do somethin$ else , ie
chan$e your aims to %it what you actually did.
5ne di%%iculty with this is that you may not know e*actly what you want to achieve at the outset.
'his may only (ecome clear as the research pro$resses. Similarly the appropriate methods (step
!) may only (ecome clear as the research evolves. 1n $eneral, it is (est to plan your research in
advance as %ar as possi(le, (ut it is clearly important to (e %le*i(le.
Research aims or !uestions
Sometimes the research aims or +uestions are +uite clear. /ore typically, a research pro&ect may
start %rom a %airly %uBBy pro(lem or area o% concern7 it is then necessary to decide on a clear %ocus
(y %ormulatin$ some more de%inite aims or +uestions , althou$h you may chan$e your mind a(out
these as discussed a(ove. 'his process o% achievin$ a %ocus is o%ten not easy and deserves care
(see Saunders et al, !"">, -hapter !). It is almost always better to focus on a limited area so
that you can do a thorough job, rather than having a broad focus with inevitably superficial
results.
1t is normal to include a section on the (ack$round conte*t o% the research pro&ect. .s
well as details o% the real world issues the pro&ect tackles, you may also wish to discuss the
academic (ack$round and your personal motivation. (8our personal aims %or doin$ the pro&ect ,
perhaps to pass the course and ac+uire a marketa(le skill , are, o% course, distinct %rom the
>
research aims o% the pro&ect.)
'he %ocus %or your research pro&ect, its $oals, can then (e %ormulated in any o% the
%ollowin$ ways:
C 2uestion(s) to (e answered: e$ hat is the best !uality strategy for "#$ $ompany%
C .im(s) (or o(&ectives) to the achieved: e$ To devise the best !uality strategy for "#$
$ompany.
C . hypothesis or hypotheses to (e tested: e$ &trategy ' is the best strategy for "#$
$ompany.
.ims and +uestions are more or less e+uivalent. Dhether you e*press your $oals as a list o% aims
or as a series o% +uestions does not matter much.
/y pre%erence would (e %or +uestions (ecause +uestions lead to answers which can (e
written down in a research report, whereas aims may (e wider than this. 9or e*ample, the aim 6to
increase pro%its6 is not an appropriate aim %or a research pro&ect (ecause the output is not
research. 'his is a (usiness aim not a research aim. 'he correspondin$ research aim would (e to
find out how (est to increase pro%its. 5n the other hand, Saunders et al (!"">) recommend
o(&ectives (ecause they 6lead to $reater speci%icity6 (p. !<).
(owever, in general, I would advise you against formulating the aims of your project as
a series of hypotheses to be tested. 'estin$ hypotheses in mana$ement is more di%%icult than it
may appear, and the results o% the research (ecome a simple list o% 'rueE9alse statements , which
may (e (orin$ %or readersF
Aespite this, it may (e use%ul to have an informal hypothesis , e$ '2/ is help%ul , to
$uide your research. 'hen you can %ormulate some more detailed aims spellin$ out which aspects
o% the help%ulness o% '2/ that you wish to investi$ate.
8ou may also have hypotheses you wish to test as a part o% addressin$ your research
aims. 9or e*ample, you may wish to test the hypothesis that there is no di%%erence in e%%ectiveness
(etween two procedures.
1t is o%ten help%ul to have a series o% +uestions (or aims), which may (e (roken down into
a hierarchy , %or e*ample:
1
#
'his dia$ram shows the %airly va$ue topic 6Strate$y to improve G in or$anisation 86 (roken
down into three more speci%ic o(&ectives. 'his is a typical $eneral aim %or a /asters de$ree
pro&ect: G mi$ht stand %or +uality, pro%ita(ility, marketin$ or employee &o( satis%action, %or
e*ample. )ach o% these o(&ectives is then applied to two areas o% the or$anisation. 'here may (e
more areas to consider, (ut the dia$ram indicates that this pro&ect is only concerned with two o%
them.
. dia$ram such as this ((ased on Heeney, 1::!) should (e help%ul %or clari%yin$ and
structurin$ your aims (or o(&ectives, or +uestions). 1t is also help%ul %or checkin$ that your
proposed research methods are likely to (e ade+uate %or meetin$ your aims (or answerin$ your
research +uestions). DeIll return to this (elow.
'he research aims or +uestions should
) be unambiguous and clear*
) be coherent, and reasonably challenging but not too ambitious*
) make the scope of the research clear +will it refer to one company or be broader, for
e,ample%-*
) clarify the meaning of any key terms used*
) refer to practical or theoretical outcomes*
) be listed near the start of the project repory.
'ry to envisa$e the sort o% conclusions which you mi$ht e*pect to arrive at. 'hen ask yoursel%:
) "re you likely to be able to get the evidence to justify these conclusions%
) "re the conclusions worth the effort. .ut yourself in the position of a critic who says,
simply, /&o what%/.
.t the end o% the pro&ect report, you should have a clear section e*plainin$ how you have
achieved the aims (or answered the +uestions) laid out near the (e$innin$.
#eneral issues concerning research$ %hiloso%hy& etc
'he %irst point to (e made is that the outcomes o% a research pro&ect (the answers to the +uestions
posed (y the researchers) may (e o% a wide variety o% di%%erent types. 'he possi(ilities include:
) 0niversal laws of the type which are common in natural science. ()$ )Jmc
!
. '2/
always improves pro%ita(ility.) Such laws are very rare, or perhaps non,e*istent, in
mana$ement. 'hey are not a realistic aim.
) &tatistical conclusions. ()$ K"L o% '2/ implentations %ail. 5n avera$e, on,the,&o(
trainin$ is more e%%ective that class,room trainin$.) 'hese are common outcomes o%
mana$ement research. 1t is o(viously very important to speci%y the scope o% the research
(what trainin$ in which industries@) and the e*act meanin$ o% key terms (on,the,&o(,
classroom, e%%ective).
) 1etailed analyses of particular situations +case studies-. )$ a detailed case study o% a
'2/ implementation which %ailed mi$ht (e use%ul %or understandin$ the causes o% %ailure
and so avoidin$ them elsewhere.
) $onceptual frameworks.
) 2athematical and other models.
) 3ecommended procedures or methods.
-an you think o% any other possi(ilities@
2nderstanding the %resent& %redicting the 0uture& and im%ro3ing the 0uture
4esearch pro&ects may seek to understand and e,plain the present and past situation, to predict
the future situation, or to recommend how to improve the future situation (sometimes called
6prescriptive6 conclusions), or a com(ination o% all three.
<
9or e*ample, consider a research pro&ect which aims to %ind the (est +uality strate$y %or a
particular company. 'his mi$ht start (y developin$ an understanding o% the e*istin$ pro(lems in
the company, and the e%%ectiveness o% the various possi(le +uality strate$ies in use in the industry.
'his understandin$ may ran$e %rom a simple catalo$ue o% pro(lems, to a deeper e*planation o%
the sources o% the pro(lems and the e%%ectiveness o% the various +uality strate$ies.
'he ne*t step mi$ht (e to predict (rou$hly) the impact o% the various possi(le strate$ies.
'hese predictions would (e (ased on the understandin$ o% the e*istin$ pro(lems and the
e%%ectiveness o% the various possi(le strate$ies.
'hese predictions can then (e used to decide which strate$y is likely to (e (est in the
sense that it will improve the companyIs per%ormance more than the others. 'he research is aimed
at understandin$, prediction and improvement, (ut improvement is, o% course, the main $oal.
Un%ortunately, most discussions o% research methods in mana$ement are (ased %airly
closely on similar discussions a(out the natural and social sciences , which aim to understand and
predict, (ut not to improve. 'his means that the aim o% makin$ improvements tends to (e i$nored
in philosophical discussions. Ulrich (1:M>, p. 1<) claims that 6there is no ade+uate philosophical
(asis6 %or this type o% research. 'his is serious (ecause the lo$ical (asis o% recommendin$
improvements is very di%%erent %rom the lo$ical (asis o% understandin$ or predictin$.
'here are two important di%%erences. 'he %irst is that i% a chan$e is made, the new
situation will (e di%%erent %rom the e*istin$ situation, and so di%%icult to research directly. 1t is
di%%icult to study the impact o% a new idea which has not (een triedF 'here are a num(er o% ways
round this di%%iculty: the use o% e*periments, action research and modellin$ (see (elow), and
studyin$ (%or e*ample) other or$anisations which have tried the new idea. ('his is not possi(le, o%
course, i% the idea is really new.)
'he second point a(out makin$ recommendations a(out what an or$anisation ou$ht to
do to improve per%ormance is that this o(viously presupposes some value judgements. 'hese are
6su(&ective estimates o% worth6 (the .ocket 4,ford 1ictionary, -larendon Press, 1::K): ie
assertions a(out how thin$s are valued, or a(out what is $ood and what is (ad, and a(out which
$oals an or$anisation or individual should strive %or. Ai%%erent $roups in an or$anisation, or
di%%erent stakeholders, may, o% course, arrive at di%%erent value &ud$ements, and di%%erent
recommendations a(out what should (e done.
1t is important to try to (e as e*plicit as possi(le a(out the (asis o% these value &ud$ments.
Dhere the value &ud$ments depend on several di%%erent criteria, it may (e help%ul to indicate how
each +uality strate$y (or whatever) scores a$ainst each criterion (y means o% an 6options (y
criteria matri*6. (See also 4o(son, 1::>, chapter ; on 6)valuations6, and Heeney, 1::!.)
Both o% these points , the %act that the research has to study hypothetical situations, and
has to (e (ased on value &ud$ments , mean that research which seeks to improve situations %its
uneasily into the crude idea o% the scienti%ic method known as positivism , to which we turn ne*t.
(Aespite this, 6mana$ement science6 is perhaps the main source o% prescriptive mana$ement
researchF)
(ositi3ism and %henomenology& and similar distinctions
Positivism is the view that research should (e scienti%ic in a %airly crude sense. 'he reality
researched is viewed as e*ternal and o(&ective, and the methods used should (e 6value,%ree6 and,
as %ar as possi(le, +uantitative. ('here are many di%%erent versions o% positivism. 'he con%usion is
e*acer(ated (y the %act that much o% modern physics is %ar closer to phenomenolo$y than
positivism as it is usually understood, and some (ranches o% mana$ement science have a lot to say
a(out values.)
Phenomenolo$y 6stems %rom the view that the world and IrealityI are not o(&ective and
e*terior, (ut that they are socially constructed and $iven meanin$ (y people6 ()aster(y,Smith et
K
al, 1::1, pa$e !#, citin$ ?usserl, 1:#K). 'his leads on to a style o% research that involves detailed
interviews and other interactions with the actors involved in a situation, and appreciatin$, (ut not
necessarily predictin$, the di%%erent perspectives and choices people adopt. 1t typically involves an
in,depth study o% a small sample o% people which attempts to understand the e*perience o% these
people 6%rom the inside6 , ie in terms o% their su(&ective e*perience. 'he researcher is inevita(ly
not independent o% the situation under study, which may mean that di%%erent researchers come to
di%%erent conclusions. (Aoes this matter@)
. phenomenolo$ical analysis is typically mainly +ualitative in character rather than
+uantitative, and deterministic or statistical conclusions tend to (e shunned in %avour o% a
thorou$h analysis o% a small num(er o% cases , which may, o% course, illustrate possi(ilities which
could occur elsewhere. Positivistic research, on the other hand, typically involves lar$er samples,
which produce more relia(le statistical $eneralisations (ut at the cost o% a shallower
understandin$ 6%rom the outside6 , ie in terms o% e*ternally de%ined varia(les.
1t is not help%ul to re$ard this as an either,or choice. .ny use%ul research is likely to draw
on both o(&ective %acts and su(&ective e*periences, and to use (oth +ualitative and +uantitative
methods o% analysis.
'here are other related concepts and distinctions , hard and so%t (4osenhead, 1:M:)7, and
positivism and social constructionism (Burr, 1::<, )aster(y,Smith et al, !""!). 'he terms
N+uantitative6 and N+ualitativeO are o%ten used as um(rella terms %or the two ends o% the
spectrum.
'he meanin$ o% many o% these terms is rather haBy, so it is important to de%ine what you
mean when usin$ them.
The degree o0 generality
)insteinIs %amous e+uation )Jmc
!
re%ers to all the matter in the universe at any time. 1t is
per%ectly $eneral.
.t the other e*treme the aim o% devisin$ the (est +uality strate$y %or 24D 0td.,
)msworth, )n$land in 1::; re%ers to one particular company at one particular time.
5(viously, other thin$s (ein$ e+ual, the more $eneral the research is the more use%ul it is.
?owever, other thin$s rarely are e+ual. 1n %ields like mana$ement, $eneral theories are o%ten too
va$ue to (e help%ul in speci%ic situations, and they are also %ar harder to set up. 9or this reason, it
is usually a good idea to make your aims fairly specific 5 ie relating to one organisation or
sector or country. ?owever it may (e worth addin$ a su(sidiary aim to $eneralise your
conclusions more widely (particularly i% you are considerin$ $ettin$ another &o( or want to
pu(lish your %indin$s).
Theories$ 4uilding& testing& amending and using
'he word theory means di%%erent thin$s to di%%erent people. 1 think that anythin$ which $oes
(eyond a strai$ht listin$ o% the %acts should (e counted as a theory. 'his includes e*planatory
%rameworks, $eneralisations, recommendations, mathematical models, etc. .ll use%ul research
involves theory in some %orm , there is a note on the meanin$ and role o% theory in the appendi*.
Sometimes, the aim o% the research is to develop theory %rom scratch. 'his is the
inductive approach: tryin$ to derive $eneralisations and e*planations %rom the data you collect. 1n
its pure %orm the researcher tries to %or$et any preconceptions and &ust let the data 6speak6. 8ou
will %ind su$$ested tactics %or this in (ooks on research methods, and in more detail in /iles and
?u(erman (1::#).
'he other e*treme style o% research involves startin$ with a theory, or hypothesis, and
then testin$ it. 'he theory may come %rom other researchers, or it may (e a hunch or a con&ecture.
'his is the hypothetico,deductive approach to research. Harl Popper is an in%luential advocate o%
;
this style o% research (see Popper, 1:;M, or one o% the many commentaries on PopperPs views).
1t is very important that the theory should (e very clearly de%ined. 9or e*ample 6Domen
are more intelli$ent than men6 could not (e properly tested without de%inin$ intelli$ence in
numerical terms, speci%yin$ which women the hypothesis re%ers to, and whether it re%ers to
avera$e intelli$ence levels. Popper (1:;M) has stressed the importance o% the hypotheses (ein$
testa(le: he claims that the theories o% /ar* and 9reud are useless (ecause their hypotheses
cannot (e tested.
1n practice, the (est approach is o%ten in the middle: a (it o% induction, and a (it o% testin$
theory. 'he result may (e an amended theory, or a theory adapted to a particular situation, or
conclusions a(out the value (or otherwise) o% the theory in a particular conte*t.
Sometimes a research pro&ect will make use o% a theory developed (y other researchers,
without tryin$ to test or amend it. 9or e*ample, research into pro%ita(ility and employee
empowerment mi$ht make use o% measures o% pro%ita(ility and empowerment , which are
themselves theories.
The theories which play a part in your research are an important aspect of the project.
6ou should discuss these theories, and their role in your research, carefully.
(olitics and ethics
'he political issues surroundin$ access to data, and the impact o% the results also need
considerin$. Dill you have access to the data you need@ Ao you have to $ive $uarantees o%
con%identiality and i% so does this matter@ Dhat i% your conclusions are not to the likin$ o% key
stakeholders@
Similarly, there are sometimes ethical dilemmas in research. 'hese are o(vious in medical
research where, %or e*ample, it is o(viously un%air to withhold what is considered the (est
treatment in order to set up a controlled e*periment. 1n mana$ement research, withholdin$
(ene%its %rom a comparison or control $roup may also (e considered un%air. /ore $enerally,
e*cept in very special circumstances, it is considered unethical to mislead people involved in
research, to su(&ect them to stress, to invade their privacy, and so on. 1% interviewees are
promised they will not (e identi%ied in research reports, it is o(viously unethical to %ail to do this.
Research design
?avin$ decided on the aims to (e achieved the ne*t sta$e is to desi$n your research: in other
words devise a plan %or achievin$ the aims. /uch o% the most success%ul research uses a variety
o% di%%erent methods. 1t is (est to start without too many preconceptions concernin$ the (est
approach.
'here are three possi(le sources o% in%ormation %or research:
1 )mpirical sources: $atherin$ in%ormation %rom the real world. 'his may (e primary data
that you have $athered yoursel%, or secondary data $athered (y someone else , e$
pu(lished statistics or company documents.
! 0iterary sources: $atherin$ in%ormation %rom pu(lished (ooks and papers, and %rom the
internet (see Stein, 1:::).
> -onceptual analysis: analysin$ the meanin$s o% concepts and their implications.
(/athematical analysis and model (uildin$ are conceptual in that they are concerned with
workin$ out the detailed implications o% assumptions.)
.lmost all pro&ects make some use o% all three , but the emphasis is usually on empirical
methods. ?owever, your research report should always include a review o% relevant research (y
others (the 6literature review6)7 and your research will also inevita(ly depend on a %ramework o%
concepts ( a 6conceptual %ramework6) which should (e care%ully analysed and &usti%ied. Dhat do
M
you mean (y 6+uality6, 6competitive6 or whatever other terms are important %or your research@
Em%irical methods
)mpirical research usually involves makin$ choices in %our areas:
1 .re you $oin$ to study the e*istin$ situation, or are you $oin$ to do an e*periment or a
6+uasi,e*periment6 , ie chan$e somethin$ and see what e%%ect it has@ )*periments and
+uasi e*periments are particularly use%ul %or $atherin$ support %or recommendations.
! Dhat sort o% sample are you $oin$ to take@ 0ar$e sample, small sample or study o% a
sin$le case@
> .re you $oin$ to use a standard theory or %ramework (and i% so which@), or are you
$oin$ to develop your own theory@ 1n either case, theories are important (see appendi*).
# ?ow are you $oin$ to $ather the empirical data@ 'he possi(ilities include: written
+uestionnaires, interviews, o(servation, Nparticipant o(servationO, document and data
archive analysis, the internet, etc. -an you think o% any others@
.ll o% these choices deserve very care%ul consideration. AonIt %or$et that you will pro(a(ly use
di%%erent approaches %or di%%erent parts o% your research.
'here are also some other possi(ilities which do not %it neatly into this %ramework (e$
computer simulation, role plays). The important thing is to be fle,ible and use a variety of
methods to achieve your aims.
'he %ollowin$ su(sections descri(e %ive $eneral patterns o% research desi$n: surveys,
e*periments and +uasi,e*periments, case studies, action research, and modellin$. 'hese may
overlap , a model may (e (uilt %rom a case study or a survey, or an action research pro&ect may
make use o% a survey , and there are certainly other possi(ilities.
6ou should not be restricted by these: good research generally uses a combination of
these patterns as well strategies which do not fit neatly into any of them.
Sur3eys
. survey involves the collection o% in%ormation %rom a (usually %airly lar$e) num(er o% 6units6.
'hese units may (e people, or or$anisations, or towns, or %amilies, or departments, etc7 the
in%ormation collected may (e o% any kind , e$ %inancial in%ormation or opinions in the case o%
surveys o% people, or in%ormation a(out num(ers o% employees and or$anisational structures in
the case o% a survey o% or$anisations. . survey provides a snapshot o% the situation as it is at a
particular time, usually with a view to analysin$ patterns and trends applyin$ to the $roup as a
whole. /ost surveys are (ased on a sample o% the population o% interest (see notes on samplin$
(elow). Surveys o%ten use +uestionnaires to collect data, (ut interviews or o(servation may
sometimes (e pre%era(le. /any people seem to assume that an /asters de$ree pro&ect has to
include a +uestionnaire survey (ut this is not so7 do not use a +uestionnaire survey i% it is not the
appropriate method %or your purposes.
9urther readin$ in any (ook on research methods.
E5%eriments and !uasi6e5%eriments
Surveys provide a way o% %indin$ out a(out the present situation and what has happened in the
past. ?owever, there are two ma&or di%%iculties with simply monitorin$ what is happenin$ now
and what has happened in the recent past.
'he %irst di%%iculty is that it may (e di%%icult to disentan$le cause and e%%ect. 'here is
apparently (?u%%, 1:;>, p. M#) a stron$ and positive correlation (etween the num(er o% (a(ies
(orn into %amilies in ?olland and Aenmark and the num(er o% storksI nests on the roo%s o% their
houses. Aoes this su$$est that the storks are in %act responsi(le %or the (a(ies@ 5(viously there is
a more plausi(le e*planation , (i$ %amilies have (i$ houses which provide more space %or storks
:
to nest. ?owever, you cannot make relia(le in%erences a(out which %actor is the underlyin$ cause
%rom the correlation o(served. 'o test the hypothesis a(out storks increasin$ the num(er o%
(a(ies, you would need to do an e*periment , perhaps encoura$in$ more storks to nest to see i%
the num(er o% (a(ies (orn increases. 8ou need to control the relevant varia(les (e$ siBe o%
houses, a$e and $ender o% occupants) so the comparison is a %air one.
'he second di%%iculty is that thin$s that have not happened cannot (e investi$ated. 1% the
(est solution is a com(ination o% circumstances that have never arisen, no survey will ever %ind it.
'he (est way round these di%%iculties is to desi$n an e*periment. 'his involves chan$in$
somethin$ and then measurin$ the e%%ect that this chan$e has. 'he simplest desi$n %or an
e*periment is the 6post,test only two $roup desi$n6 (4o(son, !""!):
1 Set up an e*perimental and a comparison (control) $roup usin$ random
assignment.
! 'he e*perimental $roups $ets the 6treatment67 the comparison $roup $ets the
6comparison treatment6. 1t is important to ensure that the two $roups $et rou$hly
the same amount o% attention , otherwise there is a possi(ility that any o(served
di%%erence may (e due to the N?awthorne e%%ectO. 'his is named a%ter a %amous
e*periment in which it was discovered that any treatment , includin$ reversin$ a
previous treatment , (rou$ht improvements (ecause it indicated that the
e*perimenter was takin$ an interest in the people involved.
> Qive 6post,tests6 to see what the e%%ect o% the treatment is.
/ore comple* desi$ns are o% course possi(le (see 4o(son, !""!). 'he random assi$nment is
important to reduce the likelihood o% some %actor other than the 6treatment6 (ein$ responsi(le %or
any o(served improvement. 'he results o% an e*periment are then usually analysed (y means o% a
statistical hypothesis test (see (elow).
)*periments are widely used in medicine, psycholo$y, and to a lesser e*tent in education.
1n mana$ement, it is o%ten impossi(le to %ollow a ri$orous e*perimental desi$n so !uasi5
e,periments are o%ten used instead. 2uasi,e*periments are de%ined (y -amp(ell and Stanley
(1:K>) (cited (y 4o(son (!""!), p. 1>>) as
6a research desi$n involvin$ an e*perimental approach (ut where random assi$nment to
treatment and comparison $roups has not (een used.6
9or e*ample, the success o% an or$anisation usin$ a particular type o% +uality mana$ement system
may (e compared with an or$anisation which does not use this type o% system, or with the same
or$anisation (e%ore the system was implemented. 1n either case the 6treatments6 (+uality system
or no +uality system) were not allocated at random, so there is the (stron$) possi(ility that some
other, uncontrolled, varia(le is responsi(le %or any di%%erences %ound. 9or this reason, 4o(son
(!""!) does not recommend either o% these desi$ns, pre%errin$ more ela(orate desi$ns (see
4o(son, !""!, pp. 1>K,1#K %or details). 'he important thin$ is to (e as sure as possi(le that the
lack o% randomisation in +uasi,e*periments is not likely to a%%ect the validity o% the results.
Case studies and small sam%le research
It often seems more useful to undertake a detailed study of an individual case, or of a small
sample of cases, than to do a superficial study of a larger sample. 'he cases may (e individual
people, or$anisations, nei$h(ourhoods, pro&ects, events o% various types, etc. 1t is important to (e
clear a(out the purpose o% the case study. 1s it intended to (e typical o% somethin$ more $eneral,
or to (e a case o% particular interest %rom some speci%ic point o% view@
1t is also important to make sure that your approach is systematic, and that you $ive
ade+uate attention to developin$ a suita(le conceptual %ramework and list o% research +uestions.
-ase studies normally use multiple sources o% evidence (e$ interviews, o(servations, document
analysis, etc), and should aim %or a detailed (Nin depthO) understandin$ o% the chosen case(s).
1"
9urther readin$: 8in (1::#).
Action research
'raditional science seeks to keep the researcher separate %rom the researched and their aims and
values in the interests o% 6o(&ectivity6. .ction research is the name $iven to research which seeks
to inte$rate theory development and data collection with action in the sense o% improvin$ the
process (ein$ studied. 'he action researcher would typically (e an active participant in the
process. 'he o(vious dan$er here is that the particular interests o% the researcher E actor will
encoura$e a (iased perspective: clearly you must try to reduce the likelihood o% this happenin$.
(. counterar$ument to this starts %rom the assertion that there is no such thin$ as an un(iased
perspective, &ust di%%erent (iases ....)
'here are di%%erent variants and interpretations o% action research. 5ne simple possi(ility
would (e:
1 Study the e*istin$ situation
! Plan how improvements could (e made.
> -arry out these improvements and analyse their e%%ects and success. ('his step may (e a
+uasi e*periment.)
# Study the new situation.
< Qo (ack to step !, etc, etc.
1t is o(viously important to ensure that the researcherIs involvement in the process does not
compromise the validity o% the results.
Modelling
/ana$ement science researchers o%ten seek to set up a model o%, %or e*ample, a stock control
system, or a series o% cash %lows, or a pro&ect. /odels are also important in many other areas
includin$, %or e*ample, %inance and 6so%ter6 disciplines such as marketin$. ?ardin$ and 0on$
(1::M) summarise #< o% these mana$ement models. /odellin$ is not treated as a standard type o%
research in most te*ts on research methods , you will need to consult (ooks such as Pidd (1::K
or !"">).
Pidd (1::K, p. 1<) de%ines a model as
an e,ternal and e,plicit representation of part of reality as seen by people who wish to
use that model to understand, to change, to manage and to control that part of reality.
/odels may (e physical, mathematical or computer (ased. 'hey are use%ul i% e*perimentin$
directly with reality is too di%%icult, costly or time,consumin$. 'hey are typically set up on the
(asis o% empirical data and a 6common sense6 analysis o% how the situation 6works6. /odels are
always simpler than reality: it is important to consider the appropriate de$ree o% simpli%ication.
'he steps in a typical modellin$ pro&ect are:
(1) (uild the model7
(!) check its accuracy andEor use%ulness and ad&ust i% necessary7
(>) use the model to understand, chan$e, mana$e, control...
9urther readin$: Pidd (1::K) chapter 1.
A general design 0or a ty%ical Masters degree %ro.ect
/any ((ut (y no means all) pro&ects %it the %ollowin$ pattern:
"im: 'o %ind a $ood strate$y to 6improve6 G in or$ 8
2ethod
1 SurveyEcase studies o% 5r$ 8 to investi$ate pro(lems and opportunities
! SurveyEcase studies to see how other or$anisations do G and which approaches work
well
11
> Based on (1), (!), the literature, and perhaps creative inspiration and consultations within
the or$anisation, devise a strate$y likely to improve G
# 'ryEtestEpilotEmonitor the proposed strate$y
7in-ing methods to research aims or !uestions
'o ensure that your methods are %irmly linked to your research +uestions (or aims), it is a $ood
idea to draw a dia$ram which links each research +uestion with the methods you plan to use to
answer it.
1n the dia$rams (elow, the lines without arrows indicate the (reakdown o% the research
aims. 'he arrows indicate that the (o* at the start o% the arrow is a means to help achieve the (o*
at the end o% the arrow. 'he arrows only indicate that a method will help with the aim or method
it points to, not that it will solve the pro(lem completely. 'he dotted arrow is intended to si$ni%y
that the help involved is likely to (e sli$ht. ('his notation is due to Heeney, 1::!).
!
'his dia$ram should help you to ensure that the methods you are proposin$ are likely to (e
su%%icient. 'his is a matter o% &ud$ement, o(viously. 8ou need to check each aim care%ully. 1n this
e*ample, the lack o% methods drawin$ on data %rom 5r$anisation 8 %or assessin$ the
improvements %rom the proposed strate$y, and %or devisin$ and &usti%yin$ the implementation
strate$y, su$$ests that this plan is not ade+uate. 8ou are likely, %or e*ample, to need some input
to the implementation strate$y %rom 5r$anisation 8. 'he ne*t dia$ram shows a possi(le
improvement.
1!
>
Data collection methods
'here are many sources o% data which you should consider , see the section on )mpirical
methods a(ove). 'his section contains very (rie% notes on interviews and +uestionnaires, and also
on samplin$, which is important whatever you decide to do. 9or more detailed help, is essential
to consult a te*t(ook or other source o% advice.
Inter3ie*s
'hese could play a part in surveys, or case studies, or e*periments, or action research. 'hey
usually allow you %ind out a(out the topic o% interest in more depth than a +uestionnaire, (ecause
people are likely to $ive more detail when talkin$ than when writin$, and it is possi(le to ask
+uestions to pro(e points o% particular interest. 1t is however necessary to (e or$anised: use a list
o% +uestions and prompts and decide how you are $oin$ to record the answers. 'elephone and
$roup interviews are other possi(ilities to (ear in mind. .(ove all, remem(er that the idea is to
$et a deep understandin$ o% the issues in +uestion.
C Drite a plan or schedule %or the interviews, (ut treat it %le*i(ly and (e prepared to modi%y
it i% appropriate. Dhat are you $oin$ to ask and how@ AonIt %or$et that interviews are
particularly use%ul %or open,ended +uestions.
C 8ou will pro(a(ly want to pro(e some responses %or more detail. Some such pro(es can
(e in the interview plan, (ut o(viously as you do not know what the interviewees will say,
you cannot cover all eventualities.
C 1t is a $ood idea to record the interview so that you can +uote interestin$ (its in the write,
up. 8ou must ask interviewees %or their permission, o% course. 1% a recordin$ is not
possi(le, you will o(viously need to make very detailed notes.
C AonIt %or$et to think a(out puttin$ interviewees at ease.
C Dith interviews there may (e a dan$er that the interviewer in%luences the interviewee.
Aoes this matter and what can you do a(out it@
8uestionnaires
1>
/any (ooks and articles $ive advice on +uestionnaires: you should consult one at an early stage
because designing good !uestionnaires is far more difficult than it may look. 1t is essential to
test the +uestionnaire and the proposed method o% analysis (y means o% a pilot survey (e%ore the
%inal +uestionnaires are sent out.
hen designing !uestionnaires consider:
C )*actly what do you want to %ind out@
C Dhy should people %ill it in@ (.nonymity, con%identiality@ 4eward %or returnin$ it@)
C Dill they tell the truth@
C 0en$th and se+uence o% +uestions
C Dordin$: avoid leadin$, lon$, complicated +uestions askin$ several thin$s,
incomprehensi(le, unanswera(le, silly, rude, annoyin$ +uestions....
C 'he coverin$ letter e*plainin$ who you are and what the research is %or.
There are three main types of !uestions you can ask in a !uestionnaire:
C -losed +uestions askin$ %or a cate$ory. (Dhich department are you in@ , tick the
appropriate (o*.) Be care%ul to ensure you have thou$ht o% all the cate$ories7 you should
usually have a (o* at the end %or 4ther 5 please specify.
C -losed +uestions askin$ %or a num(er. (?ow old are you@ 2uestions askin$ respondents
to rate their a$reement with a series o% statements on a 1 to ; scale.)
C 5pen ended +uestions. (Dhat do you think o% R @) 'he responses may either (e coded
%or analysis (in which case it may (e (etter to use a closed +uestion in the %irst place), or
simply read and used %or +uotations and as a means o% comin$ to understand the
respondents.)
Particularly with closed +uestions you need to cater %or respondents who do not know the
answer. 8ou donIt want to %orce them to make up an answerF
3emember that designing a good !uestionnaire is much more difficult than it looks.
$ommon .roblems with !uestionnaires:
C 0ow response rate (Dhat should you do a(out this@)
C 'oo much in%ormation to analyse
C 1nconclusive answers
C 8ou only %ind out what people want to (and can) tell you
7inally, ask yourself, are you sure you need a !uestionnaire% ould you fill it in yourself% If not,
why not think again%
Sam%ling
De o%ten talk a(out analysin$ data (%i$ures, etc) and drawin$ $raphs o% data as i% we were
interested in the data %or its own sake. Usually this is not the case. Usually we are interested in
our data (ecause o% what it tells us a(out a wider situation. So, %or e*ample, an opinion poll
mi$ht ask 1""" voters how they are $oin$ to vote in the ne*t election: the assumption (ein$, o%
course, that the votin$ pattern o% the electorate as a whole will (e similar.
'he %irst step is to decide e*actly where our interests lie. .opulation or universe are
terms used (y statisticians %or the $roup comprisin$ all the instances in which we are interested. 1t
is important to (e very clear a(out the e*act nature o% the population. 9or e*ample:
C employees in an or$anisation
C employees in all similar or$anisations
1#
C all the transactions which may (e carried out (y a so%tware system (now and in the %uture)
1% the population is lar$e or in%inite we will need to use a sample: ie a su(set chosen as %ar
possi(le to (e representative o% the population as a whole. It is important in all investigations,
!uantitative and !ualitative, large scale and small scale, to be careful about the choice of a
sample.
)ven when it is apparently possi(le to look at every mem(er o% the population , ie to
carry out a census, the (ene%its may not (e real. 1n one survey o% applications o% 61""L
inspection6 (5akland, 1:MK, p <"), 1;L o% de%ects on P-BIs were missed, and !<L on chest G,
rays (where a de%ect may represent a case o% 'B). 'he pro(lems in each case were that the
necessity to check everythin$ meant that the &o( was done +uickly and carelessly. 1t is o%ten a
$ood idea to take a %airly small sample and investi$ate this care%ully.
1n addition, populations are o%ten sli$htly wider than is apparent at %irst si$ht. De mi$ht,
%or e*ample, consider all the transactions per%ormed (y a computer system in the past week as
our population7 however a more use%ul perspective mi$ht (e to think o% these transactions as a
sample o% the possi(le transactions %or which the system is desi$ned. 'his raises the +uestion o%
whether the past weekIs per%ormance is likely to typical or representative.
9rom the point o% view o% ensurin$ representativeness, two pro(lems may arise in
samplin$:
1 'he method o% selectin$ the sample may lead to an inevita(le bias (even with lar$e
samples). 1t is o%ten surprisin$ly di%%icult to o(tain an un(iased sample.
! )ven i% the method o% selection does not lead to (ias, inevita(le random variations may
mean that the particular sample chosen is unrepresentative in some way. 'his is known as
sampling error, and its siBe can (e analysed (y statistical methods: e$ the >L error o%ten
+uoted %or surveys o% electorsI votin$ intentions with samples o% around 1""" is (ased on
a :<L statistical con%idence interval (Dood, !"">). -onversely, the theory can (e turned
round to tell you how lar$e a sample is necessary %or a $iven de$ree o% accuracy.
/ethods o% samplin$ can (e divided into probability sampling (where the idea is to try to ensure
that the sample is representative (y controllin$ the pro(a(ility o% each individual (ein$ chosen),
and non5probability sampling (which does not use this principle). 9our important methods o%
samplin$ are:
.robability sampling:
1 3andom sampling: sample chosen so that every mem(er o% the population has an e+ual
chance o% (ein$ selected, and every mem(er o% the sample is chosen independently o%
every other mem(er. 1t also means that the sample is chosen without allowin$ the
investi$atorIs (possi(ly su(conscious) pre%erences to in%luence the choice. This is the
standard on which most statistical theory is based. 'o produce a random sample it is
necessary to have a num(ered list o% the population , this list is known as a sampling
frame. 'hen the sample is chosen (y drawin$ random num(ers (see (elow) and selectin$
the correspondin$ mem(ers o% the population as the sample.
! &tratified sampling: population divided into 6strata6 and a random sample o% appropriate
siBe taken %rom each o% the strata. 1% done properly this should yield a sli$htly lower
samplin$ error (ut the di%%erence is o%ten very small. 1t is $enerally only worth doin$ i% it
easy to do or you want to compare results (y stratum. 8ou should also (ear in mind that
your sample will su%%er i% you only take a %ew o% the strata. 9or e*ample, i% you (ase a
sample o% workers on &ust three companies, this sample will o(viously not encompass as
much variety as it would i% you took a wider sample o% companies.
1<
8on5probability sampling:
> .urposive sampling: the researcherIs &ud$ment is used to choose individuals which are
thou$ht to (e typical or o% special interest. 1t is o%ten a $ood idea to choose small samples
(e$ %or case studies) in this way7 %or lar$er samples, the random or strati%ied methods are
likely to produce more representative results.
# 4pportunity or convenience sampling: takin$ the sample that you can $et. 'his is
e%%ectively workin$ (ackwards: the pro(lem then is decidin$ on the population to which
the results can (e $eneralised.
"s a general principle random sampling is best for large samples +say 9:;-, whereas purposive
sampling is suitable for small samples. 3emember that the final sample may be smaller than
you anticipate because of non5return of !uestionnaires, etc.
3andom numbers +produced by a spreadsheet-
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Trust*orthiness or credi4ility
Dhat makes research trustworthy@ Dhy should you (elieve or accept the conclusions@ 'he
concepts o% validity, reliability, objectivity, triangulation and statistical hypothesis testing are all
relevant to this issue. 'he most $eneral concept is validity.
.s well as (ein$ trustworthy, research should, o% course, also (e relevant and useful.
4eaders should not (e le%t askin$ 6So what@6.
9alidity
3alidity re%ers to the e*tent to which the results are valid , ie true or well $rounded. Qill
and ohnson (1::1, p 1K1) distin$uish three types o% validity:
1. 1nternal validity is the e*tent to which the conclusions re$ardin$ cause and e%%ect are
warranted.
!. Population validity is the e*tent to which conclusions can (e $eneralised to other people,
or other or$anisations, or other samplin$ units. 'his is a matter o% ensurin$ that samples
are likely to (e representative (see the notes a(ove).
>. )colo$ical validity is the e*tent to which conclusions mi$ht (e $eneralised to social
conte*ts other than those in which data has (een collected.
'here is also ...
#. 'he e*tent to which operational de%initions or indicators (e$ de%ect rates as a de%inition o%
+uality7 12 tests as a measure o% intelli$ence) re%lect the concept they are tryin$ to
capture.
1K
Relia4ility
'his re%ers to the consistency o% the research method. 9or e*ample would you $et the same
answer i% you repeated the research with a di%%erent sample, at a di%%erent time, or with di%%erent
o(servers or &ud$es@ Suppose, %or e*ample, your research involves codin$ responses to an open,
ended +uestion on a +uestionnaire. 8ou should check a sample o% codes (y (rin$in$ in a second
researcher. 8ou could then indicate the relia(ility o% the codin$ scheme (y sayin$ that the two
coders a$reed on the code $iven to :<L (or whatever) o% responses. 'his provides the reader
with a simple assessment o% how relia(le this aspect o% the research is.
O4.ecti3ity
'his term re%ers to the e*tent to which research re%lects the reality o% the 6o(&ects6 (includin$
people) under study, as opposed to the su(&ective e*perience o% the researchers or o(servers. 1n
practice, the method %or checkin$ whether an o(servation or assessment is o(&ective is to see i%
di%%erent o(servers a$ree: i% they do it is o(&ective, i% they do not it is su(&ective in the sense that it
depends on the su(&ectivity o% particular people. Physical measurements like wei$ht or time are
o(&ective (ecause di%%erent o(servers will a$ree readily, whereas assessments o% the +uality o% a
meal are more likely to (e su(&ective.
Some would say o(&ectivity is essential7 other would say that it is meanin$less or
impossi(le in many conte*ts. Ao you think it is sensi(le to talk a(out the o(&ective +uality o% a
meal@ 5n the other hand i% you are interested in the amount o% scrap produced, it seems sensi(le
to $et as o(&ective a measure as possi(le.
Triangulation
-heckin$ your conclusions (y other methods. 9or e*ample, i% +uestionnaire results su$$ests that
particular mana$ers are not motivated (y money, this could (e checked (y interviewin$ the
mana$ers, and (y o(servin$ their (ehaviour (or records o% their (ehaviour) when o%%ered %inancial
incentives.
Statistical hy%othesis tests
'hese provide a way o% decidin$ i% the evidence is stron$ enou$h. )*amples are the 6t test6,
analysis o% variance (.S53.) and the 6-hi s+uare test6. 'hese tests are mathematically comple*,
and are very %re+uently misunderstood and misinterpreted. Aespite this they are use%ul and widely
used. &tatistically significant means that the data cannot reasonably be attributed to chance
alone +ie to the accident of the particular sample chosen-. . si$ni%icant result signifies a real
effect (and not &ust a samplin$ accident). 'he si$ni%icance level tells us how stron$ the evidence is
, with the lower levels indicatin$ stron$er evidence.
9or e*ample, the results (elow (/cQoldrick T Qreenland, 1::!) come %rom a survey on
the service o%%ered (y (anks and (uildin$ societies:
1;
"spect of service #anks< mean
rating
#uilding &ociety<s
mean rating
=evel of significance
+p-
SympatheticEunder
standin$
K."#K K.>M: "."""
?elp%ul E%riendly
sta%%
K.#:< K.:;M "."""
Sot too pushy K.>:; K.K## "."">
'ime %or decisions K.;># K.MK< "."!M
-on%identiality o%
details
;.M># ;.;;M SS
Branch mana$er
availa(le
<.:!M K.":; ".":"
'he data was o(tained %rom a sample o% customers who rated each institution on a scale ran$in$
%rom 1 (very (ad) to : (very $ood.). 'he a(ove si* dimensions are a selection %rom the !!
reported in the paper. 'he evidence is stron$est in relation to the %irst two varia(les and weakest
in relation to the least one. 'he p values in the %inal column o% the ta(le $ive the estimated
pro(a(ility o% o(tainin$ the results which were actually o(served, or more e*treme ones, if there
is really no difference between banks and building societies. ('here is a %uller e*planation at
http:EEuserwe(.port.ac.ukEUwoodmEnmsEtest.doc .)
SS means not si$ni%icant , which in this ta(le means that the p value is $reater than ".1.
'he lower the p value the more convincin$ the evidence %or a real di%%erence (etween (anks and
(uildin$ societies.E
1n many conte*ts (includin$ the e*ample a(ove) Ncon%idence intervalsO provide an
alternative method o% analysis , which may (e more use%ul and user,%riendly (Qardner and .ltman,
1:MK7 Dood, !"">).
Data analysis
'here are many methods o% analysin$ data. 8ou should read up those that are appropriate to your
particular study.
.t one e*treme is statistical analysis. 'he steps here are:
1 Aecide what you are $oin$ to measure. -heck that the proposed measurements are valid
and sensi(le. 1% appropriate check the relia(ility o% your measurements.
! Produce dia$rams andEor ta(les to show the values o% your measurements and the
relationships and di%%erences (etween them. 1t is more di%%icult than it mi$ht appear to
desi$n ta(les and dia$rams which are clear and unam(i$uous , ask someone else to
checkF
> 1% appropriate, do statistical hypothesis tests or work out con%idence intervals to indicate
the likely e%%ects o% samplin$ error. (8ou may need help here.)
.t the other e*treme, the analysis o% tapes o% interviews, or open,ended +uestions in
+uestionnaires, mi$ht simply consist o% listenin$ to the tapes, or readin$ the +uestionnaire
responses, to try to understand the situation. 'he report o% the research would then include direct
+uotations (in NRO) %rom the interviews, or the +uestionnaires, as evidence %or the assertions put
%orward.
1M
'he weakness o% this last style o% research is that the particularly passa$es +uoted may
$ive an unrepresentative impression. 'he suspicion may (e that the researcher has chosen the
+uotes that con%irm her (or his) pre&udices. -learly this type o% analysis needs to (e (acked up (y
some %urther evidence. 1t is, however, a very use%ul method o% providin$ a detailed analysis o%
certain possi(ilities. 9or e*ample, a researcher investi$atin$ the use o% a so%tware packa$e mi$ht
%ind one individual usin$ it in a particularly innovative manner: a detailed analysis o% this one
instance may (e interestin$ (ecause it illustrates what is possi(le , althou$h it is in no sense
representative o% the population as a whole.
'o use interview data, or data %rom open,ended +uestions on +uestionnaires, to o(tain
more +uantitative in%ormation a(out the %re+uency with which phenomena occur, or the stren$th
o% relationships, it is usually necessary to devise a coding scheme (see Saunders et al, !"">). 'his
can (e used to $ive +uantitative results on the percenta$e o% individuals in each cate$ory, or the
num(er o% times particular thin$s are mentioned. 'hese results can then (e analysed statistically
like any other +uantitative results.
5ne issue to consider when analysin$ 6so%ter6 data %rom interviews and participant
o(servation studies is the e*tent to which the conclusions should 6emer$e6 %rom the data without
the researcher imposin$ his or her preconceptions. 'his is the grounded theory approach (see
Saunders et al, !"">7 4o(son, !""!). 3arious methods have (een proposed %or achievin$ this =
e$ analytic induction (Saunders et al, !"">, >:;,M7 4o(son, !""!, p. >!!).
Dhatever you do it is important to consider the validity and relia(ility (see a(ove) o% your
%inal conclusions.
9urther readin$: /iles and ?u(erman (1::#).
Ty%es o0 measurement
3aria(les may (e numerical (e$ salary), ordinal (ie a rank , e$ /anchester UnitedIs position in
the lea$ue was !nd), or category varia(les (e$ male or %emale, make o% car, etc). 'ake care not to
manipulate results in ways that do not make sense. 9or e*ample there is little point in codin$ a
cate$ory varia(le (e$ make o% car) (y the num(ers 1, !, >, #, etc and then takin$ the avera$e , it
wonIt mean anythin$.
Sumerical scales can (e %urther su(divided into ratio and interval scales. 4atios make
sense in ratio scales (ut not interval scales. 9or e*ample it makes sense to say that one man earns
twice as much as another (earnin$s is a ratio scale), (ut it does not make sense to say that a
temperature o% !" de$rees -elsius is twice as hot a temperature o% 1" de$rees since temperature
is not a ratio scale7 the Bero point is ar(itrary , the e+uivalent 9ahrenheit temperatures are <" and
KM which are not in the same ratio.
Com%uter so0t*are
'he most use%ul type o% packa$e is a spreadsheet. )*cel is particularly $ood (ecause o% the wide
ran$e o% statistical %unctions and procedures which it incorporates. Put each record (individual
%rom a sample) in a separate row with %ield headin$s at the top. 9or e*ample:
S./) S)G ?)1Q?' D)1Q?'
Bill / 1.#; 1>!
Susan 9 1.:1
/andy 9 1.#< >M
.void the temptation to include %ancy %ormattin$, to leave rows to improve spacin$, etc. .ny %rills
you include may cause pro(lems when you try to analyse your data.
1:
1% any data is missin$ (e$ SusanIs wei$ht) leave the cell (lank. Ao not enter ". 8esEno is
(est coded as 1 %or yes and " %or no7 then the avera$e o% the column will $ive you the proportion
answerin$ yes.
8ou may (e a(le to do all your analysis with a spreadsheet. AonIt %or$et that spreadsheets
will sort data. 1% you want to see how males di%%er %rom %emales, you can sort the data on this
%ield. Spreadsheets are also $ood %or workin$ out avera$es, drawin$ (ar charts and other
dia$rams, etc.
?owever, i% the statistical analysis you need is at all comple*, it may (e worth trans%errin$
the data to a statistical packa$e such as SPSS (Statistical Packa$e %or the Social Sciences).
9urther readin$: Dood (!"">) contains (rie% notes on the use o% )*cel and SPSS %or
analysin$ data.
Writing the re%ort
. standard layout is:
C .(stract
C .cknowled$ments (i% any)
C -ontents
C 1ntroduction (includin$ (ack$round and conte*t , this would normally lead on to the aims
in the ne*t chapter)
C .ims o% the pro&ect (what you intend to achieve)
C 0iterature review (briefly and critically reviews relevant previous research and discusses
its relation to your study)
C 4esearch desi$n or method (what you did and why)
C 1nvesti$ation results and analysis (may (e split into several chapters)
C -onclusions and recommendations (possi(ly two chapters). 8ou should also discuss the
limitations o% the research and possi(ly include su$$estions %or %uture e*tensions.
C 4e%erences (must %ollow one o% the standard %ormats)
C .ppendices (supportin$ material to which readers may want to re%er = e$ +uestionnaires,
e*amples o% interview transcripts)
?owever, many pro&ects are not standard so you should %eel %ree to ad&ust this pattern i%
appropriate.
Dhatever the structure o% your report, you should, as %ar as possi(le, ensure that readers
can check your analysis to see i% they accept your conclusions (put details in appendices). .(ove
all, please ensure that the report is clear, concise and does not e*ceed the permitted len$th.
1t is important to descri(e and discuss all important aspects o% your empirical research:
details o% +uestionnaire surveys and interviews, so%tware used, methods o% analysis, and so on.
'he reader should (e a(le to %ollow what you did, and how you derived your conclusions. 'his
should ena(le the reader to decide how trustworthy your research is, and perhaps repeat it in
another conte*t. 4emem(er that i% your research is well desi$ned and competently carried out,
this should (e clear %rom the report.
.ll (ooks and other sources should (e clearly re%erenced usin$ one o% the standard styles.
'here is a lea%let on this availa(le %rom the li(rary, (ut you may %ind it easier to copy the style
used in a particular academic paper. 1n my view the easiest style is to re%er to works in the te*t (y
the authorIs name and the date o% pu(lication only , %or e*ample, Plato (1:<K) , and then to list
the pu(lications in alpha(etical order o% authorsI names at the end. )very re%erence you $ive in the
te*t should appear in the list o% re%erences at the end , check %or Plato (1:<K) in the re%erences at
the end o% this document. ('he date is the date o% the publication o% the version to which you
re%erred7 o(viously Plato did not write in 1:<K.) Sotice that (ooks and &ournal articles are mi*ed
up in this list o% re%erences7 otherwise you would not know which list Plato (1:<K) is in. Sote also
!"
the style o% (ook and &ournal articles (e$ 'horpe and /oscarola, 1::1) in this list o% re%erences.
The critical attitude
5ne o% the distin$uishin$ characteristics o% $ood research is that as much as possi(le is su(&ected
to critical analysis. 8ou should +uestion as much as possi(le. 1% the o(&ective o% the pro&ect is to
derive a 6$ood6 strate$y %or a particular purpose, what does 6$ood6 mean@ Dho says and how do
you know@ Dhy is this method appropriate@ Dhat are the potential %laws with this method and
how did you try to overcome them@ Dhat are the main weaknesses o% your research, and other
research in the %ield@ Try and anticipate and answer all possible criticisms of your research.
(u4lishing your research
1% you think your pro&ect deserves a wider audience you should consider pu(lishin$ it in a &ournal
or in some other %ormat. .sk your supervisor %or advice.
Chec-lists *hen starting a %ro.ect and 0inishing it
These are my suggestions for checking your initial project proposal:
1 Dhat outputs do you e*pect@ Drite down some e*amples o% the sort o% conclusions and
recommendations you mi$ht e*pect at the end o% your pro&ect.
! So what@ 1s the world , or at least part o% it , $oin$ to (e a (etter place once these
conclusions and recommendations have (een reached@
> .re you likely to (e a(le to $et the ri$ht data, and enou$h data, to &usti%y these
conclusions. Dhat i% a key stakeholder doesnIt like your results, conclusions or
recommendations@ ?ave you access to all the in%ormation you need@ Dill the in%ormation
(e su%%iciently accurate and relia(le@
# .re the aims challen$in$ (ut not so am(itious as to (e impossi(le with the limited
resources (time, etc) at your disposal@ 1t is o%ten a $ood idea to have a %airly restricted
%ocus that is analysed in depth.
< .re your research methods appropriate to achieve the aims@ 1% you have, say, three aims,
you must make sure that you have considered the methods %or achievin$ all three o% them.
"nd at the end of the project you should check that:
1 8our research aims, literature, analysis and conclusions are clearly linked to$ether. 1t is
important to (e very clear a(out how your conclusions and recommendations %ollow %rom
your analysis, and achieve the aims you set yoursel% at the start.
! 4emem(er that you are reportin$ a research pro&ect. 1t should (e clear %rom your write,
up that you have done some use%ul, systematic and ri$orous research. /ake sure that you
$ive enou$h detail %or this to (e clear.
> 9inally, check that your written pro&ect satis%ies the re+uirements in the $uidelines you
have (een $iven.
Re0erences
>eneral te,ts on research methods include &aunders et al +:??@-, 3obson +:??:-, Aasterby5
&mith et al +:??:-.
Burr, 3. (1::<). .n introduction to social constructionism. 0ondon: 4outled$e.
)aster(y,Smith, /., 'horpe, 4., T 0owe, .. (!""!). /ana$ement 4esearch: an introduction
(!
nd
edition). 0ondon: Sa$e.
)aster(y,Smith, /., 'horpe, 4., T 0owe, .. (1::1). /ana$ement 4esearch: an introduction.
!1
0ondon: Sa$e.
9eyera(end, P. H. (1:;<). .$ainst method: an outline o% an anarchistic theory o% knowled$e.
0ondon: Sew 0e%t Books.
Qardner, /. ., T .ltman, A. Q. (1:MK). -on%idence intervals rather than P values: estimation
rather than hypothesis testin$. British /edical ournal, !:!, ;#K,;<".
Qill, ., T ohnson, P. (1::1). 4esearch /ethods %or /ana$ers. 0ondon: Paul -hapman
Pu(lishin$ 0td.
?ardin$, S., T 0on$, '. (1::M). /B. mana$ement models. .ldershot: Qower.
?u%%, A. (1:;>). ?ow to lie with statistics. Pen$uin.
?usserl, ). (1:#K). Phenomenolo$y in )ncyclopaedia Britannica, 1#th edition, 3ol 1;,
K::,;"!.
Heeney, 4. 0. (1::!). 3alue,%ocused thinkin$: a path to creative decisionmakin$. -am(rid$e,
/assachusetts: ?arvard University Press.
/cQoldrick, P. /., T Qreenland, S. . (1::!). -ompetition (etween (anks and (uildin$
societies. British ournal o% /ana$ement, >, 1K:,1;!.
/iles, /. B., T ?u(erman, .. /. (1::#). 2ualitative data analysis (!nd edition). 0ondon:
Sa$e.
5akland, . S. (1:MK). Statistical process control. 0ondon: ?einemann.
5akland, (1:M:). 'otal 2uality /ana$ement. 5*%ord, ?einemann Pro%essional.
Pidd, /. (1::K). 'ool %or thinkin$: modellin$ in mana$ement science. -hichester: Diley.
Pidd, /. (!"">). 'ool %or thinkin$: modellin$ in mana$ement science (!
nd
edition). -hichester:
Diley.
Plato (1:<K). /eno (trans: Quthrie, D H -). ?armondsworth: Pen$uin.
Popper, H. (1:;M). -on&ectures and 4e%utations. 0ondon: 4.H.P.
2uinn, B7 /intB(er$, ?7 ames, 4 / (1:MM). 'he strate$y process: concepts, conte*ts and
cases. Prentice ?all.
4o(son, -. (!""!). 4eal Dorld 4esearch (!
nd
edition). 5*%ord: Blackwell.
4osenhead, . (1:M:). 4ational analysis %or a pro(lematic world: pro(lem structurin$ methods
%or uncertainty, comple*ity and con%lict. -hichester: Diley.
4ussell, Bertrand (1:K1). ?istory o% Destern Philosophy. Qeor$e .llen T Unwin.
Saunders, /., 0ewis, P., T 'hornhill, .. (!"">). 4esearch methods %or (usiness students (>
rd


edition). ?arlow: Pearson )ducation.
Stein, S. A. (1:::). 0earnin$, teachin$ and researchin$ on the internet: a practical $uide %or
social scientists. ?arlow: .ddison Desley 0on$man.
'horpe, 4., T /oscarola, . (1::1). Aetectin$ your research strate$y. /ana$ement )ducation
and Aevelopment, !!(!), 1!;,1>>.
Ulrich, D. (1:M>). -ritical heuristics o% social plannin$. Bern and Stutt$art: ?aupt.
Dood, /. (!"">). /akin$ sense o% statistics: a non,mathematical approach. Basin$stoke:
Pal$rave.
8in, 4. (1::#). -ase study research: desi$n and methods (!nd edition). 'housand 5aks, -.:
Sa$e.
!!
A((ENDICES
A note on :theory:
. NtheoryO is de%ined (y the $oncise 4,ford 1ictionary as a Nsupposition or system o% ideas
e*plainin$ somethin$, esp. one (ased on $eneral principles independent o% the particular thin$ to
(e e*plained.O 'his clearly hin$es on the meanin$ o% Ne*plainO , which is de%ined as Nmake
intelli$i(leO.
.ccordin$ to 4ussell (1:K1, p. <!), the word theory is derived %rom an 5rphic word
which can (e translated as Npassionate sympathetic contemplationO7 at %irst si$ht this is very
di%%erent %rom the modern meanin$ (ut in %act it %its well with the ethos o%, %or e*ample, the
research method o% participant o(servation.
'heory is o%ten contrasted with N%actsO and what happens Nin practiceO. . %act is Na thin$
that is known to have occurred, to e*ist or (e trueO, and Nin practiceO means Nwhen actually
applied, in realityO. . theory is thus a system o% ideas which e,plains somethin$, or makes it
intelligible, whereas %acts and practice are simply the reality o% what happens. (?owever, the
physicist, Sir .rthur )ddin$ton, dismisses the common assumption that %acts are more certain
than theory in physical science: 68ou should never (elieve any e*periment V%actW until it is
con%irmed (y theory6 , +uoted in 'he >uardian, anuary ;, 1::>).
'o $ive a concrete e*ample, it mi$ht (e a %act that a %irmIs sales have increased (y a
particular amount. . theory to e*plain this mi$ht (e the assertion that the increase in sales is the
result o% improved +uality in the products sold. 'he system o% ideas which %orms this theory is the
%act that +uality levels have improved, and the assertion that, in these circumstances, improved
+uality is likely to lead to increased sales. 'he theory is use%ul (ecause it $ives us a means o%
predictin$ when sales are likely to rise and so o% increasin$ sales in new situations. . list o% %acts
and o% what happens in practice may (e interestin$7 however to predict and control in new
situations, theory is needed. 'his reason %or $oin$ (eyond %acts and a simple description o%
practice, to theory, seems, to me, unanswera(le.
.ccordin$ to 2uinn, /intB(er$ and ames (1:MM) 6theories are use%ul (ecause they
shortcut the need to store masses o% data ... it is easier to remem(er a simple %ramework ... than
to remem(er every detail you ever o(served6 (p. *viii). ?owever, this misses the most important
%unction o% theory which is to help cope with new situations which you have not yet o(served.
?owever, even apart %rom this reason %or usin$ theory as a means o% $oin$ (eyond the
$iven %acts, theory is necessary %or de%inin$ the N%actsO. 'he a(ove e*ample depends on a way o%
measurin$ +uality. 'his can (e done in various ways , (y reported de%ect rates, (y customer
satis%action, or (y some other means. 5(viously, we need a system o% ideas de%inin$ +uality
(e%ore we can even claim to detect an increase. 'he re+uired theory mi$ht (e %ormal academic
theory, or it mi$ht (e provided (y Ncommon senseO. But in either case it is still a theory. 'he same
is true o% many other N%actsO: pro%ita(ility can only (e de%ined (y re%erence to theories o%
accountin$, %acts a(out or$anisational structures can only (e de%ined (y re%erence to the
appropriate theories. )ven a simple +uestionnaire desi$ned to elicit an attitude or an opinion
depends on the theory that people $ive true (or valid or meanin$%ul) answers to such +uestions.
('his is o%ten a rather du(ious theory.) 1n all these cases the %acts are de%ined (y the underlyin$
theory. 'he %acts cannot even e*ist without the theory, and di%%erent theories are likely to $ive rise
to di%%erent %acts. Dhether this applies to all %acts, or &ust some %acts, is an issue which need not
concern us here. 'he important thin$ is that it applies to many %acts o% interest to mana$ement
researchers.
'his means that the use o% theory is inevita(le and it is clearly important to use the (est
theory %or the purpose in hand.
!>
Ty%es and le3els o0 theory
Part o% the di%%iculty in discussin$ theory is that the sin$le term encompasses a very (road ran$e.
)*amples o% theories are the simple assertion that an improvement in +uality led to an increase in
sales (see a(ove), theories a(out how +uality can (e measured and monitored, mathematically
(ased theories such as the model %or calculatin$ the economic order +uantity, the theory that
speci%yin$ o(&ectives clearly increases the chances o% a pro&ect succeedin$, the theory that there
are particular cate$ories o% or$anisation, and, on a much more am(itious scale, the theory o% total
+uality mana$ement (5akland 1:M:). 'hese are all theories in the sense a(ove. 'hey are all use%ul
%or de%inin$ the %acts and %or providin$ e*planations a(out, %or e*ample, what to do in $iven
situations.
'heories may di%%er in their source: some come %rom academic pu(lications, while others
may (e derived %rom common sense. 'hey di%%er in their level o% $enerality. 'hey di%%er in the
sense in which they Ne*plainO thin$s: sometimes the e*planation leads to a prediction (%ollowin$
the '2/ way will lead to improvements in +uality which will lead to increases in sales)7
sometimes it merely cate$orises the possi(ilities , which is an essential prere+uisite %or
understandin$ and mana$in$ a situation. 'heories may (e stated in %ormal mathematical terms or
in in%ormal terms, which allow or even encoura$e di%%erin$ interpretations. 'heories di%%er in many
other ways. But they are all theories.
'he pro(lem %or the researcher is that o% choosin$, creatin$, or adaptin$, the (est theory
%or the purpose in hand. 1t is important to investi$ate all the possi(ilities and make the selection
care%ully.
Theories may 4e *rong or inade!uate
Scientists tend to think o% the current theory as the NtruthO. ?owever, even the history o% physical
science indicates that this is likely to (e a very limited perspective: there are many old NtruthsO ,
the earth (ein$ the centre o% the universe, atoms (ein$ unsplitta(le, matter indestructi(le , which
have (een replaced (y contradictory new NtruthsO. 1n mana$ement, %ew, i% any, theories command
respect %rom everyone. 'heories o% mana$ement are much more o(viously %alli(le and %or this
reason should not (e taken too seriously.
Conclusions
Dhat is the relationship (etween theory and mana$ement research@ 1 think that the discussion
a(ove demonstrates that:
1 'heories are necessary as a (ack$round %or a research pro&ect to de%ine the concepts and
terms in which the research is phrased. Aenyin$ this does not make it less true7 it &ust
means that the implicit theories underlyin$ the research will (e unacknowled$ed,
uncriticised, and, very likely, +uite unsuita(le %or the &o(.
! 'he only use%ul aim %or research is to make a contri(ution to theory, since a simple list o%
%acts or practices is o% little use. 'he %ollowin$ seem to me to (e the possi(le types o%
contri(ution:
(a) Aemonstratin$ that an e*istin$ theory applies to a particular situation and
showin$ how it can (e used in this situation: %or e*ample an application o% '2/
theory G to 5r$anisation 8.
(() /odi%yin$, ela(oratin$ or e*tendin$ an e*istin$ theory: %or e*ample
demonstratin$ that '2/ theory G, when applied to or$anisations o% type 8,
needs modi%yin$ in a particular way.
(c) -reatin$ a new theory.
(d) Aemonstratin$ that an e*istin$ theory is wron$ or useless.
!#
('he reader should (ear in mind that the theory presented here, a(out the role o% theory in
mana$ement research, is as %alli(le as any other theory and should (e not accepted uncritically. 1t
represents my analysis7 others may disa$ree.)
An e5am%le to sho* the analysis o0 !uestionnaire data
'he +uestionnaire was to o(tain %eed(ack %rom students on a course. 1t comprised one +uestion
askin$ %or the studentIs tutorial $roup (QP , an 6independent varia(le6), !1 +uestions askin$ %or
ratin$s o% di%%erent aspects o% the course on a 1,; scale (the 6dependent varia(les6), and two open
ended +uestions which were analysed separately. 'he data was entered in a spreadsheet, and then
the analysis was carried out usin$ SPSS (Statistical Packa$e %or the Social Sciences). 4e%no was
a re%erence num(er written on each +uestionnaire to identi%y it.
SPSS was used to produce histo$rams, means and standard errors %or each o% the !1
+uestions, and a (reakdown o% the scores (y tutorial $roup and an analysis o% variance to assess
the si$ni%icance o% these results. 1t could also $ive other statistics such as standard deviation,
skewness, kurtosis, minimum, ma*imum, etc. 'here were a total o% KK pa$es o% output o% which
one is (elow. (. len$thier +uestionnaire or a more detailed analysis can easily result in hundreds
o% pa$es o% output.)
1t would also (e possi(le to use a spreadsheet to do some, i% not all, o% the analysis.
!<
To% le0t o0 data s%readsheet
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(Sote that missin$ data is indicated (y leavin$ the cell (lank.)
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Source D/;/ S!uares S!uares Ratio (ro4/
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'otal <> 1>;.K#M1
#rou% Count Mean ,+ (ct Con0 Int 0or Mean Minimum Ma5imum
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