7 Transformers Illustrated

ELECTRICAL ENGG
FUNDAMENTALS
These lecture
slides have been
compiled by
Mohammed
LECTURE 7
SalahUdDin Ayubi.
Transformers
22 June 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 1
Electromagnetic
Induction
Suppose we were to wrap a coil of
insulated wire around a loop of
ferromagnetic material and energize
this coil with an AC voltage source.
Kirchhoff's voltage law describes how
the algebraic sum of all voltages in a
loop must equal zero.
Here, as in any one-source, one-load circuit, the voltage
dropped across the load must equal the voltage supplied by
the source, assuming zero voltage dropped across any
connecting wires. In other words, the load (inductor coil)
must produce an opposing voltage equal in magnitude to the
source, in order that it may balance against the source
voltage and produce an algebraic loop voltage sum of zero.

From Where Does This
Opposing Voltage Arise??
With a perfect inductor (no resistance in the coil wire),
the opposing voltage comes from another mechanism: the
reaction to a changing magnetic flux in the iron core.
Michael Faraday discovered the mathematical relationship
between magnetic flux (φ ) and induced voltage with this
equation:
e = N dφ /dt
Graphed, this shows
itself as a set of
sine waves (assuming
a sinusoidal voltage
source), the flux
wave 900 lagging
behind the voltage
wave:
MagnetoMotive Force,
Magnetic flux through mmf
a ferromagnetic material is
analogous to current through a conductor: it must be
motivated by some force in order to occur. In electric
circuits, this motivating force is voltage or EMF. In
magnetic "circuits," this motivating force is magnetomotive
force, or mmf.
mmf and magnetic flux (φ ) are related to each other by
a property of magnetic materials known as reluctance "ℜ".
The mmf required to produce this changing magnetic flux
(φ ) must be supplied by a changing current through the
coil.
 Magnetomotive force generated by an electromagnet coil
is equal to the amount of current through that coil
multiplied by the number of turns of that coil around the
core.22 The
June 2005SI unit for mmf is Mamp-turns.
Engineer S Ayubi 4
Magnetizing
Current
Because the mathematical relationships between magnetic
flux and mmf AND between mmf and current are directly
proportional (no rates-of-change present in either
equation), the current through the coil will be in-phase
with the flux wave.
This is why alternating
current through an inductor
lags the applied voltage
waveform by 900 because
that is what is required to
produce a changing magnetic
flux whose rate-of-change produces an opposing voltage in-
phase with the applied voltage. Due to its function in
providing magnetizing force (mmf) for the core, this
current is referred to as the magnetizing current.
Mutual
Consider the same
Inductance
inductor device, except
this time with a second
coil wrapped around the
same iron core. The
first coil is labeled the
primary coil, while the
second will be labeled
the secondary coil
If this secondary coil experiences the same magnetic flux
change as the primary and has the same number of turns
around the core, a voltage of equal magnitude and phase to
the applied voltage will be induced along its length. This
effect is called mutual inductance: the induction of a voltage in
one coil in response to a change in current in the other coil.
Mutual Inductance
(cont…)
Magnetomotive force is produced any time electrons move

through a wire. The only way the secondary coil's mmf may
exist is if a counteracting mmf is generated by the primary
coil, of equal magnitude and opposite phase. Indeed, this is
what happens, an alternating current forming in the primary
coil -1800 out of phase with the secondary coil's current- to
generate this counteracting mmf and prevent additional core flux.
Energy Coupling
When an AC voltage is applied
to the primary coil, it creates
a magnetic flux in the core,
which induces AC voltage in the
secondary coil in-phase with
the source voltage. Any
current drawn through the
secondary coil to power a load
induces a corresponding current
in the primary coil, drawing
current from the source.
Notice how the primary coil is behaving as a load with respect to
the AC voltage source, and how the secondary coil is behaving as
a source with respect to the resistor. Rather than energy
merely being alternately absorbed and returned by the primary
coil circuit, energy is now being coupled to the secondary coil
where it is delivered to a dissipative (energy-consuming) load. As
far as the source "knows," it's directly powering the resistor.
Transformer
We call this type of Primary winding Secondary winding
device a transformer,
because it transforms
electrical energy into Supply NP NS Load
magnetic energy, then
back into electrical
energy again.
Laminated iron core
Because its operation depends on electromagnetic induction
between two stationary coils and a magnetic flux of
changing magnitude and "polarity,“ transformers are
necessarily AC devices.
Its schematic symbol looks like
two inductors (coils) sharing
the same magnetic core:
Physical
Configuration
φ
i1(t) i2(t)
+ +
V1(t) V2(t)
- -
n1 turns n2 turns

Transformer Circuit
The fundamental significance of a transformer is its ability

to step voltage up or down from the powered ("primary")
coil to the unpowered ("secondary") coil. The AC voltage
induced in the secondary coil is equal to the AC voltage
across the primary coil multiplied by the ratio of secondary
coil turns to primary coil turns. If the secondary coil is
powering a load, the current through the secondary coil is
just the opposite: primary coil current multiplied by the
ratio of primary to secondary turns.
“Step-Up"
Transformer
A transformer that increases voltage from primary to
secondary (more secondary winding turns than primary
winding turns) is called a step-up transformer.

"Step-down"
Transformer
A transformer that decreases voltage from primary to
secondary (less secondary winding turns than primary
winding turns) is called a step-down transformer.

Transformatio
n Ratio
The voltage transformation ratio of
a transformer will be equal to the
square root of its primary to
secondary inductance (L) ratio.

Ideal Transformer
Winding resistances are zero, no leakage inductance and

iron loss
Magnetization current generates a flux that induces
voltage in both windings
N p Φm ω Im
Ep = Φm
2
Vp Ep Es = Vs
Ns Φm ω
Es =
2
Fig. Current, voltages and flux in
an unloaded ideal transformer
Ideal transformer
• Loaded transformer
Im + Ip Is
Φm
Vp Ep Φp Φs Es Vs
Load
Figure: Currents and fluxes in a loaded ideal transformer

Ideal transformer
(cont…)
• Transferring impedances through a transformer

VP T VS 2 VS
ZP = = =T Z P = T 2 Z load
IP  IS  IS
 
T 
IP IS
T
VP VS
Figure: Thevenin
Vac Zload
equivalents of
transformer
a) Original circuit with ideal
circuit
Transferring impedances
through a transformer
Figure: Thevenin equivalents of

transformer circuit
IP
b) Equivalent circuit when
Vac VP T2Zload
secondary impedance is
transferred to primary side and
ideal transformer eliminated
IS (c) Equivalent circuit when
primary source is transferred to
Vac /T VS Zload
secondary side and ideal
transformer eliminated
Real Transformer Φm
Φs_leakage
Figure: Leakage
flux in the real
transformer Φp_leakage
Xp Rp Ist Rs Xs
T
Im
Ip Is
Vp Xm Rc Ep Es Vs
Figure: Equivalent circuit of a real transformer

Useful And
Leakage
The Fluxcan be
actual flux in a transformer
regarded as being due to two components:
1)The useful flux linked with both
primary and secondary windings and
remaining practically constant in value
at all loads.
2)The leakage flux, half of which is
linked with the primary winding and
half with the secondary, and its
value is proportional to the load.
Leakage Flux
Leakage flux means that
some of the magnetic
field isn't linking with
the secondary coil, and
thus cannot couple
energy to it:
Consequently, this
"leakage" flux merely
stores and returns
energy to the source
circuit via self-inductance, effectively acting as a series
impedance in both primary and secondary circuits. Voltage
gets dropped across this series impedance, resulting in a
reduced load voltage: voltage across the load "sags" as load
current increases.
Equ Circuit With
Leakage

Transformer
Parameters
Determination of transformer
parameters by measurement
• Open circuit test
– Provides magnetizing reactance and core
loss resistance
– Obtain components are connected in
parallel
• Short circuit test
– Provides combined leakage reactance and
winding resistance
– Obtain components are connected in series

Circuit
Test
Po_p
Xp Rp Xs Rs
I W
Io_p
V Xm_p Rc_p
Vo_p
Figure: Equivalent circuit for open circuit

test, measurement at the primary side.
Po_p
I W Figure:
V
Io_p Simplified
Xm_p Rc_p
Vo_p
equivalent
circuit
Open Circuit Test
Theory
The transformer is connected to a supply at the
rated voltage and frequency.
The ratio of the voltmeter readings, V1/V2 gives the
ratio of the number of turns. The ammeter gives the
the no-load current.
The primary current on no-load is usually less than
5% of the full load current. Thus the no-load I2R loss
is less than 1/400 of the full load primary I2R loss
and is therefore, negligible compared with the core
loss.
Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as the
core loss of the transformer.
Circuit
Test
Psh _ s
Figure: Xp Rp Xs Rs
Equivalent W I
circuit for short Ish_ s

V
circuit test, Vsh _s
measurement at
the secondary
side
Xp / T2 Rp / T2 Xs Rs Psh_s
W I
Figure: Simplified Ish_s
V
equivalent circuit
Vsh_s
for short circuit test

Short Circuit
Test (cont…)
Primary and
Xe_s Re_s Psh_s
secondary
W I impedances
are combined
Ish_s
V
Rp
Vsh_s Re _ s = 2
+ Rs
T
Xp
Figure 5.37 Simplified circuit for Xe_s = 2
+ Xs
calculation of series impedance T

Short Circuit
Test
The secondary Theory
is short circuited through a
suitable ammeter and a low voltage is applied to
the primary circuit adjusted to circulate full-load
currents in the primary and secondary circuits.
The I2R loss is the same as that on full load.
The core loss is negligibly small, since the applied
voltage and thus the flux are only about 1/20 to
1/30 of the rated voltage and flux and core loss is
approximately proportional to the square of the
flux.
Hence the power registered on the wattmeter
can be taken as the I2R loss in the windings.
Efficiency Of
Transformer
The efficiency of a transformer
can be calculated by dividing its
output power by the input power
as:
Efficiency = Output Power / Input Power
η = Input power – Losses / Input Power
η = 1 – (Losses / Input Power)
The losses in a transformer are of two types:
1) I2R Losses in the primary and secondary windings
2) Core losses due to hysteresis and Eddy currents
Electrical
Isolation
Aside from the ability to easily convert between
different levels of voltage and current in circuits,
transformers also provide an extremely useful feature
called isolation, which is the ability to couple one circuit to
another without the use of direct wire connections.
The transformer isolates the common-mode voltage so
that it is not impressed upon the primary circuit at all, but
rather isolated to the secondary side.
There are applications where electrical isolation is needed
between two AC circuits without any transformation of
voltage or current levels. In these instances, transformers
called isolation transformers having 1:1 transformation
ratios are used.
Bench-Top Isolation
Transformer

Power Transformer
Here, the two inductor coils
can be clearly seen, wound
around an iron core with
copper-colored varnish
insulation. The top coil is
larger than the bottom coil,
having a greater number of
"turns" around the core. In
transformers, the inductor
coils are often referred to
as windings, in reference to
the manufacturing process
where wire is wound around
the core material.

Transformer Cross
A transformer is
shown cut in half,
Section
exposing the cross-
section of the iron
core as well as both
windings. The wire
gauge can also be seen
to differ between
primary and secondary
windings. Additionally,
the iron core can be
seen to be made of
many thin sheets
(laminations) rather
than a solid piece.
WINDING
CONFIGURATIONS
Multiple Winding
Here, three inductor coils (one
Transformer
primary winding, two secondary
windings) share a common
magnetic core, in which one
secondary winding is a step-
down and other is a step-up.
This design of transformer was quite common in vacuum tube
power supply circuits, which were required to supply low voltage
for the tubes' filaments (typically 6 or 12 volts) and high
voltage for the tubes' plates (several hundred volts) from a
nominal primary voltage of 110 volts AC. Not only are voltages
and currents of completely different magnitudes possible with
such a transformer, but all circuits are electrically isolated from
one another.
Multiple Ratios
Using Tapping
If electrical isolation
between secondary circuits
is not of great importance,
a similar effect can be
obtained by "tapping" a
single secondary winding at
multiple points along its
length, like this:
A tap is nothing more than a wire connection made at
some point on a winding between the very ends. Not
surprisingly, the winding turn/voltage magnitude
relationship of a normal transformer holds true for all
tapped segments of windings. This fact can be
exploited to produce a transformer capable of multiple
ratios:
Variable
Transformer
Carrying the
concept of winding
taps further, we
end up with a
"variable
transformer,"
A sliding contact is moved along the length of an
exposed secondary winding, able to connect with it
at any point along its length. The effect is
equivalent to having a winding tap at every turn of
the winding, and a switch with poles at every tap
position:
Auto
Transformer
A transformer
built from a
single winding is
called an Auto-
Transformer.
Step-Up Autotransformer.
Step-down
Autotransformer.

Transformer
Autotransformers find popular use in applications requiring
(cont…)
a slight boost or buck (reduction) in voltage to a load.
The prime advantage of an autotransformer is that

the same boosting or bucking function is obtained
with only a single winding, making it cheaper and
lighter to manufacture than a regular transformer
having both primary and secondary windings.
Variable Auto
LikeTransformer
regular transformers, (Variac)
autotransformer windings can be
tapped to provide variations in
ratio. Additionally, they can be
made continuously variable with a
sliding contact to tap the winding
at any point along its length.
The latter configuration is called a Variac. Small
variacs for benchtop use are popular pieces of
equipment for the electronics experimenter, being
able to step household AC voltage down (or
sometimes up as well) with a wide, fine range of
control by a simple twist of a knob.
Transformer Voltage
Regulation
The output voltage of a transformer varies some with
varying load resistances, even with a constant voltage
input. The degree of variance is affected by the primary
and secondary winding inductances and some other factors.
The measure of how well a transformer maintains
constant secondary voltage over a range of load currents is
called the transformer's voltage regulation.
"Full-load" means the point at which the

transformer is operating at maximum permissible
secondary current.
Transformer Voltage
Regulation (cont…)
Powering a simple resistive load, a good power
transformer should exhibit a regulation percentage of less
than 3%. Inductive loads tend to create a condition of
worse voltage regulation.
There are some applications, however, where poor
regulation is actually desired. One such case is in discharge
lighting, where a step-up transformer is required to
initially generate a high voltage (necessary to "ignite" the
lamps), then the voltage is expected to drop o® once the
lamp begins to draw current. This is because discharge
lamps' voltage requirements tend to be much lower after a
current has been established through the arc path. In this
case, a step-up transformer with poor voltage regulation
suffices nicely for the task of conditioning power to the lamp.
Ferro-Resonant
TheTransformer
ferroresonant
transformer is a
power transformer
engineered to operate
in a condition of
persistent core
saturation.
Its iron core is "stuffed full" of magnetic lines of flux for
a large portion of the AC cycle so that variations in supply
voltage (primary winding current) have little effect on the
core's magnetic flux density, which means the secondary
winding outputs a nearly constant voltage despite significant
variations in supply (primary winding) voltage.
Ferro-Resonant
Transformer
The (cont..)
core saturation in a ferroresonant transformer
results in distortion of the sine-wave shape.
To combat this side effect, ferroresonant
transformers have an auxiliary secondary winding
paralleled with one or more capacitors, forming a
resonant circuit tuned to the power supply
frequency.
This "tank circuit" serves as a filter to reject
harmonics created by the core saturation, and
provides the added benefit of storing energy in the
form of AC oscillations, which is available for sustaining
output winding voltage for brief periods of input voltage loss.
Impedance
Transformation
Impedance transformation is a highly useful ability of
transformers, for it allows a load to dissipate its full rated
power even if the power system is not at the proper
voltage to directly do so.
The transformation
ratio of impedance
is the square of the
voltage/current
transformation
ratio, the same as
the winding
inductance ratio:
Transformation
If we're trying to obtain theoretical maximum power
(cont..1)
dissipation from a load, we must be able to properly match
the load impedance and source impedance together.
Let's take an audio amplifier
system and see how it
works:With an internal
impedance of 500 Ω , the
amplifier can only deliver full
power to a load (speaker)
also having 500 Ω of
impedance. Such a load
would drop higher voltage
and draw less current than
an 8 Ω speaker dissipating
the same amount of power.
Transformation
If an 8 Ω speaker were connected directly to the 500 Ω
(cont..2)
amplifier as shown, the impedance mismatch would result in
very poor (low peak power) performance. Additionally, the
amplifier would tend to dissipate more than its fair share
of power in the form of heat trying to drive the low
impedance speaker.
To make this system work
better, we can use a
transformer to match these
mismatched impedances.
Since we're going from a
high impedance (high voltage,
low current) supply to a low impedance (low voltage, high

current) load, we'll need to use a step-down transformer:
Impedance Matching
Transformer
To obtain an impedance transformation ratio of 500:8, we would need
a winding ratio equal to the square root of 500:8 (the square root of
62.5:1, or 7.906:1). With such a transformer in place, the speaker
will load the amplifier to just the right degree, drawing power at the
correct voltage and current levels to make the most efficient power
delivery to the load.
The use of a transformer

in this capacity is called
impedance matching.
Impedance matching
transformers are not
basically different from
any other type of
transformer in construction
or appearance.
Potential
Transformer
A Potential Transformer (PT) is a special
instrument transformer designed to provide a
precise voltage step-down ratio for voltmeters
measuring high power system voltages.

Current
Transformer
A Current Transformer (CT) is a special instrument
transformer designed to step down the current
through a power line to a safe level for an
ammeter to measure.

Air-Core
AnotherTransformer
kind of special transformer, seen often in
radio-frequency circuits, is the air core
transformer.An air core transformer has its
windings wrapped around a nonmagnetic form,
usually a hollow tube of some material. The degree
of coupling (mutual inductance) between windings in
such a transformer is many times less than that of
an equivalent iron-core transformer, but the
undesirable characteristics of a ferromagnetic core
(eddy current losses, hysteresis, saturation, etc.)
are completely eliminated. It is in high-frequency
applications that these effects of iron cores are
most problematic.
PRACTICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
Transformer Power
Capacity
Transformers must be well designed in order to achieve acceptable
power coupling, tight voltage regulation, and low exciting current
distortion. Also, transformers must be designed to carry the
expected values of primary and secondary winding current without
any trouble. Not only do the windings have to be well insulated from
the iron core, but each winding has to be sufficiently insulated from
the other in order to maintain electrical isolation between windings.
Respecting these limitations, transformers are rated for certain
levels of primary and secondary winding voltage and current.
Sometimes windings will bear current ratings in amps, but this is
typically seen on small transformers. Large transformers are almost
always rated in terms of winding voltage and VA or kVA.
Transformer
Energy
When transformersLosses
transfer power,
they do so with a minimum of loss.
Resistance Loss in Wire
Windings (I 2
R Loss)
There is, of course, power lost due to resistance of the
wire windings. Unless superconducting wires are used, there
will always be power dissipated in the form of heat through
the resistance of current-carrying conductors.
Because transformers require such long lengths of wire,
this loss can be a significant factor.
Increasing the gauge of the winding wire is one way to
minimize this loss, but only with substantial increases in
cost, size, and weight.
Core
Losses Eddy
Losses
The most significant of the
Current
"core losses" is eddy-current loss, which
is resistive power dissipation due to the passage of induced currents
through the iron of the core.
Currents are induced in the iron just as there are currents induced in the
secondary windings from the alternating magnetic field. These induced
currents tend to circulate through the cross-section of the core
perpendicularly to the primary winding turns, like eddies in a stream of
water that circulate rather than move in straight lines.
Iron is a fair conductor of electricity, but not as good as the copper
or aluminum from which wire windings are typically made. Consequently,
these "eddy currents" must overcome significant electrical resistance as
they circulate through the core. In overcoming the resistance offered by the
iron, they dissipate power in the form of heat. Eddy current losses
increase with frequency.
Eddy Current Losses,
Minimizing
The Techniques
main strategy in mitigating these wasteful eddy currents in
transformer cores is to form the iron core in sheets, each sheet
covered with an insulating varnish so that the core is divided up into
thin slices. The result is very little width in the core for eddy
currents to circulate in: Laminated cores like the one shown here are
standard in almost all low-frequency transformers.
Another, similar technique is to make the core out of iron powder

instead of thin iron sheets. Like the lamination sheets, these granules
of iron are individually coated in an electrically insulating material,
which makes the core nonconductive except for within the width of
each granule. Powdered iron cores are often found in transformers
handling radio-frequency currents.
Magnetic
Hysteresis
Another Losses
"core loss" is that of magnetic hysteresis. All
ferromagnetic materials tend to retain some degree of
magnetization after exposure to an external magnetic field.
This tendency to stay magnetized is called
"hysteresis," and it takes a certain investment in
energy to overcome this opposition to change every
time the magnetic field produced by the primary
winding changes polarity (twice per AC cycle).
The hysteresis loss can be mitigated through good core
material selection (choosing a core alloy with low
hysteresis, as evidenced by a "thin" B/H hysteresis curve),
and designing the core for minimum flux density (large
cross-sectional area).
Stray Capacitance And
Inductance
Like their simpler counterparts –inductors- transformers
exhibit capacitance due to the insulation dielectric between
conductors: from winding to winding, turn to turn (in a
single winding), and winding to core.
Usually this capacitance is of no concern in a power
application, but small signal applications (especially those of
high frequency) may not tolerate this quirk well.
Also, the effect of having capacitance along with the
windings‘ designed inductance gives transformers the ability
to resonate at a particular frequency, definitely a design
concern in signal applications where the applied frequency
may reach this point (usually the resonant frequency of a
power transformer is well beyond the frequency of the AC
power it was designed to operate on).
Stray Capacitance And
Inductance (cont…)
Closely related to the issue of flux containment
is leakage inductance. Because leakage inductance
is equivalent to an inductance connected in series
with the transformer's winding, it manifests itself
as a series impedance with the load. Thus, the
more current drawn by the load, the less voltage
available at the secondary winding terminals.
Flux containment (making sure a transformer's
magnetic flux doesn't escape so as to interfere with
another device, and making sure other devices' magnetic
flux is shielded from the transformer core) is another
concern in transformer design.
Transformer Core
Saturation
Transformers are also constrained in their performance by the magnetic
flux limitations of the core. Ferromagnetic materials cannot support
infinite magnetic flux densities: they tend to "saturate" at a certain level
(dictated by the material and core dimensions), meaning that further
increases in mmf do not result in proportional increases in magnetic flux.
When a transformer's primary winding is overloaded from excessive
applied voltage, the core flux may reach saturation levels during peak
moments of the AC sine-wave cycle. If this happens, the voltage induced in
the secondary winding will no longer match the wave-shape as the voltage
powering the primary coil. In other words, the overloaded transformer will
distort the wave-shape from primary to secondary windings, creating
problematic harmonics in the secondary winding's output.
Other causes of abnormal transformer core saturation
are operation at frequencies lower than normal and the
presence of DC current in the primary winding.
Core Saturation
Minimization
For most transformers, core saturation is a very
undesirable effect, and it is avoided through good design:
engineering the windings and core so that magnetic flux
densities remain well below the saturation levels.
This ensures that the relationship between mmf and
flux is more linear throughout the flux cycle, which is
good because it makes for less distortion in the
magnetization current waveform.
Also, engineering the core for low flux densities
provides a safe margin between the normal flux peaks
and the core saturation limits to accommodate
occasional, abnormal conditions such as frequency
variation and DC offset.
Transformers
Summary
The powered inductor in a transformer is called the
primary winding. The unpowered inductor in a transformer
is called the secondary winding.
Magnetic flux in the core lags 900 behind the source
voltage waveform. The current drawn by the primary coil
from the source to produce this flux is called the
magnetizing current, and it lags the supply voltage by 900.
 Total primary current in an unloaded transformer is
called the exciting current, and is comprised of magnetizing
current plus any additional current necessary to overcome
core losses. It is never perfectly sinusoidal in a real
transformer, but may be made more so if the transformer
is designed and operated so that magnetic flux density is
kept to a minimum.
Transformers
Summary (cont…1)
Core flux induces a voltage in any coil wrapped around
the core. The induces voltage(s) are ideally in phase with the
primary winding source voltage and share the same waveshape.
Any current drawn through the secondary winding by a
load will be "reflected" to the primary winding and drawn
from the voltage source, as if the source were directly
powering a similar load.
Transformers "step up" or "step down" voltage according
to the ratios of primary to secondary wire turns.
Voltage transformation ratio = Nsecondary / Nprimary
Current transformation ratio = Nprimary / Nsecondary
where, N = number of turns in winding
Transformers
Summary
By being (cont…2)
able to transfer power from one circuit to
another without the use of interconnecting conductors
between the two circuits, transformers provide the useful
feature of electrical isolation.
Transformers designed to provide electrical isolation
without stepping voltage and current either up or down are
called isolation transformers.
The phase relationships for voltage and current between
primary and secondary circuits of a transformer are
direct: ideally, zero phase shift.
The dot convention is a type of polarity marking for
transformer windings showing which end of the winding is
which, relative to the other windings.
Transformers
Summary
Transformers can be equipped(cont…3)
with more than just a
single primary and single secondary winding pair. This
allows for multiple step-up-down ratios in the same device.
Transformer windings can be tapped that is, intersected
at many points to segment a single winding into sections.
Variable transformers can be made by providing a
movable arm that sweeps across the length of a winding,
making contact with the winding at any point along its
length. The winding, of course, has to be bare (no
insulation) in the area where the arm sweeps.
An autotransformer is a single, tapped inductor coil used
to step up or step down voltage like a transformer.
A Variac is a variable autotransformer.
Transformers
Summary (cont…4)
Voltage regulation is the measure of how well a power
transformer can maintain constant secondary voltage given
a constant primary voltage and wide variance in load
current. The lower the percentage (closer to zero), the
more stable the secondary voltage and the better the
regulation it will provide.
A ferroresonant transformer is a special transformer
designed to regulate voltage at a stable level despite wide
variation in input voltage.
Transformers can be used to transform impedance as well
as voltage and current. When this is done to improve power
transfer to a load, it is called impedance matching.
An air-core transformer is one lacking a ferromagnetic core.
Transformers
Summary
A Tesla (cont…5)
Coil is a resonant, air-core, step-up transformer
designed to produce very high AC voltages at high frequency.
A Potential Transformer (PT) is a special instrument
transformer designed to provide a precise voltage step-down
ratio for voltmeters measuring high power system voltages.
A Current Transformer (CT) is another special instrument
transformer designed to step down the current through a
power line to a safe level for an ammeter to measure.
A saturable reactor is a special type of inductor, whose
inductance can be controlled by the DC current through a
second winding around the same core. With enough DC
current, the magnetic core can be saturated, decreasing
the inductance of the power winding in a controlled fashion.
Transformers
Summary
Power transformers are limited(cont…6)
in the amount of power they
can transfer from primary to secondary winding(s). Large
units are typically rated in VA or kVA (kilo-volt-amps).
Resistance in transformer windings contributes to
inefficiency, as current will dissipate heat, wasting energy.
Magnetic effects in a transformer's iron core also
contribute to inefficiency. Among the effects are eddy
currents (circulating induction currents in the iron core) and
hysteresis (power lost due to overcoming the tendency of iron
to magnetize in a particular direction).
Increased frequency results in increased power losses within
a power transformer. The presence of harmonics in a power
system is a source of frequencies significantly higher than
normal, which may cause overheating in large transformers.
Transformers
Summary
Transformers (cont…7)
harbor certain unavoidable amounts of
capacitance due to wire insulation (dielectric) separating
winding turns from the iron core and from each other. This
capacitance can be significant enough to give the transformer
a natural resonant frequency, which can be problematic in
signal applications.
Leakage inductance is caused by magnetic flux not being 100%
coupled between windings in a transformer. Any flux not involved
with transferring energy from one winding to another will store and
release energy, which is how (self-) inductance works. Leakage
inductance tends to worsen a transformer's voltage regulation.
Magnetic saturation of a transformer core may be caused by
excessive primary voltage, operation at too low of a frequency,
and/or by the presence of a DC current in any of the windings.
Transformers
Summary (cont…8)
Transformer core Saturation may be minimized or avoided
by conservative design, which provides an adequate margin
of safety between peak magnetic flux density values and
the saturation limits of the core.
Transformers often experience significant inrush currents
when initially connected to an AC voltage source. Inrush
current is most severe when connection to the AC source is
made at the moment instantaneous source voltage is zero.
Noise is a common phenomenon exhibited by transformers
-especially power transformers- and is primarily caused by
magnetostriction of the core. Physical forces causing
winding vibration may also generate noise under conditions
of heavy (high current) secondary winding load.
Single Phase
Transformer
A) Core type B) Shell type

Small Transformer
Construction Iron core
Insulation
Secondary
winding
Terminals
Small transformer construction

a) Lamination, b) Iron core with winding
Winding
Construction
Primary
Winding
Wires Holder
Secondary
Winding
Insulation
Winding Construction
Oil insulated and
cooled transformer Bushing
Steel
Iron core tank
behind the steel
bar
Winding
Insulation
Radiator

Dry-type Three-phase
Transformer

High Voltage
Transformer
High voltage
bushing
Large Oil
Low voltage
Oil tank bushing cooled high
voltage
transformer
Cooling
radiators

Three Phase Network
Transformer
Very large three-phase network transformer.

Gigantic Sub-Station
Transformer

7 Transformers Illustrated

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ELECTRICAL ENGG

22 June 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 2

Magnetomotive force is produced any time electrons move

22 June 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 10

The fundamental significance of a transformer is its ability

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Winding resistances are zero, no leakage inductance and

Figure: Currents and fluxes in a loaded ideal transformer

• Transferring impedances through a transformer

Figure: Thevenin equivalents of

Figure: Equivalent circuit of a real transformer

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Figure: Equivalent circuit for open circuit

circuit for short Ish_ s

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22 June 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 37

The prime advantage of an autotransformer is that

"Full-load" means the point at which the

low current) supply to a low impedance (low voltage, high

The use of a transformer

22 June 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 48

22 June 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 49

Another, similar technique is to make the core out of iron powder

A) Core type B) Shell type

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Small transformer construction

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22 June 2005 Engineer M S Ayubi 74

Very large three-phase network transformer.

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