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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy
Benjamin Gal-Or, Vol. 4, Scribd, July 2008
Free, Core Curriculum Course (CCC), 207 pages
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
5.3
One must always look beyond earth , the
5.1; 5.3 5.4
solar system , our galaxy and our
5.5
local group of galaxies , while
comprehending about the dark-cold,
4.4
expanding-‘voids’-Space-1 that wraps
4.13
all superclusters of galaxies (Diagram
below) and assessing its everlasting
control on everyday life, and its origin
(p.20; p.89).
Our universe contains billions of gravity-structured galaxies (e.g., upper picture), each
(e.g., right), containing billions of gravity-structured stars. Only Space-1 expands
(Diagram & Figs. 1.1; 1.2, p.4). Without its expansion no process in the cosmos, including
4.1
life, is possible (p.9-13, 89). Gravity and Space-1-Expansion generate all chemistry ,
4.3
plant and animal behavior (Chapter 6), black holes , time, biological time, brain-mind
perceptions (p.12), orientation, written languages, socio-biological concepts [Chapters
5 & 6], gravity-natural-selection and key concepts in the ‘exact & life sciences’ and the
‘humanities’ (Chapters 1 to 8).
Space 1 Space 2
wraps
clusters
DIAGRAM: Space-1-Expansion is the UNSATURABLE SINK for all energy pouring into
4.15
it from all shining sources (p.4). It is composed of adiabatic envelopes (a), (b), (c)
4.13; 5.5
that wrap all clusters and superclusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.2 below]. Gravity and
4.12 4.1;4.2 3.4
Space-1-Expansion generate all structures , chemistry , time-asymmetries ,
written languages and brain-mind perceptions (Parts A to D). This worldwide acclaimed
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
outlook (p.2) opens new intellectual horizons by crossing frozen disciplines and re-
assessing afresh key concepts in the ‘exact & life sciences’ and the ‘humanities’.
Fig. 1.1: Space-1 Genesis. Expansion of the previously opaque universe (Chapter 1,
p.40) forms the shown expanding, cold ‘voids’ [SPACE-1, (Blue)] and hotter matter
emitters of radiation in Spaces 3 & 2 (p.3). Space-1 was formed below 3000K (starting at
3.2
around 300,000 years post Genesis). Photons, neutrinos and anti-neutrinos then
escaped from the newly-formed aggregations of nuclei, and were irreversibly
absorbed in the newly-formed, unsaturable sink: SPACE-1 [Fig. 1.2 below]. About 2
billion years post Genesis, these gravity-induced, proto-massive-entities, were
4.2
already condensed and heated for nuclear fusion to start. This NASA picture
shows that, on a large scale, the early universe was isotropic and homogeneous in
terms of distribution of cold ‘voids’, hot matter-structures-emitters and their
4.1
maximum temperatures . There had been no net energy flow across adiabatic
4.15
envelopes in Space-1. [Cf. Fig. 1.2 below]
Fig. 1.2: The largest portrait of the universe [NASA]. The ‘voids’ that compose Space-
1 (dark-cold spaces observed in between shining filaments or clouds of superclusters),
have increased in size (Cf. Fig. 1.1) These ‘voids’ are interconnected in Space-1.
Uniform maximum temperatures, isotropic & homogenous distribution of ‘voids’ &
galaxies are preserved (CF. Fig. 1.1). No net flow of energy from one adiabatic
4.15
‘envelope’ to another exists. These ‘envelopes’ wrap all superclusters. Studying
one is similar to the difficult study of the whole universe. As a student, in 1958, I
3.4
discovered the origin of irreversibility & time-asymmetries by examining just one
28 4.3
such envelope (Appendix IV, p. 163). Above 10 K, at black-hole’s gravitational-energy
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
3.1-3.3 3.3
density, all fields-forces-interactions in nature are unified with ‘gravitation’ --
the sole origin of all structures since Genesis. [p.6; Table I & Assertion 1.1, p. 47]
SYNOPSIS I
________________________________________
More than ever before the recent discoveries in astronomy and space
research have forced us to re-assess many of our fundamental concepts
in most branches of science and philosophy. Nevertheless, the
Einsteinian relativistic gravity3.3 and quantum physics3.2 remain two
different physico-philosophical world outlooks that are in constant
conflict with each other3.5.
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
The ‘Exact & Life Sciences’ Branch focuses first on failures to unify
the fundamental forces-fields-interactions in nature3.1-3.5, while claiming
that the key reasons for these failures are:
Assertion S.1
Beyond the issue of unifying fundamental physics [Chapter 3], this branch
deals with astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology [Chapter 4], gravity-
induced orientation, balancing, socio-biology, biological clocks and
some medical treatments. [Chapter 6; This Synopsis] as well as with the
limitations of applied mathematics, mathematically-based definitions,
statements, theories and computer ‘proofs’ [Chapter 8].
Recent Discoveries
Recent astronomical discoveries combined with advances in
gravitational socio-biology [Chapter 6, p.89 and Refs. 9, 50], have generated a
revolution in our understanding of the most critical roles gravity has
played from the early cosmos to the origin of life, language and brain-
mind perception of the world and everyday life.
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Heart Failure vs. Gravity, say, in swollen legs, or flooded lungs cases
involves the use of the gravity vector in medical treatments [64].
Nevertheless, the cardinal role gravity plays in the treatment of
gravity-induced disorders in human biological systems, perception,
health and longevity has been largely overlooked by health providers
and bio-medical researchers, partly because the key role of gravity as
the universal generator of all bio-structures, physiological forms,
locations, disorders, orientation and organization has not yet been well
appreciated. [9, 50, Volume I]
Gravity penetrates all space and all physical and biological structures. It
affects all cells in our body-brain, as well as plant growth and animal
and human orientation and behavior in everyday life [Assertion S.1; Parts A &
B]. It also controls all ecological systems, while affecting the origin,
growth and performance of cells in living organisms.
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
We are the ashes of dead stars, the remnants of a supernovae4.1 that had
exploded when the universe has already passed more than half of its
present age. Except hydrogen and helium, all chemical elements in the
cosmos, and in our body, had been originated inside supernovae. The
sin of these exploding massive stars was to convert, by nuclear fusion4.2,
their light chemical elements, (hydrogen and helium) to heavier ones
[oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, etc.], more quickly than do smaller stars, like
our sun.
It is always gravitation that plays the central role in the "selection"
of the structures to be produced: First in controlling the cosmic
expansion of inter-superclusters Space-14.4, then in forcing chemical
evolution through a succession of specific reactions in which evolution
means the development of complex elements from simple ones, i.e., of
oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, etc. out of the hydrogen and helium in
the stars4.1. [Hydrogen and helium make up about 99% of all observable
matter in the universe. Hence, we and the planets in the solar system5.1,
constitute just a little dirty stain in the vast ‘clean’ universe.]
Gravity is the only 'suitable' force that can build all the elements in
the chemical periodic table by successively adding, in the hot interiors
of active stars, small increments of mass and electric charge in selected
combinations that are controlled by its force4.2. Thus, the building
blocks of life had been originated by gravitation, and the entire
evolution of life has since been controlled by it. [p.89]
Following such cosmological expansion and massive stars
explosions4.1, the newly formed chemical elements cool and may
combine to form molecules in deep-cold space, which is not entirely
‘empty’. In fact, the first local "aggregates" of matter in the solar system
already contained some simple molecules, including some based on
carbon.
Again it was gravity that stratified all chemical compounds in
‘horizontal’ layers according to their specific gravity. Indeed, the
geological strata of layers of rocks composed of one material, e.g., shale
or limestone, lying between rock beds of other materials, have been
structured by the "selective force of gravity”.
Life is strongly affected and shaped by gravity. Some specific
organelles and nuclei in biological cells are "heavier" than the rest of
the cell, and serve as prime gravity-orientators. Such gravity
orientators-pointers also allow plants to grow "vertically upward".
Thus, gravity controls the direction of growth in roots, leaves,
branches, etc. It also affects the movement of animals [50] in the sense
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
Since all plants and animals have evolved under the influence of
gravity, their form and structural development are strongly shaped by
this pointed force. In turn, they have "learned" to exploit it and even to
cope with it - learned in the evolutionary as well as in the ontogenetic
sense of the development of the organism.
The sensing devices which plants and animals use for "gravity
perception" ("gravity receptors", "g-perception", "bio-
accelerometers", "gravity-induced biological clocks", etc.) are not yet
well understood, even though a voluminous literature has been
published on this subject.
But what we already know justifies the central role we expect gravity to
play in life origin, control, orientation and adaptive processes. For
instance, we know that if a growing higher plant is displaced with
respect to the "upright" position, some tens of minutes later it will adapt
its growth in such a way as to restore its original orientation in
coincidence with the gravity vector. (If it is displaced only briefly and
then restored to its original orientation well before the growth response
can set in, it still responds to that displacement.) Indirect, gravity-
induced orientation-adaptation of an organism may also occur when an
organism orients itself by a gradient of density differences, or
hydrostatic pressure.
The connection between gravitation and the origin of life, on one hand,
and between gravitation and form, adaptive structure, growth rate,
growth direction, adaptive behavior, navigation, and adaptive space
perception, on the other, must therefore be studied. Indeed, a
considerable empirical evidence has been accumulated so far on these
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Arrows of Time
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is equipped with an 'arrow of time' that 'forces order in our speech and
life' and always points 'from past to future', and never in reverse.
Synopsis II
There is hardly any good reason to select a level prior to reading the first
pages, Synopsis I and the 9 Assertions in the Introduction (p. 32).
Level III. The Central Theme (p. 6) crosses frozen disciplines in both the
‘exact sciences’ and the ‘humanities’.
For graduate students this level is suitable for a two-semester
course that includes selective parts of Volumes I and II, the footnotes and
the Appendices provided here.
It is in Volume I where one finds mathematically-based theories,
refutations of false ‘proofs’, critique of various ‘established’ theories,
derivations of Einstein’s Field Equations [general relativity], quantum-
statistical thermodynamics, Quantum Chromo-Dynamic [QCD], higher
levels of philosophy and re-assessment of the nature of time, time arrows,
linguistics and current studies of brain-mind aggregations-perceptions.
Volume II: Critique of Western Thought, provides six Lectures,
mainly in the domain of the ‘humanities’. The autodidactive methodology
[self-help] is best used when there is no qualified CCC-Coordinator, or
when this book is used by faculty, independent scientists, people of the
arts, theists, or dropouts, for themselves.
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
Pedagogical Features
In writing this Volume IV, I continue the effort to simplify and update
Volumes I & II and make them more suitable for a wider circle of readers,
researchers, faculty and students. For that purpose I include new
pedagogical features that help support the integration of this CCC
with the new world outlook presented here.
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
Full worldwide acceptance has been delayed until the 80’s, with the
publication of Volume I, and its subsequent editions.
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
The essence of
Space-1-expansion
[Diagram; Figs. 1.1; 1.2],
and of relativistic
gravity cosmology,
are not easy to grasp.
I shall therefore
assume the position
of a tourist guide of a Quantum Physicists Attack Symmetry
Virtual Deep-Space
Tour [Chapter 7] aimed Breaking Discovered in
at discovering the Quantum Kaonic Systems [CPT Breaking]
ORIGIN and CAUSE
of radiation-energy gradients around stars, galaxies, clusters and super-
clusters of galaxies4.13; gradients4.13 that generate all irreversible processes in
nature, including those that lead to life.
The key mission during the Tour is to search for ‘adiabatic envelopes’4.15 that
wrap filaments or clouds of clusters or super-clusters of galaxies. These
clusters and superclusters are like islands of non-expanding, gravity-bounded
aggregations, in expanding, unsaturable sink. It is to this sink that all ‘solar-
wind-type’ of radiation-energy in the universe is irreversibly pouring in. Local
quasars4.14 and black holes4.3 form additional, local sinks. Their ancestors, the
massive gravitational aggregations4.1; 4.2; 4.5; 4.14, also had come into being by
Space-1-Expansion. [Diagram p.3; Figs. 1.1; 1.2, p.3]. The universal sink is composed of a
large number of interconnected ‘voids’ and adiabatic cells4.15 [Diagram, sites (a), (b),
(c,] each imaginary adiabatic envelope ‘encages’ a super-cluster or
superclusters of galaxies by no-net-flow of energy across its isotropic and
homogeneous, large-scale, geometrical boundaries. [Fig. 1.2, p.4, p.3]
During the tour I must cross frozen disciplines and bring home the evidence
about the MASTER ARROW OF TIME [Volume I].
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
Assertion 001
There is no fence outside the cosmos. [S. Hawking and his club (Appendix III,
p.160), have claimed that they had invented ‘The Theory of Everything’. Indeed, it
-35
accepts no fence for there is no one below their smallest ‘thing’ (10 meter) or outside
the biggest one: the Cosmos. Nevertheless, they had to retract from that claim.
4.6-4.11
Moreover, their ‘string theories’ are not scientific [51, 53]. Their smallest scale is
more than 15 orders of magnitude below any verification scale of any current --
-19
and expected -- experimental technique in science (10 meter).
Hence, it is better to begin this course and worldoutlook with key verified
facts about the cosmos, and we already possess them. [Cf. Figs. 1.1, 1.2,
p.4, and Table I, p.40], We can then work back and forth between these
reliable facts and general relativistic cosmology, instead of with
microphysics and then proceeding up the scale to explain the overall
cosmic facts, for, unlike the strong force3.2 in quantum physics,
gravitation3.3 penetrates all, is scale-free and constitutes the greatest
macro builder in the universe. Moreover, according to the great Greek
philosopher Plato: Everything is connected with everything else.
Therefore, any reliable definition must begin with 'the whole universe', or
fail. [Chapter 4, p.70].
Mathematically-based theories that predict a new entity that is verified by
independent experimentation, or astronomical observations, is an
essential part of verifiable science. Otherewise it is neither complete nor
in verified science. (Chapter 8, p.106]
VOLUME I
Introduction …………..………………………..…………………. 2
1.1 The Revival of Relativistic Cosmology vs. Modified
Concepts in Physics and Philosophy …………………...….… 2
1.1.1 The problem of ordering ……………………...….… 3
1.1.2 How did it all start? ………………………………... 5
1.1.3 The first seven stages …………………………….... 7
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VOLUME II
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VOLUME III
THE FIRST ONLINE DRAFT OF THE FREE CORE CURRICULUM COURSE
1. Introduction ………………………………………..…………… 11
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Synopsis I ………………….……………………………………….….…. 5
Contents
Volume I ……………………………………………………..………………...…. 20
Volume II ……..………………………………………………………………....… 25
Volume III ………………….……………………………………………...…..….. 26
Volume IV ……………………………………….………………………….….… 27
INTRODUCTION
PART A
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
PART B
PART C
PART D
APPENDICES
I: Homework and Grading ……………………………………..... 123
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Credits & About the Author ………………………………………… 207
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
One noted scientist [B. Gal-Or], even affirms that the stress placed by
Genesis, Chapter one, on ‘beginning’ and the initial roles of ‘void’, ‘light’
and a ‘structure-less’ state, “may be uncannily close to the verified
evidence with which modern science has already supplied us.”
Christian Apologetics, Journal
One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe/ It
was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper. It looks at physics and
the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical
understanding. It also combines the physical concept of time with human
psychological perception and brain understanding of languages.
Robin (forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made
pages of notes on it. I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks
with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on
with them!
Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times
and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory
and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to be left to the
philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the
scheme of things – and by so much more!
I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion
is the origin of all asymmetry in time. What an ingenious phrase is your,
“smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”!
I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two
books – at the very least.
One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful
mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable
consequences.
John A. Wheeler
Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
Gal-Or's remarkable book [Parts A & B] sees and seizes the world whole.
He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of
philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is self-
delusion. Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the
philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism.
One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay
between symmetry and asymmetry. His primary interest is not in the
recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he
finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's
arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future. Around time are
accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of
thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality,
and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations.
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
Introduction
Notes to Readers, Students, Mentors and Professors
About 30 minutes past the time, while I was still working hard in re-
polishing the lecture, a shy student opened the door of my office to
politely inform me that 5 minutes ago all students had left the
classroom. The whole university laughed.
Years ago, I tried to simplify Volume I and adapt it for easier reading
by all readers and by students outside the domains of physics and
philosophy. Being a prisoner of the style, quest and mission of
Volumes I, it was almost impossible to simplify and abridge the 300
mathematical equations and 520-pages. That draft was therefore
abandoned and forgotten.
* * *
Until around the mid-Thirties of the previous century, Core Cultural-
Curriculum Courses (in Europe!) were made as ‘scientific’ as
possible, and science propped up its foundations by turning to
philosophy. This attitude was in part motivated by the desire to
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
Assertion IN.3
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Assertion IN.4
Assertion IN.5
Assertion IN.6
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
The resulting gap can hardly be bridged despite the fact that our
globe is currently an interconnected village, internationally linked by
what might be expected to bridge old gaps between cultures,
languages, religions and educational disciplines.
Nevertheless, the facts are that deep divisions keep deepening and
deserts of narrow specialism keep spreading more than ever before. A
sad fact. A dark future.
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
Other, who seek explanations about the world at large in which they
live or about the worlds at small that compose the world at large,
realize that it entails sub-terrainian links between an undeclared
philosophy of fragmented education as adhered to nowadays by most.
Without resorting to any mathematical equation, a few footnotes dealing with specific subjects
stand about ‘midway’ between mathematically-formulated concepts provided in Volume I, and the
abridged-simplified ones adopted here. Reference to them is marked as: […] 1.1, 1.2, …, 2.1, 2.2, …, or as
[…]AII.1; AII.2, …, namely, located in Chapters 1, 2, … etc., or in Appendix II, etc., respectively.
Int.2
References are minimized for reasons elaborated below. The few provided at book-end are
marked as […][1, 2, …] or Ref. 11, etc.. Selection of what to read and what to study, and in what
order, depends on the reader’s interests, background and on a qualified CCC-coordinator, if there
is one.
Jacob Bronowski 39
All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
PART A
1
___________________________________________________
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
FIG. 01: The First ‘Six Days’ of our world are marked by seconds [derived
from earth-sun-based years (left), temperature [in arbitrary-based degrees
Kelvin] (right), or our Astrophysical Stages-Days [Table I, Lecture 1].
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
TABLE I
‘Day’ Temp.
The New Astrophysical Time Vs. Key Stages Deg.
K
There had been no physical time prior to ‘Day-1’.
All evidence indicates that the laws of physics,
irrespective of any wish of, or claim by any
latecomer -- the mortal -- have remained invariant at
any place, scale and time since ‘Day-1’.
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All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or, 1968, 1972, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2007, 2008
Fig. 1.2: The largest portrait of the universe. [NASA] The size of the
expanding, cold ‘voids’ between shining filaments or clouds of
superclusters of galaxies has increased [Cf. Fig, 1.2]. They are
interconnected in multi-dimensional Space-1. Uniform maximum
temperatures, isotropic and homogenous distribution of voids vis-à-vis
galaxies (on large scales) are preserved (Cf. Fig. 1.1).
One result is the observed-felt cold-dark night sky that we see today
when we look ‘up’ during a clear night, or feel its coldness when
walking out at night.
All such energies in all stars and galaxies, are, eventually, dissipated
irreversibly in the depth of Space-1 – the limitless, unsaturatable sink
of anything in the universe. [Fig. 1.2]. At least two types of radiation
energy must be noticed in Spaces-1-3
RECAP II: Matter (gas, plasma), during the first part of the 7th’Day,
aggregated by the force of gravity into the first proto-entities, then
‘early stars’ and possibly what is called quasars4.14, has gradually been
evolved by the force of gravity into shining [radiating] proto-galaxies,
galaxies, clusters and superclusters of galaxies4.13 [Fig. 1.2].
1.1
Gravity-Induced Phenomena and Everyday Acts & Concepts. Starting from this Chapter,
gravity-induced, interconnected concepts, acts and phenomena may be used for selecting a topic in
composing an independent homework assay for grading [Appendix I]. Subjects, words and
concepts listed below without a footnote are treated in subsequent Parts of this book, or in
Volumes I and II. No footnote should be confused with an ‘Introduction’ to the subject it deals
with, or refers to.
Second, minute, hour, day, year, duration, time [Tables I and II in Appendix V],
cosmological arrow of time [Chapter 7, Fig. 7.1, p.102], the origin of time [Appendix VI, p.
181; Volume I], cosmic time, electromagnetic arrows of time3.1; 3.4, 3.5, retarded solutions3.4,
advanced solutions3.4, UR/Sumer [Appendix VI, p. 181] clay tokens, numerology, seasonal
rituals, calendar, prediction-retrodiction3.4, initial conditions3.4, gravitational field3.3, 3.5,
planetary orbits, relativistic astrophysics and astronomy, relativistic transformations, curved
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space-time3.3; 3.5, 4.4, quasars 4.13, black holes4.3, neutron stars, red & white dwarfs, gravitational
selection-orientation, gravitational lens, pre-genesis [Table I, p.45 and footnotes 4.6 to 4.11],
principle of equivalence3.3, gravitational attraction3.3, gravitational collapse4.1, X-ray sources,
proto-galaxies [Chapter I], dwarf planet, dwarf star, dwarf galaxies, biosphere, DNA, RNA,
Mitochondrial-DNA, mtn-DNA-based archeology [Table I, p.45I in Appendix V], tectonic
folds, thermodynamics and entropy1..2, information theories, climatology, erosion, wind, wind
energy, geo-thermal energy, weather, snow-caps, glaciers, ice-age, paleontology, sediments,
bio-geo-chemistry, fractional crystallization [Volume I], geophysical periodicities, fossil
fuels, meteors, comets, asteroids, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or in Volumes I and
II)
Gravity feeders, diapers, blanket, gate, poles, posts, sunrise, sunset, scuba diving, coral
reef, coast-line control, coast guard, border barriers, nationalities; roots, branches, flower or
wheat morphology; apical dominance position of a shoot, form (habit) of a plant depends on
the orientation of its parts in relation to gravity, production of ethylene by physical stress
imposed on the tissue, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or Volumes I and II)
Underpass, overpass, foundations, floor, table, chair, chairperson, chairing, bed, bedding,
rugs, walls, doors, windows, curtains, tapestries, chandeliers, candle flame, roof, stairs, stage,
dome, arc, shelves, balcony, porch, piers, drainage, water dams, water reservoirs, lava, ladder,
lift, elevator, escalator, columns, tides, head, legs, gravity and the organism, etc. (Cf.
subsequent Parts of this book, or Volumes I and II)
Oceans, islands, islets, beaches, beach house, reefs, waterfront, dunes, sea level,
highland, rivers, valleys, mountains, hills, volcanoes, lakes, ponds, river bank, canals, river
flow, river stones, rocks, brooks, waterfalls, birds, snakes, seeds, plants, grass roots, trees,
sky, firmament, stars, galaxies, planets, atmosphere, biosphere, ionosphere, stratosphere,
specific gravity, dust, rain, clouds, fog, shadows, climate, eco-systems, ozone layer, dark
night sky [Chapter 7, p.102], black body radiation4.12, seasonal changes, geological
depositions-layers, stalagmites-stalactites, temples, geological layers, coral reefs, crust,
mantle, lithosphere, mountain crests, tectonic folds, earthquakes, lagoons, springs, wells,
swamps, glaciers, city and village structures, downtown, upper town, airfields, aircraft,
spacecraft, airports, lots, landslides, septic tank, drainage systems, sewage systems, fields,
ports, harbors, railways, highways, path, trail, road systems, transportation systems,
structures, bridges, tunnels, ships, light houses, dock view, boats, boat docks, anchors, cable
cars, space exploration, etc. (Cf. subsequent Parts of this book, or Volumes I and II)
Van Gogh vs. oriented brush strokes of what penetrates all nature, what controls all life:
direction and rhythms; Salvador Dalli vs. surrealism and gravity-induced, down-flowing
clocks; Marc Chagall vs. mankind dreams of flying; ‘anti-gravity’ leitmotifs vs. related
stories, anecdotes, movies; dadaism, realism, naturalism vs. gravity-induced modern art
[Chapter 11]; landscape architecture, landscape gardening, hanging gardens,
environmentalism vs. preservation of gravity-induced structures, etc.
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1.2
Entropy, ‘Noise’, ‘Disorder’ and ‘Information’: Thermodynamics-Information
Theories) These concepts are fully treated in Volume I. This footnote is not an Introduction to the
subjects. Entropy, ‘Noise’, ‘Disorder’ and ‘Information’ are neither energy nor matter. In fact,
they are meaningless in dealing with the observable universe prior to the emergence of life and the
thinking mortals. They cannot be seamlessly linked to symmetric physics3.4; 4.11, general
relativity3.3 and general relativistic cosmology. Their key fallacy emerges from basing them on our
anthropomorphic concepts such as ‘disorder’ -- a ghost outside fundamental science.
The New ‘2nd Law’ can now be presented in class as deduced from general relativity3.3 and the
well-verified dynamics and thermodynamics of ‘Space-1-Expansion’ (Chapter 7, Fig. 7.1, p.102,
and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). But to fully understand, teach and study the new Unified Thermodynamics
one must use Volume I. In teaching and in practice in the domains of engineering, socio-biology,
gravitational biology, cell biology, physiology, information systems and economics, the unified
thermodynamics, or entropy-free thermodynamics, or the new 2nd law, do not require any
modification of, say, entropy maps as widely used in engineering, etc.
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1.3
The New World Outlook vs. Religion is unfolded in Volume I. Many theists endorse this
outlook for it co-exists ‘under the same roof’ [Chapter 1] with the “Creator” and with other key
religious concepts as elaborated on in Chapter 10.
1.4
On the Possibility of Other Advanced Civilizations No structured -- i.e., intelligent, or
information loaded – signal (an electromagnetic radiation spectrum-signatures that can reveal an
advanced civilization somewhere in ‘our’ 100,000 light-years max-diameter galaxy5.4, or outside
it), has yet been detected by radio telescopes, or by any other detector that searches the sky for
such a ‘proof’.
Of Being Wrong: All fiction movies, popular stories, wishful thinking and false theories and any
unverified ‘evidence’, are not even rising to the status of being wrong.) VERIFIED FACTS: The
nearest star [Proxima Centauri] is about 40,000,000,000,000 km away from earth. (1 light year is
9.46x1012 km5.6). It would certainly take much longer time if structured signals had originated in
other members of ‘our’ local group of galaxies.5.5
Even if a structured signal had originated in the ‘nearby’ galaxy, M-31, (Andromeda), which is
20,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 km away, it would take – by any fastest possible signal --
2,000,000 (sun-earth-based) years to reach us; slightly longer than the expected life span of any
reader, unless the structured signal had originated there 2,000,000 (sun-earth-based) years AGO.
Nonetheless, these conclusions are not to be considered pessimistic. They only illustrate how big
and vast is our observable universe, even in the ‘small scale’ of our local group of galaxies5.5.
“Advanced Potential Beings” cannot reach us ‘in person’, nor by craft, prior to their
electromagnetic waves3.1, for nothing can travel faster than light, except in some fiction movies
and dreams.
Nevertheless, these verified facts do not mean that such ‘wave-spectrum-structure-proofs’ had originated in
the past from a higher civilization. In such a case the (structured) signals are still underway.
Any potential response to such a structured signal, if being radiated out from earth one day, would take the
same long time to travel to such a potential civilization. Undestinated spacecraft that proceeds with a speed
much slower than that of an electromagnetic wave (as had been done years ago under the leadership of Carl
Sagan), would certainly take much longer time, one way.
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2
_______________________________________________________
Xenophanes
We are only just embarking on a universal quest for knowledge
and are still like children playing with pebbles on the seashore,
while the great ocean of truth rolls,
unexplored, beyond our reach.
Isaac Newton
The end of all life and the end of the world have endlessly haunted
humans since the beginning of humanity. But these skeptic issues
have finally been resolved by working back and force between theory
and facts. Recent measurements of the redshift/magintude of (Type-
Ia) supernovae4.1 [Volume I] prove that the expansion of Space-1 has
been accelerating since the universe was about half its present age:
13.72 (sun-earth) years.
Unlike the popular belief, there would be ‘no end’ to the world -- to
the physical universe as a whole. Only all life would end in a cold
end. We are not only living in an ever-expanding universe, but under
the control and side effects of accelerated-expansion.
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The universe would not end with a contracting ‘hot crunch’, as many
have speculated.
(This false claim stands apart from an additional issue: Why is the
universe accelerating its rate of space-1 expansion despite the
universal force of gravity? Speculations abound about a repelling type
of an undetectable matter-field-interaction that fills the entire
universe, but this issue remains outside the scope of this volume.)
The false ‘vision’ about final contraction and hot end requires that the
Radiation Energy Density at adiabatic envelopes4.15 (a), (b) and (c) in
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the deep inter-cluster SPACE-1 (Chapter 7, Fig. 7.1, p.102, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2)
would gradually increase up to the core-temperature/Radiation-
Energy-Density of the hottest stellar sources4.1; 4.2. Eventually the
universe would end up in a hot dense state, as in its beginning. Some
such prophets also envision that the contents of this universe would
show up as a ‘white hole’ in another universe, or other universes.
‘Our’ sun and all active stars and galaxies would gradually
consume all their “fuel” by fusion4.2, and, like campfires on a
cold mountain, would become as cold as the surrounding, inter-
cluster, dark-cold background: Space-1. The gradients that lead
‘solar-wind’-type of energy from the shining sources to
adiabatic envelopes4.15 (a), (b) and (c) would gradually vanish,
causing space-1, as a whole, to approach zero absolute
temperature (270 degrees C below zero C) by its accelerated
expansion.
The only time, the only physical clock left in our future frozen
cosmos, would, as in its beginning, be the increasing size of SPACE-
1. (Chapter 7, Fig. 7.1, p.102, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). The whole cosmos, including
our remains, would exist forever; would just grow as cold as possible
by the escaping radiation into the everlasting, expanding Space-1; the
universal sink of all left-over energies.
(Chapter 7, Fig. 7.1, p.102, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2).
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2.2
Shapes of the universe. A closed universe (positive space-time curvature), a hyperbolic one
(negative curvature) or a flat one (zero curvature) are possible in general relativistic cosmology,
depending on the total energy-matter density of the universe in the past, ‘present’ and future.
(Volume I). Space-time curvature of the entire universe is negative if its avearge total density is
less than the so-called critical density; positive if greater, and zero at the critical density, in which
case space-time is said to be flat. Yet, small departures from the critical density may grow with
time, i.e., the universe in the past, today and in the future may be different in density, overall
shape, etc. See also footnotes 4.4. and 2.3.
2.3
Space-1-Expansion [Addendum] See main Footnote 4.4 on this subject.
Some unverified particle physics models of “dark matter” have been proposed2.4. For example, it has
been claimed that only about 30% of the matter-energy in the universe is obervable, while the rest is
the so-called “dark matter”2.4
The ‘average’ energy density decreases with the expansion of the universe, but the dark energy-
matter density, is speculated to remain almost constant as Space-1 expands. Therefore, a universe
composed of a larger fraction of the total energy-matter in the past, vs. today, may, in the future, be
dominated by dark energy-matter. See also Footnotes 2.1 to 2.4, 4.4. and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2.
2.4
Dark Matter is unobservable, speculative, hidden form of matter-energy that has surfaced by
theorists out of their various cosmological models that are attempting to explain the cause of the
accelerated expansion of Space-12.3. [Refr. 56 and Footnotes 2.3, 2.5, 4.4]. Dark matter is also being
claimed to permeate all space-time and to be repulsive in nature, so as to push-accelerate the
expansion anywhere2.5.
The proponents of the speculative ‘dark-energy’ contribute to the speculative image of modern
cosmology. Like string theories4.6 to 4.11 and ‘the cosmological constand’ 2.5, these approaches are
non-scientific [51, 53]. The dark matter is too dark to be included in this book.
2.5
Resurrection of The Cosmological Constant. During the 1915-1929 events that had started
with the publication (1915) of general relativity3.3 (Einstein’s Field Equations [EFE]) and
Friedmann’s proof that EFE cannot accept any static-equilibrium solution [a stable universe],
Einstein lost faith in the mathematical predictions of his general relativity when applied to
cosmology. Like the media and most scientists of his time, he could not believe that we live in an
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unstable universe; nothing expands on a cosmological scale on earth (unless you eat too much), in
the solar system, or in our galaxy.
To prevent that ‘instability’, Einstein artificially forced on his general relativistic field equations a
cosmological constant [vacuum energy] aimed at stopping that ‘unwanted’ expansion [or
contraction].
Was Einstein contemplating more about the cause behind the observed dark-cold night sky, he
may have reached an earlier different conclusion: That the dark-cold night sky is the simplest and
direct proof that the cosmological predictions of his general relativity are right; that there is no
need to add an artificial number to stop the (human) unwanted expansion of the cosmos, which at
that time was not yet known.
In the 20’s, Hubble proved, by using well-verified4.1 astronomical observations, that SPACE-1
expands. [Chapter 7, Fig. 7.1, p.102; Table I, p.45, Chapter 1; Fig. 1.2]
When Einstein was informed about Hubble’s observational verification of the expanding universe,
he has admitted that by forcing on his general relativistic field equations, the cosmological
constant, he had been driven by human wishes to stop the ‘culturally-unwanted’ expansion,
eventually concluding that the addition of this constant has been ‘the worst blunder of my life’
Einstein’s rejection of that constant from science was a serious blow to many theorists, for they
have already piled, with their graduate students and followers, many ‘scientific papers’ that
explain the [misleading] deep meaning of that ghost. But that was not the end of this constant. It
has resurrected recently [Refs. 54, 57], by verification of the accelerated expansion of the
universe2.4. Suddenly, armies of theorists could link that ghost to string theories4.6 to 4.11 and to
another ghost: The ‘dark matter’2.4. As usual, the media, equipped with an embedded greed for
higher rating, has embraced debates on dark matter, the cosmological constantand string theories,
which re-equip cosmology with a rejecting speculative image and portray a wrong image of
science in general.
Such un-subsiding attempts resemble a phenomenon that today, more than ever before, may be
motivated by an inner desire to deny Einstein’s world outlook and refrain from admitting the need to
surrender to his world outlook. What actually drives such ambitions I do not know.
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3
___________________________________________
Albert Einstein
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For that reason this CCC includes a chapter on realities in ‘the arts’;
realities in which all interconnectedness between all branches of human
knowledge play a role.
3.1
Electromagnetic-Weak Force-Field-Interaction. Note: While this is a long footnote, it is not
an Introduction to the subject. Beyond it one may consult Footnotes 3.2 to 3.5 and Volume I,
especially for some hot debates and specific disputations in physics.
The subject involves (at high energies) the long-range electromagnetic field-force-interactions (see
below), with the Weak Force, as a short-range force-field-interaction that harbors some radioactive decay
processes. At low energies it constitutes the fourth fundamental force field in modern physics.
The electromagnetic force is at the base of chemistry, biology, medical sciences, communication, electronics,
electron-microscopy, telescopes, astronomy, etc.1.1 It binds atoms together to form molecules, including bio-
molecules like DNA. It is about hundred times weaker than the strong force.3.2
Field-Force-Interactions are postulated to emit and absorb massless, point-like, field particles like photons of
3.2
light and other field particles .
Gluons3.2 are postulated to mediate the strong force3.2, while specific bosons ‘mediate’ the weak force.
[Gravitons have also been proposed by some theorists to ‘mediate’ the gravitational force-field3..3.]
Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 [See
List of all Nobel Prize Winners in Appendix II) for developing the electroweak theory that unifies
the electromagnetic and week interactions. Inter alia it predicted the existence of the W and Z
BOSONS at very high energies: About 82 Gev/c2 for W [verified later at 80.4 Gev/c2 ] and about
93 Gev/c2 for Z [verified later at 91.2 Gev/c2 ]. According to their theory both interactions have
about the same strength at very high energies (symmetric).
The combination of the electroweak theory with Quantum Chromodyamics [QCD] for the strong
interactions is termed THE STANDARD MODEL, which, however, does not include the
gravitational field-force3.3 and it has not explained, say, why the point-like photon has no mass,
while the W and Z bosons do. The origin of the masses of W and Z has been treated by postulating
the existence of a hypothetical Higgs Boson, which, however, has not yet been verified
experimentally.
3.2
The Strong Force-Field-Interaction. Note: While this is a long footnote, it is not an
Introduction to the subject. Beyond it one may consult Footnotes 3.1 and 3.3 to 3.5 and Volume I
especially for some hot debates and specific disputations in physics.
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The strong force is an attractive force between sub-atomic nucleons. It is a very short-range force-
field-interaction. Its magnitude is negligible in ranges greater than about 10-15 meter. (about the
size of the atomic nucleus). It increases with separation distance and is ‘mediated’ by massless
field-particles called Gluons.
Gluons ‘mediate’ the strong force that binds/confines quarks (see below) inside protons and
neutrons. I.e., each quark in a proton or neutron is continuously emitting and absorbing gluons.
The energy of a gluon can generate quark-anti-quark pairs, like the creation of electron-positron
pairs. When a quark emits or absorbs a gluon, the quark’s color charge (see below) may change.
Hadrons are sub-atomic entities that are not massless field particles like the photon and the gluon.
These are sub-atomic particles that interact through the strong force. A hadron is a complex
particle that has size and structure. It is a composite system of sub-atomic particles. Hadrons are,
therefore, ‘non-elementary-particles’. They are composed of Fermions (Quarks) [see below] and
antiquarks.
Hadrons are of two types: Baryons [Fermions], that have masses equal to or larger than that of the
proton, and Mesons [Bosons] [having 0 or 1 spin]. They interact via all forces. Hadrons have
quantum numbers: Spin, parity and mass. In addition they carry “flavor” quantum numbers such
as isospin (or G-parity) and a ‘property’ called strangeness. Hadrons are single excitations in
QCD, which predicts that quarks and gluons interact weakly. This ‘property’, which is called
‘asymptotic freedom’ has been experimentally confirmed at large energy levels between a GeV
and a TeV .
Leptons have no inner structure, or size; namely, they are point-like field-particles of quantum
physics -- a lacuna that some hope to be resolved by string theories4.6-4.11 All leptons have spin ½
and do not interact through the strong force. The following types are considered in quantum
physics: Electrons, muons, taus and three types of neutrinos.
Messons are the Kaon, Pion, Eta; Baryons are the Proton, Neutron, Omega, Lambda, Sigma, Delta
Xi. The kaon, lambda and sigma particles exhibit unusual ‘properties’, e.g. are produced in pairs
when created or decayed very slowly, hence are called ‘strange particles’.
The Quark Model. Strong interaction that binds subatomic particles together is described by QCD.
Quark gluons are gauge bosons in QCD. According to it quarks have a ‘property’ called color
charge and the force between quarks is the strong force or the color charge, which may be due to
gluon exchanges between hadrons.
Quarks are dividable into six flavors: up, down, strange, charm, bottom and top, and their
antiquarks. Quarks harbor fractional electric charge and are NOT found free in nature. The up,
charmed, and top quarks have electric charges of +2/3 that of the proton. The down, strange and
bottom quarks have charges of –1/3 that of the proton. Protons consist of 2 up and 1 down quarks,
whereas neutrons consist of 2 down and 1 up quarks.
Quarks are also identified by three ‘colors’: red, green, and blue. The masses of the heavy charm
and bottom quarks are obtained from the masses of hadrons containing a single heavy quark and 1
light antiquark, or 2 light quarks.
Particles with the same color charge repel, while the ones with opposite color charge attract. A
collection of, say, red, blue and green quarks attract each other to form baryons. Every baryon
contains three quarks. A residual force between them is the force that binds protons and neutrons
to form the atomic nuclei. Quarks and gluons are assumed to be combined to form baryons such
as protons and neutrons, when the universe was dominated by photons3.1 (with a minor
contribution from neutrinos). More information is available in Chapter 7.
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3.3
The Gravitational Field-Force-Interaction [Gravity in short]. Note: While this is a long
footnote, it is not an Introduction to the subject. Beyond it, one may consult Footnotes 3.1 to 3.2;
3.4 to 3.5 and Volume I; especially for some hot debates and specific disputations in physics.
General relativity is based on the principle of equivalence (or duality10.4) between gravity and
acceleration, and on the axiom that all laws of nature are exactly the same for any observer8.3; 3.4
These laws may be expressed as metric tensors8.3; 3.5 [in terms of the local curvature of space-time]
and the energy-momentum tensor (conservation of energy-mass and momentum), and remain
invariant [symmetric3.4] for, say, observers at rest, rotating, accelerating and standing on a small or
a massive star. It is indisputable today that Einstein’s Field Equations [EFE]3.5 of general relativity
constitute the single, best, scale-free, universal and verified theory of gravitation that physics has
ever provided. EFE are based on the stress tensor and the Riemanian geometry of curved space-
time. [Volume I]
Gravitation is a force-field-interaction that penetrates all and controls phenomena in the entire
cosmos, at any time and place, as well as in everyday life on earth. It is at the very basis of the
Central Theme and World Outlook presented in Volume I and here.
Gravity controls the structuring and thermodynamics of galaxies, stars, supernova explosions4.1,
planets, moons, black holes4.3 and quasars4.14. It is expressed by the deterministic, Einsteinian,
tensorial, field equations, known also as Gravity Physics.
Time as treated by general relativistic cosmology, is slowed down by large galaxies and massive
stars. This time effect is in addition to time effects treated by special relativity.
Special relativity rules superb not only in any (non-accelerating, deterministic) system, but also in
probabilisic, quantum micro-physics. The theory is limited, however, to non-accelarating/non-
gravitating systems. Unlike quantum microphysics, both special and general relativity are strictly
deterministic.
When first applied to cosmology in 1919, general relativity predicted the expansion [or
contraction] of the universe, a phenomenon that was first confirmed by observation in the 20s by
the astronomer E. Hubble. (Chapter 7, Fig. 7.1, p.102) What Hubble measured is an increase in
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all distances [Space-1 increase] between clusters (Diagram in the opening pages, and Figs. 1.1 and
1.2) or super-clusters of galaxies4.14. The further the observed cluster, or super-cluster of galaxies,
the greater is its speed of recession from us, or from any place in the cosmos. (Chapter 7, Fig. 7.1,
p.102).
While most writers, mentors, teachers and professors stress the low strength of gravity on earth (in
comparison with that of the strong force3.2), it is much stronger than the strong force in massive
stars4.1, in black holes4.3, and in some galactic centers4.5. In such massive systems the gravitational
force overcomes the strong force3.2 by crushing all atomic and sub-atomic structures4.1; 4.2.
Volume I, and this book, explain why the expansion of the universe4.4 is restricted to inter-cluster
space-1 (Chapter 7, Fig. 7.1, p.102, and Figs. 1.1 and 1.2), and why the observed universe is finite,
expanding and boundless, as, say, in curved, 2-space dimensions and one time dimension of the
surface of an inflating-expanding balloon (see Analogy I below), whose surface size is finite but
boundless, i.e., its surface harbors no edge in curved two-dimensional space. It also explains the
cooling of the remnant cosmic black body radiation2.12 and TYPE II of radiation energy that it
contains. [Chapter 1, 7th ‘Day’]
Analogy II: The Raisin Bread Analogy. Imagine each super-cluster of galaxies as a raisin. The
raisins are spread evenly throughout a raisin bread dough that expands when heated in the oven.
As the bread expands “an educated observer” located on each raisin sees all other raisins moving
away from “his” raisin while his raisin remains at the same place and size. In a simplified analogy
to the observed universe, one may further imagine that the bread has no edge, like in the balloon
analogy, and is finite in total “size”; a size that is increasing with the age of the universe (the
expanding Space-1). There is no clock other than that increase in size. Our sun-earth time is
therefore totally irrelevant and misleading prior to the formation of the solar system. To replace it
I use Table I, p.45 in Chapter 1.
Analogy III: The Home Bath-Tub. Imagine that your bathtub is made from a highly elastic
rubber and that it is constantly being inflated and increasing its volume. (In analogy to the
expanding SPACE-1, [DIAGRAM]). Imagine further that your bathtub expands faster than it is
filled up with hot water. (In analogy to expanding SPACE-1, which is expanding at a faster rate
than it is filled up with radiation energy streaming out of shining stars and galaxies, like the ones
shown in the Diagram.). Now, if you had started inflating your bathtub from a high hot water-level
mark – in analogy to the hot initial state of SPACE-1 -- that water level would go down with the
expansion-inflation. Under such conditions your bathtub cannot be filled-up. (Space-1
temperature, or radiation energy density [Diagram], cannot but decrease, as is the temperature of
the cosmic blackbody radiation4.12). This expanding bathtub represents the dark-cold night sky that
you can observe by stepping out of your home on a non-cloudy night. Since SPACE-1 is
UNSATURABLE to the streaming-in radiation, no inflowing mass-energy from nearby and far
away clusters or super-clusters of galaxies can fill-it-up, as far as it keeps expanding fast enough,
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and so it not only does, but is accelerating. (Chapter 2). The 2.7 deg. K of the background
blackbody radiation4.12 and the dark-cold night sky are part of this verifiable facts. (Chapter 1).
Space-1 expansion also causes electromagnetic irreversibility and the electromagnetic arrow of
time. [Volume I]
In case the inflation-expansion of your bath-tub stops, the water level (the temperature of the
background black-body radiation4.12) would start rising and the bath will be filled up (the night sky
would become hotter and hotter until, eventually, it reaches the maximum fusion temperature4.2 of
the interiors of stellar objects like the sun, or galactic systems4.5 (all galactic systems have about
the same maximum temperature, therefore, there is no net flow from one adiabatic cell4.15 to
another. [Diagram, opening pages])
Space-1 expansion was first discovered by Hubble in the 1920’s. It has since been re-affirmed by
the 1964 discovery of the black body radiation4.12, by recent Hubble Space Telescope discoveries,
and by independent methods described in details by VOLUME I.
Mathematical derivations of both special and general relativity are provided in Volume I, which
also describes key measurement methods of astronomical distances, namely, how the detection of
radiation that had emitted from past/far-away objects is used to establish distances to such objects.
3.4
Asymmetry Vs. Symmetry in Fundamental Science. This footnote constitutes an important
component of footnote 3.5 and of the Central Theme of this book. While it is not a short one, it is
not an Introduction to this important subject in science and in everyday life. Beyond this footnote
one may consult footnotes 4.6 to 4.12 and Volumes I and II.
There is a great confusion in physics concerning fundamental Vs. primitive symmetries, guage
symmetry, supersymmetry and time asymmetry in the actual world.
I shall first stress here the importance of symmetry in the formulations of verified fundamental
forces-fields-interactions3.1; 3.2; 3.3. Here one can find theories expressed by Langrangians that remain
invariant under certain symmetry operations. When these physico-mathematical operations are
invariant under a transformation that is performed at any point in space, they are referred to as
harboring a global symmetry, which becomes a local symmetry when fixed in space-time as a
generalization of the equivalence principle of Einstein’s general relativity3.3; 3.5.
The importance of gauge symmetries may be illustrated by relativistic quantum mechanics of the
electrons. In quantum physics3.2, symmetry is often referred to as a transformation between states
that preserve the expectation values of all observables.
String theories4.6 to 4.11, and some formulations of general relativity, may be expressed as gauge
theories [Volume I]. Gauge theories involve renormalisable operations in unified field theories3.5
in which symmetry transformations can be conducted locally as well as globally.
However, my Central Theme in the domain of physics3.5 is not focused on guage theories and
guage symmetries. It may be stated as follows:
All fundamental laws of physics, except the 2nd law of thermodynamics1.2, are space and time
symmetric. Namely, there is no distinction between any direction in space and in time. The Central
Theme in this domain means that the observationally-based 2nd law of thermodynamics -- in its
fundamental form1.2 -- states that in the actual world (E.g., in engineering practice, cosmology and
history) the time coordinate can only extend from past to future, and never in reverse. This is
termed ‘Time Asymmetry’.[Optional false dictumes of the 2nd law of thermodynamics may be
stated as: ‘Entropy of the universe only increases’, ‘disorder in the universe only increases’, a
falacy proved in Volume I.
All ‘exact’ sciences can be reduced to Physics, and all physics to the fundamental fields-
forces-interactions [at high energies] electroweak3.1, strong3.2 and gravitational3.3.
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In turn, these are expressed in terms of the mathematics of curved space-time in which there is
no distinction between any direction (a plus or a minus coordinate) in space and in time, namely,
all the basic equations of physics (except one: The 2nd law of thermodynamics), are strictly
symmetric in time and space (curved space-time coordinates). (Cf. Chapter 8, p. 106, as well as
Volume I, string theories4.6 – 4.11)
Any claim that may rise to the status of a reliable theory in science must be compared with,
or predict verifiable observations.
Nevertheless, in the actual (macro) world, there is a tantalizing clash between the aforementioned
theoretical symmetry and the actual time asymmetries found in nature. This result is based on the
fact that all processes in nature are irreversible and pointing (an imaginary) ‘arrow’ from past to
future, and never in reverse.
That ‘arrow of time’ is an optional fundamental expression of the 2nd law of thermodynamics. In
turn, any solution of the three symmetric fundamental forces, say, as integro-differential equation
that is to be compared with verifiable observations, is subject to the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
(in the macro world).
Finally, to conclude this footnote -- and return to footnote 3.5 -- let me stress again that there are
different time asymmetries: The cosmological, thermodynamic, electromagnetic, linguistic and
other gravity-induced asymmetries (arrows of time).
Which one is the Super-Asymmetry that controls all other arrows of time?
What is the Origin and Cause of the aforementioned contradiction?
Despite many claims for success, none has yet succeeded to derive and prove the origin of
irreversibility in nature – of the Master Time Asymmetry (Volume I) -- from symmetric
mathematical equations of statistics, probabilities, where retrodiction is precisely symmetric to
prediction – or by starting from symmetric partial differential equations, say of
electromagnetism3.1 (see also the Einstain-Ritz controversy [1]) and its integro-differential
equation-solutions that are ‘man-forced’ to evolve only in the positive time direction, namely, by
man-wish selection of only the INITIAL CONDITIONS while a priori rejecting FINAL
CONDITIONS (ending ‘up’ with retarded solutions in electromagnetism, which agree with
observations of emitter vs. absorber), while rejecting, or intentionally avoiding, the ADVANCED
SOLUTIONS (which do not agree with observations). I call this common phenomenon
SMUGGLING INTO THE FABRICATED ‘PROOF’ THE RESULT THAT THE SCIENTIST
WANTS TO PROVE WHILE NOT DECLARING THE CONTRABAND.
In Volume 1 -- and in earlier publications -- I replaced such smuggling acts by using legal, general
relativistic cosmology and the observed Space-1-Expansion (Chapter 7, Fig. 7.1, p.102) as the
origin and cause of irreversibility and time asymmetries3.4 in nature, thereby basing the origin
of all irreversible processes in nature on general relativistic cosmology (Ref. 13). It may be
stressed, however, that at least one work in physico-chemistry, by an untired activist, has been
awarded the Nobel Prize for presenting the Nobel-Prize-Committee with mathematically illegal
funambulism of a false ‘proof’.
The resulting world outlook presented here is more unified with the rest of physics via its
foundations that are deduced from the classical Einstein’s Field Equations, which, in turn, accept
no static cosmological solutions. These were originally predicting that the universe cannot stay
static (thereby attaing thermal equilibrium), i.e., it must expand, or contract, which is what I term
in Volume I the Master Cosmological Arrow of Time, or the MASTER TIME
ASYMMETRY that emerge from general relativity.
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THERMODYNAMICS, TIME ASYMMETRIES and IRREVERSIBILITY ARE BASED ON THE SYMMETRIC
EQUATIONS OF GENERAL RELATIVITY AND ARE, THEREFORE, UNIFIED WITH THE REST OF
SYMMETRIC EQUATIONS OF FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS, CLASSICAL, STATISTICAL and
PROBABILISTIC THERMODYNAMICS (and Information Theories that are based on them) that
extract asymmetry from symmetry.
3.5
Unified Field Theories Einstein was isolated in his attempts to develop unified physics via
relativistic unified field theories that harbor what we call gravitation [or gravity in short]. Part of
that isolation is due to his consistent claim that quantum theories are incomplete and would, in due
time, be replaced by an ultimate unified theory of physics.
It is indisputable today that Einstein’s Field Equations [EFE] constitute the single, best, scale-free,
universal and verified theory of gravitation that physics has ever provided. EFE are based on the
stress tensor8.3 and the Riemanian geometry of curved space-time3.3. [Volume I]
During Einstein’s life time the strong field-force-interaction3.2 was not yet formulated as it
currently stands. Armies of theorists focus today on a reversed effort: Develop a quantum theory of
gravitation, or quantum gravity. So far all these unverified efforts have also failed4.6 to 4.11.
Some other reputed theorists, including Erwin Schrödinger, Arthur Eddington, Theodor Kaluza and
Herman Weyl, have tried, in vain, during Einstein’s life time, to unify the fundamental forces
recognized by the physics of their time.
Einstein continued to work, in vain, until his death, on unified field theories of gravity and
electromagnetism, but he became isolated in his efforts that ignored quantum theories. Nonetheless,
many contemporary theorists have changed their mind about Einstein’s attitude toward quantum
theory, at least by admitting that quantum theories are not complete for they do not incorporate
general relativity [gravitation]. This change of mind has led, since Einstein’s death, to numerous
efforts to verifiy a single, reliable string theory4.6 to 4.11, all in vain.
In the past, to incorporate electromagnetism into general relativity, Weyl generalized the Riemannian
geometry by adding degrees of freedom between two points in locally sized measures along a path,
in terms of a guage and vector fields, thereby unifying electromagnetic and gravitational fields.
Weyl corresponded with Einstein about his theory, which, eventually, has turned out to be non-
physical. Nevertheless, his gauge invariance was later applied in quantum filed theory [Volume I]
Kaluza's approach to unification was to resort to a single time and four space dimensions.
Riemannian geometry was maintained and the extra dimension allowed to incorporate the
electromagnetic field vector into modified EFE. Despite collaboration with Einstein, his theory did
not admit a symmetric outcome. Yet it influenced Einstein's work and was further developed later by
Klein in an attempt to unify relativity with quantum theory.4.6 to 4.11, in vain.
Another approach that, however, has not succeedded, is termed the Lancelot Law Whyte's unitary
field theory. Affine connection is the basis of Eddington’s approach that resorts to parallel transport
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of vectors from one space-time point to another; assuming it to be symmetric in its covariant form.
Since the simplest cosmological model emerging from Eddington’s equations is symmetric,
Eddington’s theory has failed in the face of cosmological-astronomical evidence.
These attempts eventually centered around treating both the metric tensor8.3 and the affine
connection as fundamental fields. In general relativity, these are symmetric3.4, but since actual
electromagnetism harbors asymmetry (Cf. Einstein-Ritz Controversy [1]), the mixing issue arises.
In such field theories sub-atomic particles -- the domain of quantum theories -- appear as fenced
regions in curved space-time in which energy density is very high. Einstein and coworker Leopold
Infeld had demonstrated that, in the unified field, singularities may harbor ‘point particles’3.2; 4.6 to
4.11
. However, singularities are points where the equations may not be valid. In conclusion;
Einstein believed that in an ultimate unified theory of physiucs the same physical law would apply
everywhere-anytime, with particles being soliton-type [Volume I] solutions to the field equations.
The Standard Model3.2 unifies the description of electromagnetism, weak interactions and strong
interactions in the language of gauge theory. Quantum Chromo Dynamics [QCD] is a gauge theory
with action of SU(3) on the color triplet of quarks3.2. Non-abelian gauge theories involve asymptotic
freedom in strong interactions3.2.
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I shall make you love books more than you love mother,
and I shall place their excellence before you.
A scribe is the task-must of everyone.
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Credits
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74