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SUPERCRITICAL CO2 REFINES COGENERATION n ENHANCING SCADA FOR COGENERATION nEFFICIENCY BREAKTHROUGH IN SOLAR THERMAL CELLS nREFURBISHMENT
DRIVES GROWTH IN RUSSIA n AWARD-WINNING CHP IN THE UKS nMEXICAN INDUSTRY TAPS COGEN POTENTIAL nTHE MAN DRIVING DOUBLE-DIGIT GROWTH AT MWM
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London 2012 Games
leave CCHP legacy
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www. cos pp. com
OnSite Power Production
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PAKISTAN ONCE AGAIN TURNS TO BIOGASSE COGEN Q SELF GENERATION TAKES HOLD IN UK Q YOUR HRSG AND ADRESSING THE FAC CORROSION ISSUE
Q FLANDERS 20-YEAR LOVE AFFAIR WITH COGENERATION Q OPTIMIZATION AT AN INDUSTRIAL CHP FACILITY IN PORTUGAL Q GUIDE TO POWER-GEN BRASIL
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Biomass CHP:
A how-to guide
to optimize
operations
DIRECTORY
ISSUE 2013
1307cospp_C1 1 7/18/13 4:37 PM
METKA is a leading EPC (Engineering-Procurement-Construction) contractor for large-scale energy production projects,
well-known for its ability to reliably deliver complex projects throughout Europe, the Middle East and Africa.
The company has strong expertise in gas turbine based power plants, with a broad range of experience in state-of-the-art
combined cycle and co-generation projects. In the co-generation sector, METKA delivers solutions which are optimized to
meet specifc project needs, whether for a new district heating plant or the upgrading of a large industrial facility.
With over 50 years of experience, and the resources to execute complex co-generation projects, METKA is a reliable partner
for utilities, industrial customers and local communities.
Experience in large scale cogeneration power plants
METKA has successfully completed a major co-generation project for Aluminium of Greece, the largest of its kind in Europe. The
334 MW Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Plant is located at the site of the most important vertically integrated alumina and
aluminium production complex in the region.
The CHP Plant operates with natural gas, and produces steam for the alumina production process, as well as electricity which
is exported to the national grid with signifcant improvement to the overall environmental performance of the production
complex.
Fundamental design requirements included:
High reliability of the steam supply to the alumina process. This is critical since interruption of the steam supply can lead
to severe damage and extended shutdowns of the plant.
Operational fexibility. The CHP plant is designed to meet the electricity and steam demands of the production complex
under a wide range of operational modes.
Steam quality. The requirement is for the cogeneration plant to deliver superheated HP and MP steam at precisely
defned pressure and temperature.
Operational independence. The CHP plant will produce enough electrical power to fulfll the needs of the production
complex so that can work independently of the national grid if necessary
8 /:enioos s:, M~:oussi, 1E1 2E /e:s 0:eee
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www.metka.gr
Experts in project
execution
For more information, enter 1 at COSPP.hotims.com
1307cospp_C2 2 7/18/13 4:37 PM
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For more information, enter 2 at COSPP.hotims.com
1307cospp_1 1 7/18/13 4:40 PM
Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 www.cospp.com 2
Contents
Vcl0me 14 N0mLer 4
July-August 2013
12
12
Promoting biogasse cogen in Pakistan
Pckislcn wc0lc gcin m0ch if il greclly scclec 0p ils ccgenerclicn frec Ly Licgcsse,
lhe s0gcr mill Ly-prcc0cl. B0l is ils new plcn lc cc sc mcre prcmising lhcn previc0s
fcilec iniliclives?
By Rahimullah Yusufzai and Robert Stokes
20
Biomass-fred CHP plant optimization
Fl0e gcs ccncensing cnc ccmL0slicn cir h0micifcclicn ccn Lenefl lhe cperclicns cf c
ccgenerclicn{ CHP plcnl. Using c wccc-L0rning fccilily in Swecen cs cn excmple, lhese
prccesses cre shcwn lc help cplimize cperclicns cver c yecrly cycle.
By Daniel Jedfelt, Risto Etelaho and Tarja Korhonen
26
Growing popularity of self-generation in the UK
FNFP-G repcrls cn cccelerclicn in lhe 0plcke cf ils `pcy-cs-yc0-scve ciscc0nl energy
p0rchcse scheme in lhe UK, cnc mcre L0sinesses cre wcrming lc lhe icec cf green pcwer
self-generation.
By Richard Baillie
39
CHP in Belgiums Flanders
Cver c pericc cf 20 yecrs, CHP in Flcncers hcs evclvec frcm c mcrgincl lechnclcgy,
primcrily serving lhe prccess inc0slry, lc cn impcrlcnl ccnlriL0lcr lc lhe Flemish energy
syslem. Hcw lhe seclcr cevelcpec cver lhcl lime-frcme is explcrec, cnc whcl lhe f0l0re
may hold is pondered.
By Erwin Cornelis and Kaat Jespers
46
Water/steam chemistry: HRSG protection
A ccre pcrl cf mcny mccern ccgenerclicn{CHP 0nils is lhe hecl reccvery slecm generclcr
(HPSG). Hcwever, lhere is ccncern lhcl lhe inc0slry is igncring fcw-cccelerclec ccrrcsicn in
HPSGs, which cre pcrlic0lcrly s0scepliLle, cnc is ccing sc cl ils peril.
By Brad Beucker
Features
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www. cos pp. com
OnSite Power Production
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Efect of combustion air humidifcation
@50% fuel moisture content
Without humidier
With humidier
Figure 4. The temperature of the returning district heating water affects the
condensing heat effect, with and without the use of a humidifer
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Turbine condenser district heat power[MW] Turbine electric power [MW]
Flue gas condenser power [MW] Total district heat power [MW]
Figure 5. The variability of the Moskogen CHP plants heat and electrical
effects between 2009 and 2012
1307cospp_24 24 7/19/13 9:58 AM
For more information, enter 13 at COSPP.hotims.com
1307cospp_25 25 7/18/13 4:42 PM
Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 www.cospp.com 26
Growing popularity of self-generation in the UK
C
o g e n e r a t i o n
specialist ENER-G
has seen an
a c c e l e r a t e d
uptake of its discount energy
scheme as the economic
downturn continues to hit
the UKs small-to-medium
(SME) enterprises and
organizations hard.
According to the company,
its pay-as-you-save Discount
Energy Purchase scheme,
which was pioneered in the
1990s, gives cash-strapped
organizations access to
energy-effcient combined
heat and power (CHP)
technology, without any
upfront investment. The cost of
the CHP system is paid for via
a competively-priced metered
energy charge.
ENER-G reported earlier this
year that it had now sold
more than half its small-
scale cogen systems to UK
business customers under
the scheme.
The discount energy
purchase concept is simple
and places virtually no risk on
our clients, says sales director
Ian Hopkins, explaining that
customers at times of recession
do not want to tap into capital
savings or take out expensive
loans.
He adds, that because
the cogeneration system is
highly effcient ENER-G is able
to charge customers less for
electrical output than from
the grid and provide free
heat, while still recouping
adequate funds to cover the
investment cost and ongoing
maintenance of the system.
Our clients can use their
capital to fund core projects
and sit back and enjoy bottom-
line savings from CHP, which
can achieve cost savings of
up to 40% compared with
electricity from the grid and
heat generated by on-site
boilers.
Furthermore, CHP systems
primed by natural gas, or other
fossial fuels, can cut carbon
emissions by about 20%,
compared with conventional
plants, according to ENER-G
calculations, he adds.
ENER-Gs cogeneration
systems on offer range from
just 4 kWe to over 5 MWe. CHP
is typically 90% effcient for
on-site energy consumption
around twice as effcient
as conventional plants, where
the generated heat is wasted,
while another 7% in effciency
losses occur by transmitting
electricity from remote power
stations to end-users, Hopkins
concludes.
Among the businesses
that are benefting from
funded cost and carbon
savings is Tangerine
Confectionery, which has fve
ENER-G cogeneration and
trigeneration systems funded
through the Discount Energy
Purchase scheme.
ENER-G reports an acceleration in the uptake of its pay-as-you-save
discount energy purchase scheme in the UK, and more businesses are
warming to the idea of green power self-generation, writes Richard Baillie.
On-site power
continues to gain favour in the UK
ENER-Gs 230 kWe CHP system installed at Tangerine Confectionary under its
Discount Energy Purchase scheme Credit: ENER-G
1307cospp_26 26 7/18/13 4:51 PM
www.cospp.com Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 27
Growing popularity of self-generation in the UK
Peter Sanders, operations
director for Tangerine, says, We
are continually seeking ways
to raise our environmental
performance and this move to
on-site generation of power is
a key element of our carbon
cutting strategy.
ENER-G is able to provide
us with a total service, from
initial design to long-term
care of the systems. This has
required no capital investment
as the technology is supplied
by ENER-G in return for us
purchasing the generated
electricity at a favourable rate.
ENER-Gs Hopkins adds, We
have clients that have enjoyed
the benefts of Discount Energy
Purchase for 15 years and are
now replacing their equipment
under the same simple
contract structure. It is a very
effective way for companies to
regain some control over their
energy costs while electricity
rates continue to rise.
Growth in renewable
self-generation
Recent research from Opus
Energy, a business energy
supplier, also suggests a
growing level of interest
among UK frms in generating
renewable energy on their
premises, compared with 2011.
More than a third of those
surveyed 39%, up from 32%
in 2011 expect to introduce
solar panels, wind turbines,
or anaerobic digestion, for
example, and almost half
(48%) expect to generate their
own green electricity within
two years.
In 2011, just 26% were
looking to introduce on-site
renewables within fve years.
Of those surveyed, 15% are
already generating renewable
power, versus 6% in 2011.
Interestingly, SME owners aged
55+ are leading the charge
20% already generate green
power on site.
Opus Energy is also seeing
more companies sign up
to its renewable power
purchase agreements (PPAs),
which enable the supplier to
purchase excess renewable
power from businesses for
its customers. This means
companies can generate an
extra income and enhance
their corporate responsibility.
In the survey, the three main
benefts stated by businesses
for self-generation were: self-
suffciency (28%), generation
of income (23%), and doing
our bit to combat climate
change (17%).
Successful PPA signings
In December, Opus Energy
announced the signing of its
500th renewable PPA.
A relatively recent signing
is with Knocknain Farm in
Scotland, which now sells all
its 330 kW wind-generated
power to Opus Energy. The
Port of Milford Haven also
signed an agreement last year,
enabling the energy supplier
to buy excess power from solar
photovoltaic (PV) systems
installed on multiple buildings.
This includes the Ports fagship
100.8 kW Phoenix Power PV
plant the largest integrated
solar PV system in Wales
located on the roof of a tenpin
bowling centre.
According to Charlie
Crossley Cooke, managing
director of Opus Energy:
Its great to see companies
warming to the idea of
generating their own
renewable energy adding
that Opus Energy can work
with companies to help them
realise the extra revenue and
benefts to be gained by
entering this market.
This article is available
on-line. Please visit
www.cospp.com
For more information, enter 14 at COSPP.hotims.com
1307cospp_27 27 7/18/13 4:51 PM
Project Profle:
Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 www.cospp.com 28
Project profle: Optimization of industrial CHP in Portugal
The operators of a CHP plant at a large petrochemcial facility in Portugal were struggling to run the
plant in the most economic way because of the requirement for high operational fexibility, liquidity of
the cost and constantly varying site demands. Joo Coelho and Pascal Stijns explain how this issue
has been successfully resolved.
How to optimally run
a complex industrial CHP plant
The Sines petrochemical complex is Repsols largest chemical facility in Portugal Credit: Repsol
1307cospp_28 28 7/18/13 4:51 PM
R
epsol is an
integrated global
energy company
with a presence in
more than 30 countries. It
operates in the upstream
areas of exploration and
production of hydrocarbons,
as well as downstream
refning and the production
of chemicals, and new
energy.
Repsols largest chemical
facility in Portugal is a
petrochemical complex in
Sines, which manufactures
polymers. The heat and
power requirements for this
large chemical complex are
provided by a cogeneration
facility. The CHP plant consists of
three high-pressure boilers and
one medium-pressure auxiliary
boiler, and has a maximum
steam production capacity of
600 tonnes, which is used to
meet the sites electricity and
heat requirements.
The boilers are able to
combust six different fuels of
varying quality, availability and
cost simultaneously. The steam
is reduced and distributed via
fve steam headers within the
site via a 35 MW back-pressure
turbine or pressure reducing
stations. A 24 MW condensing
turbine is also available to
produce extra electrical power
when needed. The site has two
different electrical contracts, of
which the condensing turbine
contract is the most complex.
However, due to the
requirement for operational
fexibility, liquidity of cost
and constantly varying site
demands it was proving almost
impossible for operations to
make the right economical
decisions to achieve the
optimal utility production cost.
Thus, the Sines facility,
working with Honeywell,
decided to develop and
install an on-line and real-
time thermodynamic and
economic model that could
determine the optimal
production settings, and
thereby enable operations to
run the CHP plant in the most
economical way.
The optimization model
The plants Honeywell Experion
PKS distributed control system
(DCS) enabled the use of
various Microsoft standard
tools such as Task Scheduler,
Excel and Visual Basic,
which helped to simplify the
optimization application.
Furthermore, three MicroSoft
Excel add-ins are employed:
the Honeywell Water and
Steam Physical Properties,
the FrontSys Premium Solver
and the Microsoft Excel Data
Exchange. Figure 1 shows a
sample optimization window
from the application.
Data are read from the
DCS into an Excel workbook
via Honeywells Medex
OPC-based add-in. On-line
values, pricing information,
physical properties, etc, are
linked to the model. The Solver
add-in executes and inputs
the results into the model
tab. From there the values
are written to defned SCADA
points in the DCS for further
display, historization, reporting
and alarming via OPC.
A copy of the workbook,
without the input and output
sheets, can be used for off-line
optimization too, enabling
the user to run various multi
periods (i.e. hours, days, weeks,
months, years) and analyse
what if scenarios.
The Solver add-in enables
the use of various solving
techniques, ranging from
Mixed Integer Linear
Programming (MILP) to Mixed
Integer Quadratic Constraint
Programming (MIQCP), as
well as the more commonly
used, Mixed Integer Non Linear
Programming (MINLP).
The objective function of
the model represents the
sum of the variable and fxed
costs, including depreciation,
personnel, insurance and
fxed charges. The user is
able to view the impact of
various optimization modes,
constraints and loading,
including switching devices
on or off. The model also
provides the operating cost of
the CHP in actual mode and
optimum mode in a real-time
environment.
Positive outcome
Repsol Sines found some
surprising results. Running the
station with a 1 MW electrical
feedwater pump instead of
a turbo pump delivered an
astonishing saving of more
than 9%. Even more surprising
was the 13% saving by running
the station with two feedwater
lines and a turbo pump,
compared to running with a
single feedwater line and one
electrical pump.
Comparing several different
operational scenarios before
and after the optimizer also
proved to be an eye opener,
as can be seen in Figure 2.
The vertical axis represents the
cost (%) relative to the way the
CHP plant was operated in the
past at low loads.
The difference in Scenarios
1 (frst left, red) and 2 (second
left, red) is small in terms of
cost , although a 2% difference
does represent a considerable
amount of money on a yearly
basis. However, these were
rejected by Repsol due to
environmental considerations.
Scenarios 3, 4 and 5 (in
blue) all comply to Repsols
sustainability targets (i.e. no
faring and steam venting)
and clearly show signifcant
differences in operating
cost close to 22% between
operating the power station
with only the condensing set
at a minimum and one boiler
(scenario 3) and scenario
5, i.e. running the station as it
used to run.
www.cospp.com Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 29
Project profle: Optimization of industrial CHP in Portugal
Figure 1. A representative screenshot
1307cospp_29 29 7/18/13 4:51 PM
Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 www.cospp.com 30
Project profle: Optimization of industrial CHP in Portugal
In addition, users are able to
justify improvements, including
various effciency improvement
projects by changing the layout
of the plant and comparing it
with previous scenarios over a
certain operational time period
(i.e. one year).
Because Honeywell had
previously provided the control
application and equipment
for the Repsol Sines utilites, the
frst off-line model was ready
within a couple of months.
The on-line model took
longer since inputs, such as
process measurements, had
to be validated, selected and
prepared as is the usual case
when doing model based
power station economical
optimization. However, the
pay-back period for the whole
application, which proved to
be couple of months, easily
justifying its implementation.
Without both on-line
and off-line optimization
applications based on
open systems, fundamental
engineering knowledge and
experience, such critical
savings would have gone
unnoticed. In these harsh
economical environments
nowadays such savings can
mean the difference between
profts or lost.
Ing. Joo Coelho is plant
manager utilities at Repsols
Sines facility in Portugal.
Ing. Pascal Stijns is a power
& energy consultant at
Honeywell Europe, based in
Belgium.
Psme.Stijns@honeywell.com;
http://honeywell.com
This article is available
on-line. Please visit
www.cospp.com
www.tedomengines.com, info@tedomengines.com, +420 483 363 642
Power range: 80 - 210 kW
Fuels: NG, Biogas, LPG,
Diesel, Biodiesel and others
ENGINES AND GENERATOR SETS
Reliable heart for your
cogeneration unit
ARE STRAY ELECTRICAL
CURRENTS DESTROYING
YOUR MACHINERY?
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Figure 2. Model highlights signifcant operating cost differences
1307cospp_30 30 7/18/13 4:51 PM
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1307cospp_32 32 7/18/13 4:51 PM
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This years launch of POWER-GEN Brasil completes the global network of POWER-GEN events, which collectively
attract nearly 70,000 power professionals around the world. Expanding the POWER-GEN brand to Brazil comes
in direct response to market demand for providing the Latin American sector with an event focusing on the use
of natural gas, fossil resources, and non-hydro renewables to generate electricity. The POWER-GEN brand is
synonymous with superior content, exhibitions showcasing the leaders in the power industry and unsurpassed
networking opportunities. POWER-GEN Brasil promises to be no different.
-Glenn Ensor, Director, International Power Events
Hydroelectricity is the most predominant form of power generation in Brazil, providing more than 84 percent
of all electricity. The needs in this country and in the entire Latin American region to develop new
hydropower and modernize existing facilities to meet exploding demand have never been greater. In the next
10 years, Brazil needs about 65,000 MW of new capacity and plans to invest US$154.8 billion. Now in its
third year, HydroVision Brasil is the ONLY event in Brazil bringing together the world to focus on improving and
growing the hydro market in this region. Nowhere else in Latin America will you fnd a diverse, high-quality
conference program dedicated to all aspects of hydro coupled with an exhibition featuring innovative hydro-
related product and service solutions from companies throughout the world.
-Marla Barnes, Publisher and Chief Editor, Hydro Group
DistribuTECH has become North Americas most respected and largest annual transmission and distribution
event. It is known for providing timely, quality conference content that offers solutions to many challenges
transmission and distribution utilities face, bringing together the most important industry suppliers in the T&D
industry throughout the world. PennWell do Brasil intends to bring the same quality event to Brazil and Latin
America, with the second annual DistribuTECH Brasil 2013 Conference and Exhibition. DistribuTECH Brasil
will showcase innovative solutions and new technology to advance the transmission and distribution industry
throughout Brazil and Latin America.
- MaryBeth DeWitt, Vice President, Transmission & Distribution Events
WELCOME! FROM OUR EVENT MANAGEMENT TEAM
1307cospp_33 33 7/18/13 4:51 PM
4 2013 PRELIMINARY EVENT PROGRAM
PROJECTS OF THE YEAR AWARDS
THURSDAY, 26 SEPTEMBER 2013 | 13:00 15:00
We cordially invite you to submit a project nomination for the POWER-
GEN Brasil, HydroVision Brasil and DistribuTECH Brasil and Projects of
the Year Awards. Awards will be given for projects in the generation,
hydropower and transmission and distribution sectors. The events will
begin accepting nominations online on May 1, 2013.
For information on applying, visit www.powerbrasilevents.com.
SUBMISSIONS WILL OPEN ON MAY 1 IN THE FOLLOWING
GENERATION-RELATED AWARDS CATEGORIES:
Conenliondl Ihermdl 0enerdlion
PeneWdble Energ] 0enerdlion
|ucledr PoWer 0enerdlion
For more details on the POWER-GEN Brasil 2013 Projects of the Year
Awards, please contact Amy Nash at AmyN@pennwell.com.
SUBMISSIONS WILL OPEN ON MAY 1 IN THE FOLLOWING
HYDROPOWER-RELATED AWARDS CATEGORIES:
ldm or Ciil wor|s Conslruclion or Pehdbilildlion
Enironmenldl Susldindbilil]
|eW (0reenfeld) leelopmenl (1O1OO |w)
|eW (0reenfeld) leelopmenl (1O12O,OOO |w)
Projecl lindncidl Closing
Projecl Pelurbishmenl/|oderni/dlion
Smdll h]dro (less lhdn 1O |w)
For more details on the HydroVision Brasil 2013 Projects of the Year
Awards, please contact Heather Williams at HWilliams@pennwell.com.
SUBMISSIONS WILL OPEN ON MAY 1 IN THE FOLLOWING
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION-RELATED AWARDS CATEGORIES:
Smdrl 0rid
Smdrl |elering
lemdnd Pesponse / Energ] Elfcienc]
Irdnsmission Projecls
For more details on the DistribuTECH Brasil 2013 Projects of the Year
Awards, please contact Teresa Hansen at TeresaH@pennwell.com or
Eduardo Gondim at EduardoG@pennwell.com.
OPENING KEYNOTE
TUESDAY, 24 SEPTEMBER 2013
|
10:00 12:00
Join us for the launch of POWER-GEN Brasil, HydroVision
Brasil and DistribuTECH Brasil with our Opening Keynote
featuring a gambit of dynamic presentations from a group of
industry leaders.
Be sure to join us as we kick off our largest conference and
exhibition ever in Brazil.
For Keynote speaker updates, visit www.powerbrasilevents.com
SESSION 3: SPECIAL SESSION
WEDNESDAY, 25 SEPTEMBER 2013 | 09:30 11:00
New federal government proposals and mandates are forcing
Brazils generation and transmission companies to dramatically
lower the electricity rates paid to them by distribution utilities,
leading to lower end-use customer tariffs. This new rate structure
has created a challenging operating environment for Brazils
electric utilities. The expert speakers in this session will explain
the rationale behind the rate reductions and their implications for
utilities. They also will discuss the strategies utility companies are
implementing to stay in business while ensuring that power the
lifeblood of Brazils economic growth continues to fow despite
reduced revenues. The panelists will discuss the benefts rate
reduction is designed to deliver, as well as the negative impacts
decreased revenues will have on auctions and investment in future
infrastructure expansion and upgrades.
CLOSING AWARDS LUNCHEON
THURSDAY, 26 SEPTEMBER 2013 | 13:00 15:00
As this large co-located endeavor comes to an end, be sure to
complete your event experience on a high note at the cant-
miss closing luncheon. Here you will get a great wrap-up for
the week and fnd out who the winners are of the prestigious
Projects of the Year Awards. Learn more about the Program
Awards to the right.
SPECIAL EVENTS
1307cospp_34 34 7/18/13 4:51 PM
5 WWW.POWERBRASILEVENTS.COM
Be sure to include POWER-GEN Brasil, HydroVision Brasil and DistribuTECH Brasil as a key component of your
marketing strategy and gain one-on-one access to this distinct audience of key decision-makers in the Latin
American conventional and hydropower generation, and transmission & distribution sectors.
Exhibiting at this co-located event ensures prominent visibility of your products and services in a high-level
networking environment. Due to high demand, additional exhibition space has been added. Space is selling fast and
is sold on a frst-come, frst-served basis.
EXHIBITOR BENEFITS
ALL 2013 EXHIBITORS WILL RECEIVE THE FOLLOWING:
liscounled conlerence regislrdlion
0ne complimenldr] e/hibilor lull conlerence regislrdlion per boolh'
Complimenldr] e/hibil boolh sldll pdsses (lWo e/hibilor boolh sldll
passes for the frst nine square meters of booth space and two
additional per nine square meters)
Preconlerence publicil]
Complimenldr] e/hibil foor pdsses lo dislribule lo ]our cuslomers dnd
prospective customers
'lislribuIECh e/hibilors onl].
COST TO EXHIBIT
E/hibil Spdce Pdle. S375 uSl per squdre meler
S1O uSl per squdre meler premium chdrge lor corners dnd isldnds
Shell Scheme Spdce Pdle. S475 uSl per squdre meler
To book your exhibit space today, contact your Exhibit / Sponsorship
Sales Representative on page 43.
BASIC EXHIBITOR
LISTING PACKAGE
35Word compdn] descriplion in onsile Eenl 0uide dnd online
community
0nline enhdnced lisling Wilh 5 producl descriplions dnd cdlegories
' upgrdde opporlunilies dre ddildble. Conldcl e/hibilor serices.
ENHANCED EXHIBITOR LISTINGS
INCREASE YOUR VISIBILITY BY UPGRADING YOUR LISTING TO GOLD
($495 USD), PLATINUM ($995 USD) OR ELITE ($1995 USD) AND
RECEIVE THESE ADDITIONAL FEATURES:
1. Include your full color logo in the printed on-site Event Guide
2. Increase your company description in the printed on-site Event Guide from
35 to 75 words (Gold) or 100 words (Platinum and Elite)
3. Increase your company description online from 50 to 150 (Gold) or
250 words (Platinum and Elite)
4. Increase your product listings from 3 to 7 (Gold), 10 listings and one
(1) video upload (Platinum) or 20 listings and two (2) video uploads
(Elite)
NOTE: Price is fat fee per Exhibitor. Word counts estimated based on
average characters per word which may vary.
EXHIBITING INFORMATION
1307cospp_35 35 7/18/13 4:51 PM
6 2013 PRELIMINARY EVENT PROGRAM
TUESDAY, 24 SEPTEMBER 2013
08:00 - 20:00 Registration
10:00 - 12:00 Joint Opening Keynote Session
12:00 - 20:00 Ribbon Cutting Ceremony: Exhibit Hall OPEN
13:00 - 14:30 Delegate Lunch on Exhibit Floor
14:00 - 15:30
SESSION 1: Energy Generation in Brazil - Present Status & Future Plans
SESSION 1A: Protection, Automation and Standardization: Innovations SESSION 1B:
SESSION 1A: Smart Grid Projects SESSION 1B:
15:30 - 16:00 Networking Coffee Break on Exhibit Floor
16:00 - 17:30
SESSION 2A: Cogeneration & On-site Power Production SESSION 2B:
SESSION 2A: Turbines: New Technologies SESSION 2B:
SESSION 2A: Distributed Generation Integrations Impact on the Distribution Market SESSION 2B:
17:30 - 20:00 Welcome Reception on Exhibit Floor
WEDNESDAY, 25 SEPTEMBER 2013
08:30 - 19:00 Registration
09:30 - 11:00 Session 3: Special Session
10:00 - 19:00 Exhibit Hall Open
11:00 - 12:00 Networking Coffee Break on Exhibit Floor
12:00 - 13:30 Delegate Lunch on Exhibit Floor
13:30 - 15:00
SESSION 4A: Fossil Fuel Thermal Generation I SESSION 4B:
SESSION 4A: Turbines and Related Equipment: A Focus on Design SESSION 4B:
SESSION 4A: Technical Losses also are Relevant and You Must Tackle Them SESSION 4B:
15:00 - 16:00 Networking Coffee Break on Exhibit Floor
16:00 - 17:30
SESSION 5A: Fossil Fuel Thermal Generation II SESSION 5B:
SESSION 5A: Generators and Transformers: Protection, Stability and Environmental Aspects SESSION 5B:
SESSION 5A: Demand Response and Analytics SESSION 5B:
17:30 - 19:00 Event Party on Exhibit Floor
THURSDAY, 26 SEPTEMBER 2013
08:00 - 13:00 Registration
08:00 - 21:00 Exhibitor Move-Out (Exhibit Hall is NOT open to attendees)
09:30 - 11:00
SESSION 6: Operation & Maintenance
SESSION 6: Perspectives of Hydro Construction Companies: A Special Roundtable Discussion
SESSION 6: International Case Studies
11:00 - 11:15 Networking Coffee Break Conference Area
11:15 - 12:45
SESSION 7: Policy & Finance
SESSION 7: Modernization and Rehabilitation: Improving What We Already Have
SESSION 7: DistribuTECH Brasil Mega Session
13:00 - 15:00 Closing Awards Luncheon
COLOR KEY:
EVENT-AT-A-GLANCE
1307cospp_36 36 7/18/13 4:51 PM
7 WWW.POWERBRASILEVENTS.COM
New Hydro: Applying Strategic Thinking and Novel Equipment Designs SESSION 1C: Achieving Sustainable Hydropower: Social and Environmental Actions
Enabling Self-Healing Networks SESSION 1C: Information Intelligence
Environmental Issues of Electricity Production
Hot Topics in Hydro in Latin America SESSION 2C: Ideas in Action! Success Stories at Small- and Medium-Sized Hydro Projects throughout the World
Wide-Area Systems Based on Synchrophasors SESSION 2C: Integrating with Security
Addressing the Challenges of Variable Output Renewable Integration
Tools for Managing Your Business in a Challenging Market SESSION 4C: Mitigating Impacts on the Aquatic Environment
Automating Electric Utility Installations SESSION 4C: Integrating New Power Sources
Energy from Biomass & Waste
Hydromechanical & Lifting Equipment: Sharing Lessons Learned & Best Practices SESSION 5C: Overcoming Social and Environmental Challenges during Hydro Development
Developing Strategies And Projects for a Smarter Grid SESSION 5C: Keeping the Grid Under Control
1307cospp_REV_37 37 7/30/13 8:51 AM
8 2013 PRELIMINARY EVENT PROGRAM
EXHIBITOR
SERVICES:
J0A||A 0lllESPlE
T: +44 1992 656 672
F: +44 1992 656 700
E: joannag@pennwell.com
|lChAEl l0||Ell
T: +1 918-831-9707
F: +1 918-831-9729
E: michaeld@pennwell.com
|lChAEl l0||Ell
T: +1 918-831-9707
F: +1 918-831-9729
E: michaeld@pennwell.com
EXHIBIT /
SPONSORSHIPS:
lE0| SI0|E
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and Eastern Europe
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0llBEPI wElP
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E: gilbertw@pennwell.com
BPll0EII |0P0A|
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T: +1-918-549-0473
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KElVl| |APl0w
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and Switzerland
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E: kelvinm@pennwell.com
JuA| 0l|E|EZ
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T: +54 11 4787 3817
E: juang@pennwell.com
|AIAllA 0AlSE|0K
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1307cospp_38 38 7/18/13 4:51 PM
www.cospp.com Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 39
CHP in Belgiums Flanders
W
ithin 20 years,
c o m b i n e d
heat and
power (CHP)
in Flanders, the northern
part of Belgium, has been
transformed from a marginal
technology, primarily used
in the process industry, into
a signifcant contributor to
the Flemish energy system,
currently covering about 20%
of the gross inland power
demand. However, although
CHP gained prominence in
some sectors, its potential
has hardly been exploited
in others. By looking at data
on the CHP development in
the Flemish region over the
last two decades we can
understand its drivers and
the barriers. We can also
look to the future to see
whether CHP will achieve a
foothold in new sectors.
For more than a decade,
VITO, the Flemish Institute
of Technological Research,
has conducted surveys on
cogeneration/CHP in Flanders
on behalf of the Flemish
government.
The annual CHP inventory,
based on the fnding of these
surveys, shows how CHP has
evolved in Flanders from 1990
onwards. The inventory itself
has also evolved over the two
last decades as new indicators
were added. Now, the VITO CHP
inventory is recognised as the
book of reference for whoever
is interested in learn about
CHP in the Flemish region.
Over a period of 20 years, CHP in Flanders has evolved from a marginal
technology, primarily serving the process industry, to an important contributor to
the Flemish energy system. Erwin Cornelis and Kaat Jespers look back
at its history and ponder what the future may hold.
Cogenerations
20-year history in Flanders
The oldest CHP installation in Flanders, which has been operating since 1958
1307cospp_39 39 7/18/13 4:52 PM
Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 www.cospp.com 40
CHP in Belgiums Flanders
Based on this inventory, we
describe the history of CHP
development in the region.
Before 1990: The era of
the steam turbine
In 1990, the installed
power capacity of all CHP
installations in Flanders totalled
200 MW - very small when
compared to the total
capacity of 8500 MW in the
region.
The steam turbine was
the dominant technology,
both back-pressure and
condensing turbines. They
were primarily used by the
regions energy-intensive
industries. For example
Antwerp is home to the fourth
biggest petrochemical cluster
in the world.
The steam turbines were
installed to optimize the
energy costs of the plants.
In addition to heat, they
delivered power three quarter
(152 MW) as electricity, with
the remainder (40 MW) used
to drive compressors and
other machinery directly.
From 1990 until today, the
installed capacity of CHP
steam turbines has in relative
terms hardly changed. Some
installations have been taken
out of operation with a few
new ones installed, but the
vast majority continue to
operate. The oldest has been
in operation since 1958.
In 2007, the installed
capacity rose modestly to 240
MW, and since then steam
turbines in CHP mode have
gained some popularity, with
todays capacity at 333 MW.
Interest in that CHP technology
was renewed as a result of
incentives to utilise CHP, which
will be explained in more detail
later.
19902000: The era of
the gas turbines
Although steam turbines were
the dominant technology
driving CHP installations up to
1990, they were not the only
ones. In 29 CHP installations the
prime mover was an internal
combustion engine (ICE). Their
power capacity was rather
limited and did not exceed
250 kW. Their total power
capacity was 8 MW, with the
majority (7 MW) installed
to heat greenhouses. The
remaining 1 MW was installed
in sewage treatment plants.
During the fnal decade of
the 20th century, the use of
ICE-driven CHP installations
grew, especially in horticulture
and, to a lesser extent, in
industry. By 1995 the installed
capacity had tripled to
27 MW and quadrupled to
116 MW in 2000, supported
by the success of the early
movers. These CHP installations
also became more powerful,
especially from 1995 onwards
when machines with a power
output of 1+ MW were installed.
Unlike the steady
deployment of CHP in
horticulture and industry, it
did not develop consistently
in every industry sector. For
example, in the service sector,
its development has been
poor. However, inspired by
success stories from the UK
and the Netherlands, standard
CHP packages, with a small
ICE at their core, began to
be commercialised in this
sector. However, these proved
technically unreliable, with only
about 10% of the packages still
in operation after one year.
0
S00
1,000
1,S00
2,000
2,S00
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 199S 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 200S 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
o
w
e
r
c
a
p
a
c
|
t
y
[
M
W
]
SLeam Lurblnes Cas Lurblnes Comblneo cycle lnLernal combusuon englnes
CHP power capacity in Flanders, divided by technology, 199011
The gas turbine driven CHP installation at the
Zeebrugge LNG terminal: in operation since 1998
Credit: Fluxys - E. Manderlier
1307cospp_40 40 7/18/13 4:52 PM
www.cospp.com Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 41
CHP in Belgiums Flanders
Although ICE-driven CHP
undoubtedly took off after
1990, they did not benchmark
the development of the sector
between 1990 and 2000. That
honour belongs to gas turbine-
driven plants and combined-
cycles in CHP mode.
In the early 1990s, power
prices rose sharply. Many
energy-intensive companies,
the backbone of the Flemish
economy, considered to install
gas oil-fuelled generators as
an alternative to the purchase
of power at soaring prices.
The national power provider,
having a monopoly over the
power market at the time,
riposted by proposing natural
gas fuelled gas turbines of
which the heat could be
integrated in their processes.
Abroad, both the GE Frame 6
and ABB GT 10 demonstrated
technical reliablility, which
helped the industry to
consider the integration of
this technology within their
processes.
In 1993, the frst three gas
turbine-driven CHP installations
were put into operation,
representing 125 MW of power
capacity. By 2000, their number
had risen to 13, representing
a power capacity to 673 MW.
Altogether they represented
72% of the total CHP power
capacity and 40% of the total
thermal capacity.
All the gas turbines were
installed in a joint venture with
the national power provider,
except one combined-cycle
plant feeding a district heating
system. Also in 2000, 60% of the
ICE-driven CHP installations
were also operated in
partnership with the power
corporation.
200004: CHPs ice age
Suddenly, in 2000, Flanders
installed CHP capacity
essentially stopped growing.
Between 2000 and 2004 just
47 new installations came on
line an increase in power
capacity of less than 5% in
four years. Forty-fve of the
installations were ICE-driven
(41 MW); with the remaining
two steam turbine-driven
(14 MW). A similar trends was
observed in other European
countries.
There are many reaons
behind this dramatic trend
shift. The most important one
was the decline in the spark
spread, i.e. the difference
between the power price
and the natural gas price,
the dominant fuel for CHP
installations.
Between 1995 and 2005,
power prices remained
relatively stable, while natural
gas prices decreased, frst in
1999 by about 15% compared
to 199598 levels, which gave
a boost to CHP investment
However, the latter started
to increase and peaked at the
beginning of 2001 at about
55% higher than the 199598
levels. From 2002 onwards, the
gas prices stabilized again,
but at a level which was about
25% higher than 1995-98 levels
Thus, this declining spread
between fuel and power
prices had a detrimental effect
on the economic feasibility of
CHP installations.
At the same time, the
European power and gas
markets were being liberalised.
Monopolistic power and gas
companies had to restructure
and unbundle their transport
activities from their energy
provider activities. The newly
created grid operators had to
accept new entrants in their
traditional home markets. Both
energy market players and
energy consumers were left
in a situation of uncertainty
as the liberalised markets
developed.
A third reason, which
is specifc to the Flemish
region, is that in 2000, the
Flemish authorities began
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1307cospp_41 41 7/18/13 4:52 PM
Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 www.cospp.com 42
CHP in Belgiums Flanders
to acknowledge CHPs
greenhouse gas-avoiding
potential. An objective of the
Flemish government at the
time was to have a power
capacity of 1200 MW by 2005,
a 25% increase in the installed
capacity in 2000 (930 MW).
This objective corresponded
to 75% of the CHP potential,
which was estimated at
1600 MW in 1997 by VITO.
In order to achieve this
objective, the Flemish
authorities started to prepare
a support mechanism to
stimulate investment in CHP.
The downside was that
investors decided to postpone
their cogeneration investment
plans until more clarity on the
support was provided.
200512: The era of the
CHP certifcate
In 2006, the CHP support
scheme came into force.
The Flemish authorities chose
a market-based support
scheme, based on certifcates.
It is a dedicated certifcate
scheme for cogeneration
and works in parallel with the
green certifcate scheme for
renewable electricity, which
had been introduced a few
years earlier.
Within the scheme, the
regulator issues to the operator
of a CHP installation one CHP
certifcate per 1 MWh of primary
energy saved, compared to
the separated generation of
power and heat at predefned
reference effciencies. After four
years in operation, the number
of CHP certifcates issued is
restricted year by year at a rate
that is disproportional to the
primary energy savings, so that
every year new installations
are needed to guarantee
a suffcient supply of CHP
certifcates.
In order to create a demand
for these CHP certifcates,
power retailers have an
obligation to submit annually
a number of CHP certifcates
to the regulator as a function
of the power supplied the
year before and a predefned
factor, which increases year by
year.
The market responded
well to this incentive. By 2010,
the installed CHP capacity
had doubled compared to
2004 levels from 1028 MW
to 2086 MW. Two major CHP
installations contributed half
of this new power capacity
a 395 MW combined-cycle
plant, in operation since 2005,
and a second 133 MW facility,
in operation since 2006, both
integrated in large chemical
companies.
An additional 300 MW
came from ICE-driven CHP
plants, with the lions share
installed to heat greenhouses.
Injecting the purifed exhaust
gases to feed the plants with
CO
2
is acknowledged as an
additional environmental
beneft and is granted
supplementary certifcates,
helping to make CHP in the
horticultural sector more viable
than traditional heating.
Five new gas turbine-driven
CHP installations, totalling
130 MW, and two new steam
turbine-driven installations (80
MW) were also brought into
operation.
At the end of the decade, a
new type of CHP confguration
took foot: machines fuelled by
biogas from manure digestion.
Within the densely-populated
Flanders region, the intensive
agricultural sector faced
very strict limitations on the
disposing of manure on the
land. In many cases, the only
feasible way of disposing of it
was to digest it, together with
other biodegradable waste
and maize, before drying and
exporting the digestate. In
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1307cospp_42 42 7/18/13 4:52 PM
www.cospp.com Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 43
CHP in Belgiums Flanders
2010, 17 such CHP installations
were in operation, their power
range varied from 500 kW to
4 MW, and had a total power
capacity of 29 MW.
As a result of all these
investments, all the 428 CHP
installations together represent
in 2010 a power capacity
of 2086 MW and a thermal
capacity of 2618 MW. In
2010, they produced 12 TWh
of electricity, which is 19% of
the total gross inland power
consumption. They are fuelled
for 94% by natural gas, the
remaining part is mainly fuelled
by biogas or other renewable
fuels. Altogether, with an
average electrical effciency
of 29% and a average thermal
effciency of 53%, they saved
5.3 TWh of primary energy
compared to the separate
generation of heat and power.
CHP clearly had evolved into a
signifcant part of the Flemish
energy system.
2010 onwards: The era
of what?
What are the prospects of
CHP in Flanders beyond 2010?
There are signs of both hope
and despair.
In 2011-12, despair
dominated. In 2011, the
growth in CHP capacity again
appeared to falter as it had
done ten years ago. Only
51 MW of electrical power
capacity was added, which is
less than halve of the average
increase in the 200510 period.
Of course one cannot
neglect the infuence of the
banking crisis, which has had
a negative impact on many
investment plans, including
those related to CHP projects.
To illustrate, the increase in
cogeneration capacity in 2009
was a modest 36 MW, even less
than in 2011.
Another determining factor
is the re-emergence of the
deviation between gas prices
and power prices. As a result
of the massive investment
in renewable electricity in
Belgium, as well as in its
surrounding countries, wind
turbines became the marginal
production unit instead
of gas-fred power plants,
keeping the power price down.
The resulting declining or even
negative spark spread, mean
that the operating hours of
both gas-fuelled conventional
power plants and gas-fuelled
CHP installations are being
reduced.
The last cause is, as in
the period 200005, related
to the support mechanism
and the uncertainty about
the levels of CHP support.
The Flemish support scheme
was so effective that the
envisioned capacity objective
was achieved three years
ahead of schedule. As a result,
more CHP certifcates were
issued than needed to be
redeemed. In early 2012, 3.3
million CHP certifcates had
to be redeemed, whereas
almost 9.4 million were
available. As a result, many
of the CHP certifcates were
sold at the rock-bottom price
of 27 (US$35) per certifcate,
whereas the market price was
41 until 2009.
In order to address this
oversupply, the Flemish
authorities increased the
obligations on the power
retailers so that they have
to redeem a higher number
of certifcates for the same
quantity of power delivered
before. On the other hand
however, a substantial part
of the power delivered to the
energy intensive industry is
exempt from this obligation,
reducing the net effect of the
obligation increase.
Added to that, Flanders
CHP support scheme has
been drastically reformed
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1307cospp_43 43 7/18/13 4:52 PM
Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 www.cospp.com 44
CHP in Belgiums Flanders
after questions were raised
about the support levels
to some renewable power
technologies in the green
certifcate scheme. In order
to avoid over-subsidy, support
levels are now no longer
proportional to the renewable
energy produced, or the
primary energy saved for CHP.
Instead it is also dependent on
the economic feasibility of the
technology used.
This means that, if the
feasibility calculation for a
given type of technology, for
example a CHP installations
with an ICE within the power
range of 15 MW, reveals that
if one CHP certifcate per
2 MWh primary energy saved
instead of 1 MWh will suffce to
obtain a predefned internal
rate of return, the number of
CHP certifcates for that type of
installation will be halved.
Less viable types of
technologies can be issued
more than one CHP certifcate
per MWh primary energy
saved, although a maximum is
set at 1.25.
This reform of the support
scheme was seen as so drastic,
that it took a year before clarity
on the support mechanism
and support levels under the
new regime could be given.
In the interim, CHP investment
plans were once again
postponed.
However, it is not all doom
and gloom, and this decade
may bring new hope for the
CHP sector in Belgium.
The new EU Energy Effciency
Directive forces national and
regional authorities to examine
the better utilization of heat.
This could potentially lead
to a renaissance of district
heating in both Belgium and
the Flanders region, where it is
under-developed.
Today, only one minor
power plant of 54 MW and a
couple of municipal waste
incineration plants feed their
residual heat into a district
heating grid. Expansion of
district heating networks could
allow more power stations to
become a CHP plant.
However, as the investment
costs of a district heating
network are substantial,
fnancial support from the
government will be necessary.
The Flemish government is
elaborating a support scheme
for residual heat valorisation,
but the suggested support
levels so far appear modest.
Hope might also come from
micro-CHP technologies. Their
number is steadily growing,
with the frst one installed in
2000. By 2005, fve micro-CHP
installations were operating
in Flanders and by 2010 their
number had risen to 18. The
majority are equipped with
an ICE and have a power
capacity of 5 kW.
In 2011, their number
doubled, with another 24
micro-CHP installations added.
However, the majority are
equipped with a stirling engine
and have a power capacity of
1 kW. Could this technology
herald a new CHP era?
What does this CHP
history teach us?
From this 20 years of history
of CHP in Flanders, there are
several observations that one
can make.
The frst one is that the
price difference between fuel,
gas mainly, and electricity is
the main determinant of the
development of cogeneration.
Rising power prices allowed
gas turbine-driven CHP
installations to bloom in 1990
95, while increasing gas prices,
in combination with stable
electricity prices, in 200004
and from 2008 onwards
hamper CHP investments.
A second important
determinant is an effective
support scheme. They should
be designed to infuence
the economic feasibility in
a positive way, for example,
counterbalance the impact
of a negative energy price
difference.
However, Flanders shows
that setting up a sound
support scheme for a family
of technologies, which is
characterised by variations in
power capacity and concepts,
is a challenge. Nonetheless,
stability in support scheme
and levels are vital to maintain
the confdence of the
stakeholders.
Thirdly, one can see that
the different kinds of CHP
installations or applications
do not develop equally over
time. Gas turbine-driven CHP
installations, for instance, were
mainly installed between
1993 and 2000; many of the
CHP-installations delivering
heat to greenhouses stem
from 200710, as well as
biogas-fuelled CHP installation
in manure digestion, and
so forth.
Last, but not least, this story of
CHP in Flanders demonstrates
the importance of sound,
reliable and continuously
maintained data on CHP
within a particular region.
Without these data, this story
could not have been written.
Erwin Cornelis is an energy
policy expert and Kaat
Jespers is a researcher at
VITO NV, Belgium.
www.vito.be
This article is available
on-line. Please visit
www.cospp.com
0
S0
100
1S0
200
2S0
300
1991 1992 1993 1994 199S 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 200S 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
lnousLrlal power prlce
lnousLrlal gas prlce
Th evolution of industrial gas and power prices, 19912011 (1991 = 100%) Credit: Eurostat
1307cospp_44 44 7/18/13 4:52 PM
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1307cospp_45 45 7/18/13 4:52 PM
Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 www.cospp.com 46
Water/steam chemistry: HRSG protection
C
ombi ned- cycl e
p o we r / s t e a m
generating units
are becoming
increasingly popular as the
energy source for many
cogeneration/CHP projects.
The core of any such unit
is commonly a combustion
turbine, but additional power
and/or process steam is
generated via heat recovery
steam generators (HRSGs)
to feed steam turbines and
process heat exchangers.
Virtually all modern combined-
cycle plants do not contain
copper alloys, but a mindset
that seems to be impossible
to extinguish is the use of an
oxygen scavenger/metal
passivator reducing agent for
condensate/feedwater treat-
ment. This is despite the fact
that for nearly three decades,
this chemistry has been known
to cause fow-accelerated
corrosion (FAC), where in
some cases such induced
failures have resulted in serious
injury or caused even fatali-
ties at power plants. FAC is of
particular concern in HRSGs
because of their many tight-
radius elbows.
Current thinking on FAC
I recently attended the spring
2013 meeting of the ASME
A core part of many modern cogeneration/CHP units is the heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG). However, Brad Beucker warns that the industry is ignoring fow-
accelerated corrosion in HRSGs, which are particularly susceptible,
and is doing so at its peril.
Be alert
to fow-accelerated corrosion
in your HSRG
Single-phase FAC has a distinctive orange peel texture Credit: D. Johnson, ChemTreat
1307cospp_46 46 7/18/13 4:52 PM
www.cospp.com Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 47
Water/steam chemistry: HRSG protection
Research Committee on
Power Plant & Environmental
Chemistry. One of the main
topics was once again FAC
and its prevention. The issue
has not lost any importance
since four workers were killed
by an FAC-induced failure
in 1986
1
, with a number of
fatalities since. In fact, FAC is
the top corrosion mechanism
in HRSG, so the issue has,
if anything, become more
pressing.
However, as was pointed
out by several of the meeting
attendees and most notably
by Dr. Barry Dooley of Structural
Integrity Associates, and
formerly of EPRI concern
over FAC seems to be fading
away in the minds of plant
management at many
facilities. A contributing factor
undoubtedly is the many
retirements in the power
industry, while new personnel
simply do not understand the
importance of FAC control.
Yet, FAC continues to generate
international conferences,
the most recent of which was
held in March in Washington,
D.C., US. In a presentation to
the PPEC meeting attendees,
Kevin Shields, one of Dr.
Dooleys colleagues, provided
the following statement in an
introductory slide.
2
FAC occurs in >70% of
fossil plants and represents
>40% of all tube failures in
HRSGs, despite R&D since
the 1960s, many hundreds of
plant assessments worldwide,
numerous fatalities and serious
failures, and much application
and development.
In this article I focus on
FAC and methods to prevent
it, and hopefully it will serve
as a warning for plant
management at the many
hundreds of facilities that
continue to be constructed
and brought on line, not only
in the US but worldwide.
When I began my utility
career in 1981, conventional
wisdom said that any
dissolved oxygen (DO) which
entered the condensate/
feedwater system of utility
boilers was harmful. At that
time, over 50% of the power
produced in the US came from
coal. Coal-fred units typically
have complex condensate/
FAC occurs in >70% of fossil plants
and represents >40% of all tube
failures in HRSGs, despite R&D
since the 1960s, many hundreds
of plant assessments worldwide,
numerous fatalities and serious
failures, and much application and
development
Figure 1. Demonstrating the tube-wall thinning caused by single-pase FAC-
Credit: D. Johnson, ChemTreat
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1307cospp_47 47 7/18/13 4:52 PM
Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 www.cospp.com 48
Cogeneration water/steam chemistry
feedwater networks with
numerous feedwater heaters.
The prevalent thinking was
that any trace of DO would
cause corrosion, and indeed
oxygen corrosion can be very
problematic in uncontrolled
situations. Therefore, virtually
all feedwater systems for high-
pressure steam generators
were equipped with a
deaerator for DO removal. A
properly operating deaerator
can lower DO concentrations
to as low as 7 g/l.
However, any residual
DO concentration was still
considered harmful, so
chemical deaeration was
a standard process at most
plants. The workhorse for many
years was hydrazine (N
2
H
4
), a
reducing agent which reacts
with oxygen as follows:
N
2
H
4
+ O
2
2H
2
O + N
2
Eq. 1
Also, arguably the primary
beneft of hydrazine is that it
will passivate oxidized areas of
piping and tube materials as
follows:
N
2
H
4
+ 6Fe
2
O
3
4Fe
3
O
4
+ N
2
+
2H
2
O Eq. 2
N
2
H
4
+ 4CuO 2Cu
2
O + N
2
+
2H
2
O Eq. 3
Magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
), is a
protective layer that forms on
carbon steel when it is placed
into service. Cu
2
O forms on
copper alloys, although we will
not discuss this chemistry in
great depth because the use of
copper alloys in condensate/
feedwater systems has greatly
diminished in large part due
to the potential for copper
carryover to steam in high-
pressure utility boilers.
Hydrazine residuals
were typically maintained
at relatively low levels of
perhaps 20100 g/l (ppb).
Oxygen scavenger treatment
was coupled with a feed of
ammonia or an amine to
maintain feedwater pH within
a mildly alkaline range, 9.1
to 9.3 for mixed-metallurgy
feedwater systems and a bit
higher for all-ferrous systems.
NH
3
+ H
2
O NH
4
+
+ OH
-
Eq. 4
This programme became
known as all-volatile treatment
reducing [AVT(R)].
Due to the suspected
carcinogenic nature of
hydrazine, alternative
chemicals such as
carbohydrazide, methyl ethyl
ketoxime, and others gained
popularity. Regardless, all
still had the same purpose,
to establish a reducing
environment in the feedwater
circuit, thus inhibiting oxidation
of metal. The technique
became a standard in the
industry.
This changed in 1986. On
9 December of that year, an
elbow in the condensate
system ruptured at the Surry
nuclear power station, near
Rushmere, Virginia, US. The
failure caused four fatalities
and tens of millions of dollars in
repair costs and lost revenues.
1
However, researchers
learned from this accident
and others that the reducing
environment produced by
oxygen scavenger feed results
in single-phase FAC.
The attack occurs at fow
disturbances such as elbows
in feedwater piping and
economizers, feedwater heater
drains, locations downstream
of valves and reducing fttings,
attemperator piping, and, most
notably for the combined-
cycle industry, in low-pressure
evaporators. The effect of
single-phase FAC is outlined in
Figure 1.
Metal loss occurs gradually
until the remaining material
at the affected location can
no longer withstand the
process pressure, whereupon
catastrophic failure occurs.
The thinning is due to the
combination of a reducing
environment and localized
fuid fow disturbances, which
cause dissolution of ferrous
ions (Fe
+2
) from the metal and
metal oxide matrix.
Results from EPRI show
that iron dissolution is
greatly infuenced by not
only reducing conditions
but also by solution pH and
temperature.
As Figure 2 illustrates,
corrosion reaches a
maximum at 150oC. Thus,
feedwater systems and HRSG
low-pressure evaporators
are particularly susceptible
locations. Also note the
infuence of pH, as refected by
ammonia concentration, on
the corrosion characteristics.
As we shall see, this factor is
quite important with regard to
control of FAC.
The quest to maintain
a non-detectable oxygen
residual in feedwater systems
led to FAC at many coal-fred
power plants. I observed this
frst hand at one of two utilities
in which I was employed in the
past. At this plant, a feedwater
heater drain line failed due
to FAC, shutting down an
800 MW supercritical unit.
Infnitely more serious was
FAC-induced failure of an
attemperator line in 2007 at
another of the utilitys stations,
which killed two workers and
seriously injured a third.
In large measure, coal plant
personnel have recognized the
problem of single-phase FAC,
and have adopted alternative
feedwater treatment methods
to mitigate the issue. However,
I regularly review combined-
cycle proposals in which
the developer specifes an
oxygen scavenger feed
system for HRSG chemistry
control. It is obvious that this
NH
3
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
122 212 302 392 482 572 662
0 50 100 150
Temperature (F)
p
p
b
F
e
Temperature (F)
200 250 300 350
0.1 ppm
0.2 ppm
0.3 ppm
0.5 ppm
1.0 ppm
2.0 ppm
8.75
8.90
9.05
9.20
9.40
9.60
pH
Figure 2. Carbon steel matrix dissolution as a function of pH and temperature
1
1307cospp_48 48 7/18/13 4:52 PM
17-19 March 2014
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Cape Town, South Africa
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1307cospp_49 49 7/18/13 4:52 PM
Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 www.cospp.com 50
Cogeneration water/steam chemistry
mindset clearly has not been
expunged at many locations.
FAC mindset change
HRSGs by their very nature
have many waterwall tubes
with short-radius elbows. Thus,
the HRSG contains numerous
spots susceptible to single-
phase FAC. A primary method
to mitigate this attack is the
selection of proper feedwater
treatment, which will be
examined below.
Over 40 years ago,
researchers in Germany and
then Russia began using
a programme known as
oxygenated treatment (OT)
to minimize carbon steel
corrosion and iron dissolution in
supercritical steam generators.
The key component of the
program mewas, and still is,
deliberate injection of pure
oxygen into the condensate/
feedwater network to establish
oxygen residuals of up to
300 g/l. What chemists
discovered is that in very pure
feedwater (cation conductivity,
0.15 S/cm), the oxygen
causes the magnetite to
develop a tenacious and very
insoluble flm of ferric oxide
hydrate (FeOOH).
Results quickly showed
that OT can lower feedwater
iron concentrations to 1 ppb
or less, and greatly minimize
single-phase FAC. Now, OT
is the preferred feedwater
treatment for once-through
utility steam generators around
the world. Common in the US
is an oxygen residual range
of 30 ppb to 150 ppb, with a
recommended pH range of
8.0 to 8.5. OT has been applied
to a few drum units, where EPRI
guidelines call for a feedwater
pH range of 9.0 to 9.4, with a
DO concentration ranging
from 30 g/l to 150 g/l.
Although OT has been
successfully applied to drum
boilers, another programme
has evolved that is very popular
for condensate/feedwater in
these steam generators. It is
known as all-volatile treatment
[AVT(O)]. With AVT(O), oxygen
is not deliberately injected into
the condensate, but rather
the amount that enters from
condenser air in-leakage
(per normal conditions we
will examine normal shortly)
is allowed to remain without
any oxygen scavenger/metal
passivator treatment. It should
be noted at this point that OT
or AVT(O) are not permissible
for feedwater systems
containing copper alloys, as
the oxygen would simply be
too corrosive to the metal. Thus,
in the following we will focus on
AVT(O) for all-ferrous systems.
When researchers
developed AVT(O), they took
into account the pH effect on
carbon steel dissolution, as
illustrated in Figure 4. AVT(O)
guidelines evolved to the
following parameters:
t 3FDPNNFOEFE Q) SBOHF
9.29.6
t 'FFEXBUFS %0
concentration: 110 g/l
As with OT, the condensate in
an AVT(O) programme must
be quite pure to allow oxygen
to generate the
For new HRSGs,
single-phase
FAC control can
be addressed
by materials
selection a
small amount
of chromium
virtually
eliminates the
corrosion
FeOOH protective layer rather
than cause pitting. However,
the cation conductivity upper
limit with AVT(O) is a bit more
relaxed at 0.2 S/cm.
A relatively new twist has
emerged regarding AVT(O)
philosophy. Chemists have
discovered that the heretofore
established limit of 10 g/l DO
in the feedwater may allow
single-phase FAC at some
locations in feedwater systems
where fow effects appear
to prevent the dissolved
oxygen from reaching the
metal surface. A properly
treated system will have a
very pronounced reddish
color, and if the treatment is
not complete, areas of black
magnetite will still be visible.
How to minimize FAC
Elevated pH also has a benefcial
effect in mitigating FAC. Thus,
the guidelines for feedwater pH
now recommend a range of
9.2 to 9.6. With EPRIs phosphate
continuum programme or with
caustic treatment alone, the
drum pH can be controlled
within a range of 910 quite
readily. However, a complication
sometimes arises because of
HRSG design.
Most HRSGs are of the
multi-pressure, drum, vertical
tube style. In some cases,
the feedwater circuit is
designed such that feedwater
A fow scematic of a triple-pressure HRSG
1307cospp_50 50 7/18/13 4:52 PM
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multi-track conference that addresses the key issues facing our industry.
The Advisory Board of Renewable Energy World Europe, is now accepting abstracts for the 2014 conference. Share your knowledge,
experience and ideas with technical and strategic decision-makers and strategists.
A full listing of suggested conference topics and themes is available on the Renewable Energy World Europe event site.
Please visit www.renewableenergyworld-europe.com and select the conference tab.
For queries relating to the conference, please contact:
Sophia Perry
Conference Coordinator
T: +44 (0) 1992 656 641
F: +44 (0) 1992 656 700
E: sophiap@pennwell.com
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Cogeneration & OnSite Power Production | July - August 2013 www.cospp.com 52
Cogeneration water/steam chemistry
enters each pressure circuit
separately. In many others,
however, the entire feedwater
stream is routed to the
low-pressure (LP) evaporator
for heating before being
distributed to the intermediate-
pressure (IP) and high-pressure
(HP) steam generators.
For this confguration,
phosphate or caustic feed to
the LP circuit is not permissible
due to the downstream effects
on attemperator chemistry,
and IP and HP economizers
In these situations, LP pH
control is highly dependent
upon the ammonia injected
into the feedwater. If the
condenser is tubed with
ferrous materials, the pH may
be taken higher than the
9.2 to 9.6 range listed above
without ill effects. However,
copper-alloy tubes would
suffer corrosion at higher
ammonia concentrations.
For new HRSGs, single-phase
FAC control can also be
addressed by materials
selection. The addition of a
small amount of chromium in
the material at FAC-susceptible
locations virtually eliminates the
corrosion. One example is LP
waterwall elbows. Fabrication of
the elbows from 1 chromium
alloy can provide great beneft.
While the incorporation of this
alloy adds some cost to the
project, the materials are quite
resistant to FAC.
Two-Phase FAC
Many steam generators,
regardless of type, are
susceptible to two-phase
FAC. As the name implies, this
corrosion mechanism occurs
where water fashes to steam,
resulting in a mixed-phase fuid.
For conventional units,
feedwater heater shells and
heater drains are common
locations for two-phase FAC,
but this equipment is not
common for HRSGs. However,
deaerators also experience
two-phase fuid fow. As fuid
fashes upon entering a
deaerator, oxygen departs
with the steam. Thus, the water
that impinges upon metal
surfaces does not maintain an
oxidizing environment. Also, the
pH of entrained water droplets
within the steam is usually
lower than the bulk water pH.
The combination of these
factors often initiates FAC.
As has been noted
previously, elevated pH will
help to mitigate FAC, but the
HRSG confguration dictates
the maximum treatment
allowed. If the LP system is
utilized for the heating of
feedwater to the IP and HP
circuits, solid alkali treatment
(tri-sodium phosphate or
caustic) of the LP circuit is
not permissible. Control of pH
can only be accomplished
by ammonia, but it should
be noted that ammonia
hydrolysis, as previously
outlined in Eq.4, decreases
with rising temperature.
As with single-phase
FAC, a method to combat
two-phase FAC is fabrication
of susceptible locations with
chromium-containing steel.
Again, however, this adds cost
to the project.
Conclusion
FAC is an issue to be taken
very seriously. I continue to
see a large number of power
plant proposals that still call
for an oxygen scavenger feed
system, and this is of concern.
In addition to the references
in this article, I also encourage
readers to access the web site
of the International Association
for the Properties of Water and
Steam (www.IAPWS.org). This
group, in which Dr. Dooley is
one of the directors, offers free
downloadable and cutting-
edge technical information
regarding power plant water/
steam chemistry.
References
1. Guidelines for Controlling
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion
in Fossil and Combined
Cycle Plants, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA, US: 2005. 1008082.
2. K. Shields, International
Conference on Flow-
accelerated Corrosion in
Fossil, Combined-Cycle/
HRSG and Renewable
Energy Plants at the
2013 spring meeting
of the ASME Research
Committee on Power Plant
& Environmental Chemistry,
April 15-17, Houston, TX, US.
Brad Buecker is a process
specialist with Kiewit Power
Engineers Co., US.
www.kiewit.com
This article is available
on-line. Please visit
www.cospp.com
Two-phase FAC in a deaerator Credit: T. Gilchrist Tri-State G&T (retired)
1307cospp_52 52 7/18/13 4:52 PM
INVITATION TO EXHIBIT
POWER-GEN Africa, co-located with DistribuTECH Africa, will once again
provide comprehensive coverage of the power needs, resources, and issues
facing the electricity generation industries across sub-Saharan Africa.
A three day event, POWER-GEN Africa serves the industrys information
and networking needs with a dedicated trade show foor featuring the
prime movers in the conventional power and renewable energy industries.
Additionally, a multi-track conference covering strategic, technical and
renewable topics will feature commercial and practical solutions and
experiences, for power industry businesses.
POWER-GEN Africa has quickly established itself as sub-Saharan Africas
premier and leading event dedicated to the power generation industry,
focusing on the current and future trends, as well as the needs and resources
within this region of the world. Nowhere else provides you with the
opportunity to reach and meet over 2,000 high-level industry professionals
in one place, allowing networking, business and sales opportunities with key
industry buyers and infuencers from around the continent.
If your company supplies, or is looking to supply products or services to the
power generation industries in Africa, then POWER-GEN Africa is essential to
reaching the key industry professionals and decision makers.
SOLUTIONS FOR AFRICAS
ENERGY FUTURE
Conference & Exhibition
1719 March 2014
Cape Town International Convention Centre
Cape Town, Republic of South Africa
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