Propiedades Fisico Quimicas Quinoa

http://fst.sagepub.
com
Food Science and Technology International
DOI: 10.1177/1082013203009002006
2003; 9; 101 Food Science and Technology International
H. Dogan and M. V. Karwe
Physicochemical Properties of Quinoa Extrudates
http://fst.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/9/2/101
The online version of this article can be found at:
Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com
On behalf of:
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient-ficas (Spanish Council for Scientific Research)
can be found at: Food Science and Technology International Additional services and information for
http://fst.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:
http://fst.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Reprints:
http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav Permissions:
http://fst.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/9/2/101 Citations
at UNIV DE SAO PAULO BIBLIOTECA on September 25, 2009 http://fst.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Physicochemical Properties of Quinoa Extrudates
H. Dog an
1
and M.V. Karwe
2,
*
1
TUBITAK Marmara Research Center, Food Science and Technology Research Institute,
P.O. Box 21, Gebze/Kocaeli, 41470, Turkey
2
Food Science Department, Rutgers University, 65 Dudley Road, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901 USA
Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to analyse the effect of temperature, screw speed, and
feed moisture content on physicochemical properties of quinoa extrudates. A three-level, three-variable,
Box-Behnken design of experiments was used. The experiments were run at 1624% feed moisture content,
130170
C temperature, and 250500 rpm screw speed with a fixed feed rate of 300 g/min. Second order
polynomials were used to model the extruder response and extrudate properties as a function of process
variables. Responses were most affected by changes in feed moisture content and temperature, and to a
lesser extent by screw speed. Calculated specific mechanical energy (SME) values ranged between 170
402 kJ/kg which were lower than those observed for other cereals, most likely due to high (7.2%) fat
content of quinoa. High levels of feed moisture alone, and in combination with high temperature, resulted
in poor expansion. The best product, characterised by maximum expansion, minimum density, high degree
of gelatinization and low water solubility index, was obtained at 16% feed moisture content, 130
C die
temperature, and 375 rpm screw speed, which corresponds to high SME input. It was demonstrated that
the pseudo-cereal quinoa can be used to make novel, healthy, extruded, snack-type food products.
Key Words: quinoa, extrusion cooking, physico-chemical properties
INTRODUCTION
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a disc shaped
small seed that looks like a cross between sesame seed
and millet. It is a crop that has been grown in South
American countries for centuries and has many poten-
tially beneficial properties such as resistance to cold
(Becker and Hanners, 1990; Coulter and Lorenz, 1991a;
Prakash et al., 1993). It can be grown in poor soil and at
high altitude (Ng et al., 1994). The edible seed of the
quinoa plant has been called both a pseudo-cereal and a
pseudo-oilseed because of its unique nutritional profile.
It has been recently identified to have promising
potential to overcome worlds food shortage (Ahamed
et al., 1996). The seeds have protein quality comparable
to that of whole dry milk in terms of balanced amino
acid composition (Ng et al., 1994). Quinoa protein is
rich in lysine, methionine and cysteine (Becker and
Hanners, 1990). Thus, it is a good complement for
legumes, which are often low in methionine and
cysteine. Some types of wheat come close to matching
protein content of quinoa, but cereals such as corn and
rice generally have less than half the protein content of
quinoa. In addition, quinoa is a relatively good source
of vitamin E, and several of the B vitamins (Ruales and
Nair, 1993; Ahamed et al., 1996). It also has desirable
fatty acid composition, and high levels of calcium, iron
and phosphorous (Ruales and Nair, 1993; Przybylski
et al., 1994) which make it a unique food source.
The Aztecs and Incas credited quinoa with medicinal
properties including lowering blood cholesterol, improv-
ing glucose tolerance and reducing insulin requirements
(Guzman-Maldonado and Paredes-Lopez, 1998). In
recent years, scientific information supporting the
health benefits of quinoa has accumulated (Guzman-
Maldonado and Paredes-Lopez, 1998). Quinoa contains
significant amounts of flavonoids and phenolic acids,
and a number of structurally diverse saponins (Ridout
et al., 1991; Gee et al., 1993; Ng et al., 1994;
Masterbroek et al., 2000). Saponins can help lower
cholesterol blood levels, inhibit growth of cancer cells,
eliminate digestive toxins, and strengthen the immune
system (Arditi et al., 2000). Phenolic derivatives act as
natural antimicrobial agents. They have been proven to
be very good antioxidants, scavenging free radicals and
providing metal chelating activities. Polyphenols have
been implicated in health benefits, such as prevention of
cancer and cardiovascular diseases.
This unique added chemical composition makes
quinoa an ideal candidate to be further studied for
establishing it as a functional food. Processing of
traditional grains like quinoa into products that deliver
nutritive as well as physiologically active components
represents a major opportunity for food processors
catering to the health-food market.
Extensive studies on extrusion processing of cereals,
such as corn and wheat, to generate ready-to-eat
*To whom correspondence should be sent
(e-mail: karwe@aesop.rutgers.edu).
Received 11 July 2002; revised 18 December 2002.
Food Sci Tech Int 2003;9(2):010114
2003 Sage Publications
ISSN: 1082-0132
DOI: 10.1177/108201303033940
101
+ [14.5.20031:16pm] [101114] [Page No. 101] FINAL PROOFS I:/Sage/Fst/Fst9-2/FST-33940.3d (FST) Paper: FST-33940 Keyword
breakfast cereals and snacks, have been carried out
(Chinnaswamy and Hanna, 1990; Case et al., 1992; Cai
and Diosady, 1993; Guha et al., 1997). The only study
reported in literature on extrusion of quinoa (Coulter
and Lorenz, 1991a, b) is about the nutritional, sensory
and physical characteristics of quinoa-corn grit blends
(up to 30 : 70 ratio) extruded at 1525% feed moisture
content, 100150
C, 100200 rpm screw speed, and at

1 : 1 and 3 : 1 compression ratios on a Brabender
Plasticorder single-screw extruder. Although the pro-
ducts extruded at 15% moisture content and a 3 : 1
compression ratio had a greater expansion, lower
density and lower shear strength, addition of quinoa
to corn grit resulted in a general decrease in product
quality and an increase in extrusion rate under all
processing conditions.
In our research we focused on the investigation of
processability of quinoa flour by twin-screw extrusion
and the evaluation of physicochemical properties of
extruded quinoa in comparison to unprocessed grains.
This paper treats the effect of feed moisture content,
die temperature, and screw speed on process and
product responses during twin-screw extrusion of
quinoa flour.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Material
Quinoa seeds (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) were
obtained from Quinoa Corporation (Torrance, CA)
and milled into flour using a Fitz Mill (Model D).
Proximate Analysis
For the proximate composition analysis of quinoa
flour the following methods were used (AACC, 1984).
Moisture: oven drying at 103
C (method no. 4415A).

Ash: calcination at 550
C (method no. 0801)

Lipids: defatting in a soxhlet apparatus with petro-
leum ether (method no. 3010)
Protein: micro Kjeldahl (N6.25) (method no. 4613)
CHOfiber: by the difference.
Amylose content was determined by the method
proposed by Chrastil (1987). The method is based on
spectrophotometric measurement of the intensity of blue
color formed due to complex formation between
amylose and iodine.
Extrusion
Extrusion experiments were carried out on a twin-
screw extruder (ZSK-30, from Krupp Werner &
Pfleiderer, Ramsey, New Jersey). The extruder has two
co-rotating, self-wiping screws (30.7 mm diameter,
4.7 mm channel depth, and 878 mm processing length;
L/D28.6) in a steel barrel with five zones. Each zone is
heated by resistive electric heaters and the temperature of
each zone can be controlled independently. The screw
configuration used in extrusion experiments consisted of
forward conveying elements, mild mixing elements,
kneading elements and reverse elements (Table 1). Die
pressure was measured using a Dynisco pressure trans-
ducer (TPT463E, Dynisco, Sharon, MA). The die had
two circular orifices (3 mm diameter, 5 mm long). Quinoa
flour was metered into the feed section of the extruder
with a volumetric feeder (K-Tron Corp., Pitman, NJ).
Water was injected into the feed section of the extruder
immediately after the feed port using a triple action
piston pump (US Electric Co., Milford, CT). Both the
feeder and the pump were calibrated prior to extrusion
runs to determine the set points required for desired mass
flow rates of quinoa flour and water, respectively.
Throughput or the total mass flow rate (flour water)
was kept constant at 300 g/min for all experiments.
Temperatures at zones I, II, and III were set to room
temperature, 80 and 120
C, respectively, while the

temperatures at zones IV and V were adjusted such that
the desired die temperatures could be maintained.
Table 1. Screw configuration used for quinoa extrusion.
Extrusion zones*
Feed zone
(84mm)
Zone I
(196mm)
Zone II
(210mm)
Zone III
(178mm)
Zone IV
(98mm)
Zone V
(84mm)
Die zone
(28mm)
SK 42/42 42/21 T 28/28 28/14 20/10 KB 45/5/14 14/14
SK 42/42 42/42 28/28 KB 45/5/14 20/10 KB 45/5/14 LH 14/14
42/42 IGEL 42 20/20 KB 45/5/20 14/14
42/21 28/28 20/20 20/10 LH 14/14
IGEL 42 28/28 20/20 20/10 14/14
28/28 KB 45/5/28 20/20 20/10 14/14
28/14 20/20 14/14
28/14 KB 45/5/20 14/14
20/10 LH
20/10
20/10
*IGEL: mild kneading element. KB: kneading block. LH: left handed (reverse) element. SK: feed element.T: transition element.
102 H. DOG
AN AND M.V. KARWE

Experimental Design
Response surface methodology was used to investi-
gate the effects of extrusion conditions on the product
and process responses of quinoa. Results from pre-
liminary trials were used to select suitable extruder
operating window. The independent variables con-
sidered in this study were feed moisture content
(1624%w.b.), die temperature (130170
C), and
screw speed (250500 rpm). A three-variable, three-
level, Box-Behnken design (Table 2) was employed to
determine the extrusion conditions. Experiments were
randomized in order to minimize the systematic bias in
the observed responses due to extraneous factors.
Preparation of Samples
Samples were collected under steady state conditions
of pressure, torque and temperature. Immediately after
extrusion, extrudates were cooled, packed into glass jars,
flushed with nitrogen gas, sealed and kept refrigerated
(5
C) until analysis.
Process Responses
The ZSK-30 extruder is equipped with a torque
indicator which shows % torque which is proportional
to the current drawn by the drive motor. A reading
of 100% torque corresponds to the max allowable
torque of 172 Nm. The specific mechanical energy
(SME) was calculated from the measured torque reading
as follows (Godavarti and Karwe, 1997):
SME kJ=kg
Total torque (%) Friction torque (%) N9:1
100 500m
f
1
The drive motor has a rated power of 9.1 kW at a
rated screw speed of 500 rpm. The friction torque was
measured with screws attached to the drive and the
barrel empty.
The determination of specific energy delivered
(SED) to the extrudate is based on the energy balance
(Figure 1) between the inlet and just before the exit at
the die of the extruder under steady state conditions
computed from the following equations,
m
f
C
p
i
T
i
Q
H
Q
C
ME m
f
C
p
o
T
p
2
Q
H
Q
C
m
f
ME
m
f
C
p
o
T
p
C
p
i
T
i
3
SME and SED were measured from experimental
conditions and STE was calculated from Equation (4).
STE SME SED 4
Negative value of specific thermal energy (STE)
indicates net cooling at the barrel.
Product Responses
Extrudate samples used for determination of the
degree of gelatinization (DG), water solubility index
(WSI), and water absorption index (WAI), were dried at
45
C overnight to 45% moisture. Dried samples were

ground and passed through 28-mesh sieve (590 mm
opening), and the flour samples were placed in glass
jars and sealed. The method proposed by Birch and
Priesty (1973) was used for determination of the DG.
The method was based on the monitoring of the
complexation of iodine with amylose released due to
starch gelatinization. The results reported are the mean
of five measurements for each extrudate sample.
Water solubility index and water absorption index of
both unprocessed quinoa and extrudate samples were
determined by the method of Anderson et al. (1969) with
Table 2. Experimental design for extrusion of quinoa.
Coded Levels Actual Levels
X
1
X
2
X
3
M (% wb) T (
C) S (rpm)
1 1 0 24 170 375
1 1 0 24 130 375
1 1 0 16 170 375
1 1 0 16 130 375
0 1 1 20 170 500
0 1 1 20 170 250
0 1 1 20 130 500
0 1 1 20 130 250
1 0 1 24 150 500
1 0 1 24 150 250
1 0 1 16 150 500
1 0 1 16 150 250
0 0 0 20 150 375
0 0 0 20 150 375
0 0 0 20 150 375
Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing the barrel of
extruder and various energy flows.
Quinoa Extrudates 103
some modifications. WSI was calculated as follows:
WSI
g water soluble matter
g dry sample
5
For the calculation of WAI the total solids in the
original sample were corrected for the loss of solubles in
the supernatant and WAI was expressed as,
WAI
g water absorbed
g dry sample 1 soluble fraction
6
Product density (
e
) was measured by volumetric
displacement method as described by Hic s as maz and
Clayton (1993). Glass beads of 0.5 mm diameter
(Biospec Products, Inc., Bartlesville, OK) were used as
displacement medium. Density of glass beads was
determined as 1550 kg/m
3
, then the density of extrudates
was calculated as
e

W
e
W
gb
gb
7
The
e
values were obtained from five random
samples for each extrusion condition, with three
replications.
The sectional expansion index (SEI) of extrudate was
measured as the ratio of the diameter of the extrudate to
that of the die. The extrudate diameter was measured
with a digital Vernier caliper and the results were
expressed as the average of hundred measurements on
each condition. The longitudinal (LEI) and volumetric
expansion (VEI) indices were calculated according to
Alvarez-Martinez et al. (1988).
Textural properties of extrudates were measured using
TA-XT2 texture analyser (Stable Micro Systems, UK).
A three-point bend rig with a support length (bridge) of
30 mm and a rounded plate probe (15 mm5 mm,
D5 mm) exerting force in the middle of bridge were
used to test extrudates in the bend mode (Zasypkin and
Lee, 1998). The test speed was 2 mm/s and the full load
scale was 50 kg. Data were processed with an XT-RA
Dimension software package (Stable Micro Systems,
Haslemere, Surrey, UK). The hardness of dry extrudates
was measured as the peak force offered by the sample
during cutting. Breaking strength (N/mm
2
) was calcu-
lated as the peak breaking force (N) divided by the
cross-sectional area (mm
2
) calculated for each extrudate
sample. The reported values are the averages of 15
measurements.
The color of ground unprocessed quinoa and
extrudate samples was measured in triplicate using
Minolta Chroma Meter (CR-210) in terms of Hunter
Lab values (L, a, b), where L represents lightness with 0
for dark and 100 for bright, a represents the extent of
green colour in the range from 100 to 0 and red in the
range 0 to 100, b quantifies blue colour in the range
from 100 to 0 and yellow in the range from 0 to 100.
The total colour change (E) was then calculated as
E
L
2
a
2
b
2
q
8
where LL L
0,
ia a a
0
, and b b b
0
; the
subscript
0
indicates initial colour values before
processing.
Analysis of Data
Process responses (SME, SED, STE, SME/SED) and
product responses (iE,
e
, WAI, WSI, DG, SEI, LEI,
VEI, hardness and breaking strength) obtained as a
result of the proposed experimental design were
subjected to regression analysis in order to assess the
effects of feed moisture content, extrusion temperature
and screw speed. Second-order polynomials of the form
y
i
b
0
X
3
i1
b
i
X
i
X
3
i1
X
3
ji
b
ij
X
i
X
j
9
were fitted to the independent variables and were
computed by using SAS (version 8.1) statistical package,
where X
i
, X
i
X
i
and X
i
X
j
are linear, quadratic, and
interaction effect of the input variables which influence
the response y, respectively, and b
0
, b
i
, and b
ij
are the
model constants to be determined. All crosscorrelations
between the process and product responses themselves
were also assessed. The response surface plots for these
models were plotted as a function of two variables, while
keeping the third variable constant at its intermediate
value.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Composition of grain could vary with variety and
growing conditions, even though experimental results for
composition (Table 3) agreed with previous data (Becker
and Hanners, 1990; Coulter and Lorenz, 1990; Guzman-
Maldano and Paredes-Lopez, 1998; Koziol, 1992;
Prakash et al., 1993; Ruales and Nair, 1993). The
quinoa seeds used in this study have high crude protein,
crude fat and ash than common cereals, such as rice and
corn. Extrudates of widely different physical structure
were obtained by twin-screw extrusion of quinoa flour at
different combinationsofprocessingparameters(Table2).
Regression analyses of the physicochemical properties of
quinoa extrudates (Table 4) indicated that all the second
104 H. DOG
AN AND M.V. KARWE

order polynomial models correlated well with the mea-
sured data and were statistically significant ( p <0.05).
Process Responses
Calculated SME values ranged between 170 and
402 kJ/kg. The regression analysis results (Table 4)
revealed that temperature (T), feed moisture content
(M) and screw speed (S) had linear and significant
( p<0.01) effects on SME followed by the quadratic
effect of temperature (TT) ( p<0.05). SME increased
with decreasing die temperature, decreasing feed moist-
ure content, and increasing screw speed, as expected.
Specific mechanical energy values were lower than
those observed for extrusion cooking of other cereals
(Bhattacharya, 1997; Singh and Smith, 1997; Ilo et al.,
1999) most likely due to the composition of quinoa
grains. In our study, quinoa was found to have a high
fat (7.2%) and low amylose (11.1%) content which
agreed with the published data (Atwell et al., 1982;
Qian and Kuhn, 1999). Important differences in the
viscous behavior depending on the amylose content
have been reported by Lai and Kokini (1990) and
Della Valle et al. (1996 and 1997). It has been found
that viscosity increases with increase in amylose
content. The dependence of melt viscosity on tempera-
ture, moisture and fat content is also well known (Ilo
et al., 1999). The drop in melt viscosity with increasing
feed moisture content is in agreement with the expected
role of water as a plasticiser. However, Della Valle et al.
(1996) showed that the drop in viscosity with increase
in moisture is more as amylose content decreases.
Moreover, Kokini et al. (1992) reported that 70%
amylose starch gives higher overall viscosity than 98%
amylopectin starch. Any variable which affects viscos-
ity would correspondingly affect torque and SME
(Akdog an, 1996). Due to high lipid and low amylose
content of quinoa used in this study we expect to have
low melt viscosity. Therefore, any factor that may lead
to a further decrease in viscosity such as high feed
moisture content and die temperature resulted in a
decrease in SME.
The quality of extrudate depends on the various
physicochemical changes occurring during extrusion
such as gelatinization, melting of starch, and compo-
nent interactions. The extent of these reactions is a
function of both thermal energy input and viscous
dissipation of the mechanical energy due to shear. The
activation energy for starch conversion induced by
mechanical energy is much lower than that for
conversion induced by thermal energy (Wang et al.,
1992). Simulation studies for starch conversion during
extrusion have shown that mechanical energy is far
more important during extrusion than is thermal
energy (Kokini, 1993). In this study, SME, STE, and
SED to the product during extrusion cooking were
computed for all the operating conditions. The rela-
tions between these quantities and product trans-
formations were examined by taking the ratio of
SME to SED. SME/SED and STE/SED represent the
contributions of mechanical energy and thermal
energy, respectively, under different extrusion condi-
tion. They are related as follows, which is obtained
from Equation (4).
SME
SED

STE
SED
1 10
When SME/SED ratio is greater than 1.0, STE/SED
is negative which implies cooling at the barrel.
Experimental SME/SED ratio ranged between 0.54
and 1.85. The best product characterized by maximum
expansion, minimum product density, high DG and low
WSI was obtained at maximum value of SME/SED.
SME/SED was found to be the most important
parameter which had the highest crosscorrelation
coefficients with almost all product responses (Table 5)
except WAI, WSI, and iE.
Although a great deal of mechanical energy is
converted to thermal energy, it has a major impact on
feed material through shear. Lower SME values usually
results in a lower molecular breakdown of starch
(Akdog an, 1996). A good correlation was found
between the degree of starch gelatinization and SME/
SED (Figure 2). Even though the experimental data had
significant scatter, DG clearly increased as SME/SED
increased indicating the role of mechanical energy on the
conversion of starch.
Degree of Gelatinization
Starch was found to be partially gelatinized in all the
extruded samples with a maximum of 84.4% which
corresponds to 16% feed moisture content, 150
C die
temperature and 500 rpm screw speed (SME386 kJ/
kg, SME/SED1.85). The linear effects of temperature
Table 3. Proximate composition and some properties
of unprocessed quinoa flour.
Quinoa Flour Characteristics
Proximate composition (g/100g) MeanSD (n3)
Moisture 10.960.06
Protein 11.950.12
Lipid 7.190.02
Ash 2.150.02
CHOfiber 67.75
Colour
L 87.270.30
a 0.480.03
b 11.940.41
Water absorption index (g H
2
O/g dry sample) 1.690.11
Water solubility index (g water soluble
matter/g dry sample)
0.0730.003
Amylose content (%) 11.10.04
Table 4. Results of regression analysis (calculated on coded levels where all independent variables are in the range 1).
Levels
Degree of
Geltn
Density
(kg/m
3
)
Sectional
Expansion
Index
Longitudinal
Expansion
Index
Volumetric
Expansion
Index
Water
Solubility
Index
(g/g)
Water
Absorption
Index
(g/g) iE
Hardness
(N)
Breaking
Strength
(N/mm
2
)
Specific
Mechanical
Energy
(kJ/kg)
Specific
Energy
Delivered
(kJ/kg)
Specific
Thermal
Energy
(kJ/kg) SME/SED
C 0.781*** 246.7*** 2.75*** 0.630** 4.78*** 0.202*** 6.03*** 21.35*** 3.62*** 0.068*** 258.0*** 260.8*** 2.9
ns
0.989***
M 0.046*** 88.1*** 0.43*** 0.090
ns
1.67*** 0.025*** 0.57*** 1.88*** 0.19
ns
0.041*** 37.9*** 13.8*** 51.9*** 0.206***
T 0.058*** 30.4*** 0.73*** 0.650*** 0.99** 0.017*** 0.14** 0.84** 1.04*** 0.028*** 59.3*** 40.8*** 100.1*** 0.407***
S 0.034*** 38.0*** 0.15* 0.010
ns
0.61
ns
0.021*** 0.20*** 0.53
ns
0.17
ns
0.016** 51.3*** 0.0
ns
51.0*** 0.203***
MM 0.033** 57.9*** 0.24** 0.296
ns
0.33
ns
0.026*** 0.33*** 1.49** 0.46* 0.017* 15.6* 0.1
ns
24.1
ns
0.041
ns
T T 0.037*** 34.6** 0.39*** 0.711** 0.96
ns
0.031*** 0.15* 2.67*** 0.62** 0.021** 23.8** 0.1
ns
24.1* 0.155***
SS 0.041*** 38.2** 0.04
ns
0.364
ns
0.77
ns
0.009** 0.19** 0.25
ns
0.34
ns
0.001
ns
9.8
ns
0.1
ns
9.8
ns
0.031
ns
MT 0.015
ns
4.0
ns
0.17
ns
0.218
ns
0.92
ns
0.002
ns
0.53*** 0.10
ns
0.07
ns
0.017* 11.6
ns
2.2*** 9.8
ns
0.092**
MS 0.015
ns
18.8
ns
0.10
ns
0.038
ns
0.05
ns
0.003
ns
0.02
ns
0.76
ns
0.32
ns
0.006
ns
9.0
ns
0.0
ns
9.0
ns
0.044
ns
T S 0.009
ns
26.8** 0.02
ns
0.098
ns
0.66
ns
0.011** 0.06
ns
0.10
ns
0.15
ns
0.004
ns
7.9
ns
0.0
ns
8.0
ns
0.066
ns
R
2
0.98 0.98 0.98 0.90 0.89 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.97 0.97 1.00 0.99 0.99
F 28.28 28.68 24.65 5.25 4.59 102.6 27.13 13.97 9.48 16.14 21.06 infty 43.22 52.85
Sig. F 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.041 0.052 0.000 0.001 0.005 0.012 0.003 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000
C: model constant; M, T and S: linear effects of moisture content, die temperature and screw speed, respectively. MM, T T and SS: quadratic effects of moisture content, die temperature and screw speed,
respectively;. MT, MS and T S: interaction effects of moisture content and die temperature, moisture content and screw speed, and die temperature and screw speed, respectively; ***significant at p<0.01,
**significant at p<0.05, *significant at p<0.10,
ns
non-significant at p0.10.
1
0
6
H
.
D
O
G
A
N
A
N
D
M
.
V
.
K
A
R
W
E
+
[
1
4
.
5
.
2
0
0
3
1
:
1
6
p
m
]
[
1
0
1
1
1
4
]
[
P
a
g
e
N
o
.
1
0
6
]
F
I
N
A
L
P
R
O
O
F
S
I
:
/
S
a
g
e
/
F
s
t
/
F
s
t
9
-
2
/
F
S
T
-
3
3
9
4
0
.
3
d
(
F
S
T
)
P
a
p
e
r
:
F
S
T
-
3
3
9
4
0
K
e
y
w
o
r
d

a
t

U
N
I
V

D
E

S
A
O

P
A
U
L
O

B
I
B
L
I
O
T
E
C
A

o
n

S
e
p
t
e
m
b
e
r

2
5
,

2
0
0
9

h
t
t
p
:
/
/
f
s
t
.
s
a
g
e
p
u
b
.
c
o
m
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

f
r
o
m

(T), screw speed (S) and moisture (M), and the
quadratic effects of screw speed (SS) and tempera-
ture (TT) had the highest impact, significant at
p<0.01, on the DG (Table 4). During extrusion cooking
both temperature and shear are responsible for starch
gelatinization (Della Valle et al., 1989; Kokini, 1993).
Although at high screw speeds the residence time is low,
an increase in screw speed increased the DG signifi-
cantly ( p<0.01) for all combinations of feed moisture
content and temperature (Figure 3). This confirmed that
shear is a significant contributor to starch gelatinization.
This was supported by stronger effect of moisture on
DG at lower temperatures. These results agreed with
those of Gomez and Aguilera (1984), Bhattacharya and
Hanna (1987) and Cai and Diosady (1993) for other
grains.
Figure 3. Effect of feed moisture content, die tem-
perature and screw speed (rpm) on the degree of
gelatinization (DG).
Table 5. Cross-correlation coefficients between product and process responses.
DG PD SEI LEI VEI WSI WAI iE H BS SME SED STE SME/SED
DG 1 0.60 ** 0.91*** 0.75*** 0.57** 0.19
ns
0.14
ns
0.33
ns
0.60** 0.85*** 0.81*** 0.73*** 0.83*** 0.79***
PD 1 0.62** 0.17
ns
0.89*** 0.66*** 0.46* 0.24
ns
0.05
ns
0.78*** 0.74*** 0.48* 0.70*** 0.70***
SEI 1 0.80*** 0.65*** 0.02
ns
0.26
ns
0.27
ns
0.72*** 0.85*** 0.78*** 0.88*** 0.86*** 0.83***
LEI 1 0.16
ns
0.33
ns
0.05
ns
0.33
ns
0.90*** 0.64*** 0.46* 0.69*** 0.57** 0.49*
VEI 1 0.47* 0.41
ns
0.04
ns
0.09
ns
0.68*** 0.77*** 0.58** 0.75*** 0.79***
WSI 1 0.10
ns
0.15
ns
0.48* 0.03
ns
0.39
ns
0.18
ns
0.22
ns
0.24
ns
WAI 1 0.23
ns
0.09
ns
0.53** 0.18
ns
0.41
ns
0.27
ns
0.25
ns
E 1 0.06
ns
0.43
ns
0.11
ns
0.08
ns
0.11
ns
0.17
ns
H 1 0.42
ns
0.37
ns
0.72*** 0.51* 0.47*
BS 1 0.73*** 0.70*** 0.76*** 0.71***
SME 1 0.74*** 0.97*** 0.97***
SED 1 0.88*** 0.86***
STE 1 0.99***
SME/SED 1
DG: degree of gelatinization; PD: product density; SEI: sectional expansion index; LEI: longitudinal expansion index; VEI: volumetric expansion index; WSI: water
solubility index; WAI: water absorption index; iE: total color change; H: hardness; BS: breaking strength; SME: specific mechanical energy, SED: Specific energy
delivered; STE: specific thermal energy; ***significant at p<0.01, **significant at p<0.05, *significant at p<0.10,
ns
non-significant at p0.10.
Figure 2. Variation of degree of gelatinization (DG)
with SME/SED.
In general, low feed moisture and high product
temperature have been found to increase the DG in
extrusion of starchy materials (Bhattacharya and
Hanna, 1987; Cai and Diosady, 1993). However, in the
presence of lipids, extrusion temperature required for
maximum DG was in the intermediate range. Lower
temperatures compensated for the decrease in melt
viscosity due to lipids (Dog an, 2000). In high lipid
containing cereals like quinoa, excessive feed moisture
acts as a secondary lubricant which prevents the
achievement of appropriate development or cooking of
dough by shear induced disruption. In this study, DG
was found to be highly correlated (0.81, p<0.01) with
SME, which confirmed that quinoa flour needs high
shear environment for effective extrusion processing.
Density of Extrudates,
e
The density of dry extrudates varied between 117 and
507 kg/m
3
. Low density, which is a desirable character-
istic of the expanded product, was achieved with low
feed moisture content, low temperature, and high screw
speed combination. The response surface (Figure 4)
shows that feed moisture content had a dominant effect
on density followed by screw speed, whereas tempera-
ture seems to have a minor effect. Minimal product
density was obtained at feed moisture of 17.1%, 161
C
die temperature, and 392 rpm screw speed.
Expansion Indices
The measured SEI of quinoa extrudates ranged from
0.92 to 3.58 whereas LEI ranged from 0.50 to 2.95
(Table 4). SEI was significantly affected by temperature,
feed moisture content and screw speed while for LEI
both feed moisture content and screw speed were found
to be insignificant. High expansion ratio at low feed
moisture content for extruded products is typical for
cereals (Coulter and Lorenz, 1991b; Faubion and
Hoseney, 1982; Gomez and Aguilera, 1984).
Moreover, Singh and Smith (1997) reported a decrease
in expansion with increasing temperature and feed
moisture content for wheat starch, wheat meal, and
oat flour. At higher moisture content, further decrease
in viscosity by increase in temperature results in a
reduced sectional expansion. At high feed moisture
content SEI increased with increasing screw speed while
at low moisture content levels effect of screw speed was
not significant (Figure 5). The positive effect of die
temperature on LEI (Figure 6) indicated the strong
dependency of elongation on extensional viscosity,
which decreases with increase in temperature, as
reported by Alvarez-Martinez et al. (1988). This is also
evident by the high negative correlation (0.75,
p<0.01) between DG and LEI (Table 5). Expansion
phenomena have been known to be basically dependent
on viscous and elastic properties of melted dough
(Launay and Lisch, 1983). Viscosity of feed melt
increases with an increase in DG (Bhattacharya and
Choudhury, 1994), therefore, LEI decreases.
It has been reported that the dough elasticity forces
contribute to radial expansion and axial contraction
(Padmanabhan and Bhattacharya, 1989). This relation
was also apparent in our experimental results with a
high negative correlation between SEI and LEI of 0.80
( p<0.01). Starch gelatinization is the functional prop-
erty that is directly related with physical properties of
the extruded products (Ghiasi et al., 1983). In the
present study, DG was found to be highly correlated
with SEI (0.91, p<0.01). As a measure of the extent of
molecular transformations during extrusion cooking
SME also correlated well with SEI (0.78, p<0.01).
Launay and Lisch (1983) suggested that the sectional
expansion and longitudinal expansion were dependent
on melt elasticity and melt viscosity, respectively. SEI
perature and screw speed on product density.
108 H. DOG
AN AND M.V. KARWE

decreased with increasing temperature (Figure 5), which
can be explained by the negative effect of temperature
on the elasticity of extrusion cooked melts (Launay and
Lisch, 1983). This result is in agreement also with the
work of Ilo et al. (1999). On the other hand, longitudinal
expansion appeared to be extensively favored by lower
melt viscosity at higher temperature and higher moisture
level (Figure 6).
Volumetric expansion index, the multiplication pro-
duct of SEI and LEI, was affected only by feed moisture
content ( p<0.01) and temperature ( p<0.05). As in the
case of SEI, high SME input resulted in higher
volumetric expansion (0.79, p<0.01) possibly due to
higher degree of gelatinization observed under these
conditions. The correlation between product density and
VEI (0.89, p<0.01) was expectedly better because
product density is inverse of VEI.
Hardness and Breaking Strength
Hardness, the maximum force to break the sample,
ranged between 1.31 and 4.64 N. Although, the coeffi-
cient of determination for hardness was high (R
2
0.94),
feed moisture content and screw speed were found to
have no contribution. However, the breaking strength
(N/mm
2
) values gave even higher coefficient of determi-
nation (R
2
0.97) and contribution of all linear terms of
the independent variables (Table 4) was significant.
Response surface plots (Figure 7) showed that at all feed
moisture content levels, decrease in die temperature
increased the product hardness giving a maximum at
about 134
C, 408 rpm screw speed and 21.5% feed

moisture content. However, as a consequence of
increased expansion, breaking strength decreased with
decreasing temperature and moisture content (Figure 8)
perature and screw speed on longitudinal expansion
index (LEI).
perature and screw speed on sectional expansion
index (SEI).
giving a minimum value at about 140
C die tempera-
ture, 19.1% feed moisture, and 425 rpm screw speed.
The mechanical properties of extruded products can
be described either by compressive deformation or by
breaking strength (Colonna et al., 1989). Breaking
strength is the measure of the strength of cell wall
which is expected to affect the texture and sensory
crispiness of the extruded product (Chen et al., 1991).
Breaking strength was found to be highly correlated
with SEI (0.85, p<0.01), indicating that the increase in
pore size together with a decrease in cell wall thickness
results in weak extrudate structures (Table 5). Generally,
breaking strengths of extrudates reflect expansion
volume (Chavez-Jauregui et al., 2000). High density
product naturally offers high breaking strength evident
by high correlation between product density and break-
ing strength (0.78, p<0.01 ). Chemical changes taking
place during extrusion cooking influence the develop-
ment of textural and mechanical properties such as
hardness and breaking strength in extrudates. Breaking
strength is affected by the strength of cell walls, as
influenced by starch gelatinization and protein dena-
turation (Martinez-Serna and Villota, 1992). The high
correlation found between DG and hardness (0.60,
p<0.05) and DG and breaking strength (0.85,
p<0.01) supports this relation.
Water Solubility and Absorption Indices
Water solubility index is related to the quantity of
soluble solids, which is related to dextrinization. The
coefficient of determination for WSI was highly
significant as revealed by a high value of R
2
(0.99).
The linear and quadratic effects of feed moisture (M)
content, linear effect of screw speed (S), and the linear
(T) and quadratic (TT) effects of temperature had
significant effect on WSI. In general ,WSI increased with
increasing temperature and screw speed and decreasing
perature and screw speed on product hardness.
perature and screw speed on breaking strength.
110 H. DOG
AN AND M.V. KARWE

feed moisture content due to the fact that high thermal
and mechanical energy inputs favour starch dextriniza-
tion (Figure 9). Low WSI values were observed at
intermediate to low temperature levels at all processing
conditions. The increase in WSI with increasing
temperature was consistent with the results reported
for oat extrudates (Singh and Smith, 1997). The
WSI decreased with the increase in moisture. Similar
effects of decreasing moisture on WSI have been
reported earlier for starch, maize grits, wheat and pea
flour (Della Valle et al., 1994; Kirby et al., 1988).
Minimum WSI of 0.186 g/g was achieved at 18.3% feed
moisture content, 140
C die temperature, and 192 rpm

screw speed.
The poor correlation between WSI and most of the
process and product responses (Table 5) may be
explained by the fact that WSI includes the opposing
effects of starch dextrinization and the molecular level
interactions between degraded components, which may
not be favoured at the same condition. An increase in
the amount of dextrinized starch during extrusion
cooking results in an increase in WSI. However,
molecular interactions between degraded starch, pro-
tein, and lipid components, which in turn lead to an
increase in molecular weight, may decrease the solubi-
lity, thus WSI. Moreover, according to the model
proposed by Gomez and Aguilera (1984) for starch
degradation during extrusion cooking, three pure states,
i.e., raw, gelatinized, and dextrinized, of starch exist
together. Due to different states in which starch is found
in extrudates, some granules may be underprocessed,
while some others may be overprocessed or dextrinized.
According to the same model, dextrinization can be
considered to take place together with or right after
adequate gelatinization. According to our experimental
results, thermal and mechanical input seemed to be
enough for sufficient starch gelatinization but not severe
enough to favour starch dextrinization. SME values
were not high enough to cause dextrinization, which in
turn increases WSI. This is also evident by the high
correlation coefficient between SME and DG (0.81,
p<0.01) and a poor correlation coefficient between
SME and WSI (0.39, p >0.10).
Water absorption index depends on the availability of
hydrophilic groups and on the gel formation capacity of
the macromolecules (Gomez and Aguilera, 1983). It is a
measure of damaged starch together with protein
denaturation and new macromolecular complex forma-
tions. WAI of extrudates ranged between 4.45 and
6.72 g/g which was significantly higher than that of
(1.69 g/g) unprocessed quinoa. The regression analysis
(Table 4) showed that the linear effect of feed moisture
content (M), and the interaction effect of die tempera-
ture and moisture content (TM) were highly sig-
nificant on WAI. Singh and Smith (1997) reported an
increase in WAI with the increase in moisture and
temperature during extrusion of oats, which is in
agreement with our experimental results (Figure 10).
WAI had poor correlations with almost all process and
product responses except product density (Table 5). This
is an expected result since it includes the effect of starch
gelatinization, protein denaturation and molecular level
crosslinking reactions which are not always favoured at
the same conditions.
Colour
Colour is an important quality parameter since it
reflects the extent of chemical reactions and degree of
cooking or degradation that take place during extrusion
cooking. In this study, E represents the total colour
difference compared to the colour of unprocessed
quinoa. Higher E means darker products with more
perature and screw speed on water solubility index
(WSI, g soluble matter/g dry sample).
intense yellow and red colour. The total colour change
in extruded products ranged between 15.5 and 23.7
(Table 4). Quadratic effect of temperature (TT) and
the linear effect of feed moisture content (M) were
found to have the highest contribution to total colour
change. Low feed moisture content and high tempera-
ture increased the total colour change possibly due to
increased extent of browning reactions under this
condition (Figure 11). Although, the screw speed was
not a significant parameter (Table 4), at low screw
speeds a slight increase in colour change observed due to
longer residence times which might increase the extent of
chemical reactions.
In summary, because the high lipid and low amylose
contents, extrusion cooking of quinoa required proces-
sing conditions that provide high shear environ-
ment indicated by high SME values which disrupts
starch granules. Extrusion cooking conditions that
produced quinoa products with desirable expansion
characteristics were at low moisture, low temperature
and medium screw speed within the range of our process
variables.
NOMENCLATURE
C
p
heat capacity (kJ/kg.K)
LEI longitudinal expansion index (dimensionless)
ME rate of mechanical energy input (dissipa-
tion) (W)
m
f
total mass flow rate (kg/s)
Nscrew speed (rpm)
Q
C
rate of energy removal by the cooling sys-
tem (W)
Q
H
rate of heat generation (W)
SEDspecific energy delivered (kJ/kg)
SEI sectional expansion index (dimensionless)
Figure 10. Effect of feed moisture content, die
temperature and screw speed on water absorption
index (WAI, g H
2
O/g dry sample).
Figure 11. Effect of feed moisture content, die
temperature and screw speed on total color change
(E).
112 H. DOG
AN AND M.V. KARWE

SME specific mechanical energy (kJ/kg)
STE specific thermal energy (kJ/kg)
T
i
inlet temperature of the product (
C)
T
o
outlet temperature of the product (
C)
T
d
die temperature or product temperature (
C)
VEI volumetric expansion index (dimensionless)
WAI water absorption index (g water absorbed/g dry
sample)
W
e
weight of extrudate (kg)
W
gb
weight of glass beads displaced by the extru-
dates (kg)
WSI water solubility index (g water soluble matter/g
dry sample)
E total colour change
e
density of extrudate (kg/m
3
)
gb
density of glass beads (kg/m
3
)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This is publication No. D 01544-01-01 of the New
Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station supported by
State funds and the Center for Advanced Food
Technology (CAFT). The Center for Advanced Food
Technology is a New Jersey Commission on Science
and Technology Center. Author H. Dog an acknowl-
edges the financial support from TUBITAK Marmara
Research Center, Food Science and Technology Res-
earch Institute, Turkey.
REFERENCES
AACC (American Association of Cereal Chemists, 1984).
AACC Approved Methods. Vol. II. Minneapolis,
Minnesota: AACC.
Ahamed N.T., Singhal R.S., Kulkarni P.R. and Pal M.
(1996). Physicochemical and functional properties of
Chenopodium quinoa starch. Carbohydrate Polymers 31:
99103.
Akdog an H. (1996). Pressure, torque, and energy response
of a twin screw extruder at high moisture contents. Food
Research International 29: 423429.
Alvarez-Martinez L., Kodury K.P. and Harper J.M.
(1988). A general method for expansion of extruded
products. Journal of Food Science 53: 609615.
Anderson R.A., Conway H.F., Pfeifer V.F. and Griffin
L.E.J. (1969). Gelatinization of corn grits by roll-and
extrusion cooking. Cereal Science Today 14: 412.
Arditi T., Meredith T. and Flowerman P. (2000). Renewed
interest in soy isoflavonoids and saponins. Cereal Foods
World 45: 414417.
Atwell A., Patrick B.M., Johnson L.A. and Glass R.W.
(1982). Characterization of quinoa starch. Cereal
Chemistry 60: 911.
Becker R. and Hanners G.D. (1990). Compositional and
nutritional evaluation of quinoa whole grain flour and
mill fractions. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und-Technolo-
gie-Food Science and Technology 23: 441444.
Bhattacharya M. and Hanna M.A. (1987). Kinetics of
starch gelatinization during extrusion cooking. Journal of
Food Science 52: 764766.
Bhattacharya S. and Choudhury G.S. (1994). Twin-screw
extrusion of rice flour: effect of extruder length-to-
diameter ratio and barrel temperature on extrusion
parameters and product characteristics. Journal of Food
Processing and Preservation 18: 389406.
Bhattacharya S. (1997). Twin-screw extrusion of rice-green
gram blend: extrusion and extrudate characteristics.
Journal of Food Engineering 32: 8399.
Birch G.G. and Priesty R.J. (1973). Degree of gelatinization
of cooked rice. Starch-Staerke 25: 98103.
Cai W. and Diosady L.L. (1993). Model for gelatinization
of wheat starch in a twin-screw extruder. Journal of Food
Science 58: 872887.
Case S.E., Hamann D.D. and Schwartz S.J. (1992). Effect
of starch gelatinization on physical properties of
extruded wheat-and corn-based products. Cereal
Chemistry 69: 401404.
Chavez-Jauregui M.E., Silva M.P. and Areas J.A.G.
(2000). Extrusion cooking process for amaranth.
Journal of Food Science 65: 10091015.
Chen J., Serafin F.L., Pandya R.N. and Daun H. (1991).
Effects of extrusion conditions on sensory properties of
corn meal extrudates. Journal of Food Science 56: 8489.
Chinnaswamy R. and Hanna M.A. (1990). Macromolecular
and functional properties of native and extrusion cooked
corn starches. Cereal Chemistry 67: 490499.
Chrastil J. (1987). Improved calorimetric determination of
amylose in starch or flour. Carbohydrate Research 159:
154158.
Colonna P., Tayeb J. and Mercier C. (1989). Extrusion
cooking of starch and starchy products. In: Mercier C.,
P. Linko and J. M. Harper (eds), Extrusion Cooking.
Minneapolis, Minnesota: AACC. pp. 247319.
Coulter L.A. and Lorenz K. (1990). Quinoa: composition,
nutritional value, food applications. Lebensmittel-
Wissenschaft und Technologie-Food Science and
Technology 23: 203207.
Coulter L.A. and Lorenz K. (1991a). Extruded corn grits-
quinoa blends: I. Proximate composition, nutritional
properties and sensory evaluation. Journal of Food
Processing and Preservation 15: 231242.
Coulter L.A. and Lorenz K. (1991b). Extruded corn grits-
quinoa blends: II. Physical characteristics of extruded
products. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 15:
231242.
Della Valle G., Kozlowski A., Colonna P. and Tayeb J.
(1989). Starch transformations estimated by the energy
balance on a twin-screw extruder. Lebensmittel
Wisensachft und Technologie 22: 279286.
Della Valle G., Oullien L. and Geuguen J. (1994).
Relationships between processing conditions and starch
and protein modifications during extrusion cooking of
pea flour. Journal of the Science Food and Agriculture 64:
509517.
Della Valle, G., Colonna P. and Patria A. (1996). Influence
of amylose content on the viscous behavior of low hyd-
rated molten starches. Journal of Rheology 40: 347262.
Della Valle G., Vergnes B., Colonna O. and Patria A.
(1997). Relations between rheological properties of
molten starches and their expansion behavior in extru-
sion. Journal of Food Engineering 31: 277296.
Dog an H. (2000). The effect of component interactions on
the structural and functional properties of legume extru-
dates. Ph.D. Thesis, Middle East Technical University,
Ankara-Turkey.
Faubion J.M. and Hoseney R.C. (1982). High temperature
short time cooking of wheat starch and flour I. Effect of
moisture and flour type on extrudate properties. Cereal
Gee J.M., Price K.R., Ridout C.L., Wortley G.M., Hurrel
R.F. and Johnson I.T. (1993). Saponins of quinoa:
Effects of processing on their abundance in quinoa
products and their biological effects on intestinal
mucosal tissue. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture 63: 201209.
Ghiasi K., Hoseney R.C. and Varriano-Marston E. (1983).
Effects of flour components and dough ingredients on
starch gelatinization. Cereal Chemistry 60: 5861.
Godavarti S. and Karwe M.V. (1997). Determination of
specific mechanical energy distribution on a twin-screw
extruder. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research
67: 277287.
Gomez M.H. and Aguilera J.M. (1983). Changes in the
starch fraction during extrusion cooking of corn. Journal
of Food Science 48: 378381.
Gomez M.H. and Aguilera J.M. (1984). A physicochemical
model for extrusion of starch. Journal of Food Science 49:
4043, 63.
Guha M, Ali S.Z. and Bhattacharya S. (1997). Twin-screw
extrusion of rice flour without a die: Effect of
barrel temperature and screw speed on extrusion and
extrudate characteristics. Journal of Food Engineering 32:
251267.
Guzman-Maldonado S.H. and Paredes-Lopez O. (1998).
Functional products of plants indigenous to Latin
America: Amaranth, quinoa, common beans and bota-
nicals. In: Mazza G. (ed), Functional Foods: Biochemical
and Processing Aspects. Lancaster: Technomic
Publishing Company. pp. 293328.
Hic s as maz Z. and Clayton J.T. (1993). Characterization of
the pore structure of starch based food materials. Food
Structure 11: 115132.
Ilo S., Liu Y. and Berghofer E. (1999). Extrusion cooking
of rice flour and amaranth blends. Lebensmittel-
Wissenschaft und Technologie Food Science and
Kirby, A.R., Ollett A.L., Parker R. and Smith A.C. (1988).
An experimental study of screw configuration effects in
the twin-screw extrusion cooking of maize grits. Journal
of Food Engineering 8: 247272.
Kokini J.L., Lai L.S. and Chedid L.L. (1992). Effect of
starch structure on starch rheological properties. Food
Kokini J.L. (1993). The effect of processing history on
chemical changes in single- and twin-screw extruders.
Trends in Food Science and Technology 4: 324329.
Koziol M.J. (1992). Chemical composition and nutritional
evaluation of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd).
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 5: 3568.
Lai L.S. and Kokini J.L. (1990). The effect of extrusion
operation conditions on the on-line apparent viscosity of
98% amylopectin and 70% amylose corn starches during
extrusion. Journal of Rheology 34: 12451266.
Launay B. and Lisch J.M. (1983). Twin-screw extrusion
cooking of starches: Flow behavior of starch pastes,
expansion and mechanical properties of extrudates.
Journal of Food Engineering 2: 259280.
Martinez-Serna M.D. and Villota R. (1992). Reactivity,
functionality and extrusion performance of native and
chemically modified whey proteins. In: Kokini J.L., Ho
C.T. and Karwe M.V. (ed.), Food Extrusion Science and
Technology. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. pp. 387415.
Masterbroek H.D., Limburg H., Gilles T. and Marvin
H.J.P. (2000). Occurrence of sapogenins in leaves and
seeds of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). Journal of
the Science of Food and Agriculture 80: 152156.
Ng K.G., Price K.R. and Fenwick G.R. (1994). A TLC
Method for the analysis of quinoa saponins. Food
Padmanabhan M. and Bhattacharya M. (1989). Extrudate
expansion during extrusion cooking of foods. Cereal
Foods World 34: 945949.
Prakash D., Nath P. and Pal M. (1993). Composition,
variation of nutritional contents in leaves, seed protein,
fat and fatty acid profile of Chenopodium species. Journal
of the Science of Food and Agriculture 62: 203205.
Przybylski R., Chauhan G.S. and Eskin N.A.M. (1994).
Characterization of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) lipids.
Food Chemistry 51: 187192.
Qian J.Y. and Kuhn M. (1999). Characterization of
Amaranthus cruentus and Chenopodium quinoa starch.
Starch-Staerke 51: 116120.
Ridout C.L., Price K.R., DuPont M.S., Parker M.L. and
Fenwick G.R. (1991). Quinoa saponins Analysis and
preliminary investigations into the effects of reduction by
processing. Journal of the Science of Food Agriculture 54:
165176.
Ruales J. and Nair B.M. (1993). Content of fat, vitamins
and minerals in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd)
seeds. Food Chemistry 48: 131136.
Singh N. and Smith A.C. (1997). A comparison of wheat
starch, whole wheat meal and oat flour in the extrusion
cooking process. Journal of Food Engineering 34: 1532.
Wang S.S., Chiang W.C., Zheng X., Zhao B., Yeh A. and
Cho M.H. (1992). Application of an energy equivalent
concept to the study of the kinetics of starch conversion
during extrusion. In: Kokini J.L., Ho C.T. and Karwe
M.V. (eds), Food Extrusion Science and Technology. New
York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. pp. 165176.
Zasypkin D.V. and Lee T.-C. (1998). Extrusion of soybean
and wheat flour as affected by moisture content. Journal
of Food Science 63: 10581061.
114 H. DOG
AN AND M.V. KARWE


Propiedades Fisico Quimicas Quinoa

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Propiedades Fisico Quimicas Quinoa

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

http://fst.sagepub.

C, 100200 rpm screw speed, and at

C (method no. 4415A).

C (method no. 0801)

C, respectively, while the

AN AND M.V. KARWE

C overnight to 45% moisture. Dried samples were

AN AND M.V. KARWE

AN AND M.V. KARWE

C, 408 rpm screw speed and 21.5% feed

AN AND M.V. KARWE

C die temperature, and 192 rpm

AN AND M.V. KARWE

AN AND M.V. KARWE

Potrebbero piacerti anche