A REPORT

On
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FOR MANAGEMENT
submitted
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
of
MASTERS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
APEEJAY INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT TECHNICAL CAMPUS
JALANDHAR
Submitted To: Submitted B:
M!" Amit S#$!m$ B#ubne%#&$! C#$nde'
A%%i%t$nt P!o(e%%o! Ro'' No: )*+,+-
S.#oo' o( In(o!m$tion te.#no'o/ MBA )A
A .om0ute! is a general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or
logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the computer can solve
more than one kind of problem.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
)" S0eed: - As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for
calculations that we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer
can perform millions !,""","""# of instructions and even more per second.
1" A..u!$.$ - %he degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is
performed with the same accuracy. %he accuracy level is & determined on the basis of design
of computer. %he errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
*" Di'i/en.e$ - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can
work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a
computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. 'ue to this capability it
overpowers human being in routine type of work.
2" 3e!%$ti'it$ - It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may
use your computer to prepare payroll slips. (e)t moment you may use it for inventory
management or to prepare electric bills.
-" Re'i$bi'it:4 *enerally reliability is the measurement of the performance of computer which
is measured against some predetermined standard for operation without any failure. %he
ma+or reason behind reliability of computers is that, at hardware level, it does not require
any human intervention between its processing operations.
," Re%ou!.e S#$!in/$ - In the initial stages of development, computers used to be isolated
machines. ,ith the tremendous growth in computer technologies, computers today have the
capability to connect with each other. %his has made the sharing of costly resources like
printers possible.
5" Sto!$/e$ - %he -omputer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data.
You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept
outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.
BLOC6 DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER
In0ut$ %his is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should
know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data
and performs some processing giving out processed data. %herefore, the input unit takes data from
us to the computer in an organi.ed manner for processing.
Sto!$/e$ %he process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. 'ata has to
be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of
-entral /rocessing 0nit -/0# is so fast that the data has to be provided to -/0 with the same
speed. %herefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. %his
storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality.
It provides space for storing data and instructions.
%he storage unit performs the following ma+or functions$
1 All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
1 Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
P!o.e%%in/$ %he task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. %he -entral /rocessing 0nit -/0# takes data and instructions from the storage unit and
makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is
then sent back to the storage unit.
Out0ut$ %his is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside
the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored
inside the computer for further processing.
Cont!o'$ %he manner how instructions are e)ecuted and the above operations are performed.
-ontrolling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes
care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.
FUNCTIONAL UNITS
In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the
task between its various functional units. %he computer system is divided into three separate units
for its operation. %hey are$
.
A!it#meti. Lo/i.$' Unit 7ALU8
%he arithmetic 2logic unit contains the electronic circuitry that e)ecutes all arithmetic and logical
operations on the data made available to it. %he data is required to perform the arithmetic and
logical functions are inputs from designated registers. A30 comprises two units$ Arithmetic unit
and 3ogic unit.
Cont!o' Unit 7CU8
%he ne)t component of computer is the -ontrol 0nit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that
things are done in proper fashion. -ontrol 0nit is responsible for coordinating various operations
using time signal. %he control unit of the -/0 contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct
the entire computer system to carry out or e)ecute, stored program instructions. %he control unit
controls the I24 devices and transfer of data to and from the primary storage. %he control unit itself
is controlled by individual instructions in programs located in primary storage.
Cent!$' P!o.e%%in/ Unit 7CPU8
%he A30 and the -0 of a computer system are +ointly known as the central processing unit. You
may call -/0 as the brain of any computer system. It is +ust like brain that takes all ma+or
decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by
activating and controlling the operations. It is a highly comple), e)tensive set of electronic circuitry,
which e)ecutes stored program instructions.
GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
5ach generation of computer is characteri.ed by a ma+or technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and
more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.
Fi!%t Gene!$tion 7)92+4)9-,8 3$.uum Tube%:
%he first computers used vacuum tubes2thermionic valves-based circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. %hey were very e)pensive to operate
and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause
of malfunctions. 6irst generation computers relied on binary-coded language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve
one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed
on printouts.
%he 0(I7A- and 5(IA- computers are e)amples of first-generation computing devices. %he
0(I7A- was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the 0.S. -ensus 8ureau
in !9:!.
Se.ond Gene!$tion 7)9-,4)9,*8 T!$n%i%to!%:
%ransistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. %hese were
superior to vacuum tubes. %he transistor was invented in !9;& but did not see widespread use in
computers until the late !9:"s. A transistor is made up of semiconductor material like germanium
and silicon. It usually had three leads and preformed electrical functions such as voltage, current or
power amplification. %he transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors. %hough the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that sub+ected the computer
to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still
relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,
or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. <igh level
programming language was also being developed at this time, such as early versions
of -4843 and 64=%=A(. %hese were also the first computers that stored their instructions in
their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. %he first
computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry./'/-> I8?!;"! and
I8? &"9"
T#i!d Gene!$tion 7)9,24)95)8 Inte/!$ted Ci!.uit%:
%he development of the integrated circuit was the trait of the third generation of computers.
%ransistors were miniaturi.ed and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Integrated circuits replaced several individually
wired transistors. %his development made computers smaller in si.e, reliable and efficient. Instead
of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards
and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. -omputers for
the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than
their predecessors.
5)amples$ (-= @9: and 8A:""
Fou!t# Gene!$tion 7)95)4P!e%ent8 Mi.!o0!o.e%%o!%:
%he microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits
were built onto a single silicon chip. ,hat in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit
in the palm of the hand. %he Intel ;""; chip, developed in !9&!, located all the components of the
computerBfrom the central processing unit and memory to input2output controlsBon a single chip.
In !9>! I8? introduced its first computer for the home user, and in !9>; Apple introduced the
?acintosh. ?icroprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas
of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks,
which eventually led to the development of the Internet. 6ourth generation computers also saw the
development of *0ICS, the mouse and handheld devices.
5)amples$ Apple II, Altair >>"" and -=AY-!
Fi(t# Gene!$tion 7P!e%ent $nd Beond8 A!ti(i.i$' Inte''i/en.e:
6ifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence are still in development, though
there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. %he use of parallel
processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Duantum
computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in
years to come. %he goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organi.ation. %he starting point for the fifth
generation of computers has been set in early !99"Cs.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
-omputers can be classified, or typed, many ways. Some common classifications are summari.ed
below$-
Mi.!o.om0ute!% 70e!%on$' .om0ute!%8:
A microcomputer is a small, low cost digital computer, which usually consists of a microprocessor,
a storage unit, an input channel and an output channel, all of which may be on one chip inserted into
one or several /- boards %he addition of power supply and connecting cables, appropriate
peripherals, an operating system and other software programs can provide a complete micro
computer system.
%hese computers include$
'esktop computers E A case and a display, put under and on a desk.
In-car computersE 8uilt into a car, for entertainment, navigation, etc.
*ame consoles E 6i)ed computers speciali.ed for entertainment purposes video games#.
A separate class is that of mobile devices$
3aptops, notebook computers and /almtop computers E /ortable and all in one case.
7arying si.es, but other than smartbooks e)pected to be FfullG computers without
limitations.
%ablet computer E 3ike laptops, but with a touch-screen, sometimes entirely replacing the
physical keyboard.
Smartphones, smartbooks and /'As personal digital assistants# E Small handheld
computers with limited hardware.
/rogrammable calculatorE 3ike small handhelds, but specialised on mathematical work.
<andheld game consoles E %he same as game consoles, but small and portable
Mini.om0ute!% 7mid!$n/e .om0ute!%8:
A minicomputer colloquially, mini# is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the middle range
of the computing spectrum, in between the smallest multi-user systems mainframe computers# and
the largest single-user systems microcomputers or personal computers#. %he contemporary term for
this class of system is midrange computer, such as the higher-end S/A=-, /4,5= and Itanium
-based systems from 4racle -orporation, I8? and <ewlett-/ackard. 5.g.- 3aboratory computers
Some of the widely used mini computers are /'/ !!, I8? >""" series#, and 7AH &:""
M$in(!$me .om0ute!%:
A mainframe computer is a ultra high performance computer made for high volume, processor-
intensive computing. It consists of a high-end computer processor with related peripheral devices,
capable of supporting large volumes of data processing, high performance online transaction
processing systems and e)tensive data storage and retrieval. (ormally it is able to process and store
more data than mini computer and far more than micro computer. 5)amples of mainframe
computers are I8?Cs 5S""", 7AH >""" and -'- AA""
Su0e!.om0ute!:
A supercomputer is focused on performing tasks involving intense numerical calculations such as
weather forecasting, fluid dynamics, nuclear simulations, theoretical astrophysics, and comple)
scientific computations. A supercomputer is a computer that is at the frontline of current processing
capacity, particularly speed of calculation. %he term supercomputer itself is rather fluid, and the
speed of todayIs supercomputers tends to become typical of tomorrowIs ordinary computer.
Supercomputer processing speeds are measured in floating point operations per second, or 634/S.
An e)ample of a floating point operation is the calculation of mathematical equations in real
numbers. In terms of computational capability, memory si.e and speed, I24 technology, and
topological issues such as bandwidth and latency, supercomputers are the most powerful, are very
e)pensive, and not cost-effective +ust to perform batch or transaction processing. %ransaction
processing is handled by less powerful computers such as server computers or mainframes.
5)amples of Supercomputers are -=AY -@, cyber J": and /A=A?.
COMPUTER MEMORY AND STORAGE
In computing, memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs sequences of
instructions# or data e.g. program state information# on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a
computer or other digital electronic device. %he term primary memory is used for the information in
physical systems which function at high-speed i.e. =A?#, as a distinction from secondary memory,
which are physical devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer higher
memory capacity. /rimary memory stored on secondary memory is called Kvirtual memoryK. An
archaic synonym for memory is store.
-omputer data storage, often called storage or memory, is a technology consisting of computer
components and recording media used to retain digital data. It is a core function and fundamental
component of computers. %he central processing unit -/0# of a computer is what manipulates data
by performing computations. In practice, almost all computers use a storage hierarchy, which puts
fast but e)pensive and small storage options close to the -/0 and slower but larger and cheaper
options farther away. 4ften the fast, volatile technologies which lose data when powered off# are
referred to as KmemoryK, while slower permanent technologies are referred to as KstorageK, but these
terms can also be used interchangeably. In the 7on (eumann architecture, the -/0 consists of two
main parts$ control unit and arithmetic logic unit A30#. %he former controls the flow of data
between the -/0 and memoryL the latter performs arithmetic and logical operations on data.
MEMORY HIERARCHY
%he processor is the brain of the computer where all essential computing takes place. 0nlike a
human brain which combines memory with processing power, a computer processor has a very little
memory. It must rely on other kind of memories to hold data and instructions and to save results.
%he memory in the computer is of three fundamental types$-
P!im$! %to!$/e
/rimary storage or main memory or internal memory#, often referred to simply as memory, is the
only one directly accessible to the -/0. %he -/0 continuously reads instructions stored there and
e)ecutes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner.
-ore memory remained dominant until the !9&"s, when advances in integrated circuit technology
allowed semiconductor memory to become economically competitive. %his led to modern random-
access memory =A?#. It is small-si.ed, light, but quite e)pensive at the same time. %he particular
types of =A? used for primary storage are also volatile, i.e. they lose the information when not
powered#.
?ain memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus. It
is actually two buses not on the diagram#$ an address bus and a data bus. %he -/0 firstly sends a
number through an address bus, a number called memory address that indicates the desired location
of data. %hen it reads or writes the data itself using the data bus. Additionally, a memory
management unit ??0# is a small device between -/0 and =A? recalculating the actual
memory address, for e)ample to provide an abstraction of virtual memory or other tasks.
T0e% o( P!im$! Memo!
!. R$ndom4$..e%% memo! 7RAM8 4 =andom-access memory is a form of computer data
storage. A random-access device allows stored data to be accessed directly in any random
order. In contrast, other data storage media such as hard disks, -'s, '7's and magnetic
tape, as well as early primary memory types such as drum memory, read and write data only
in a predetermined order, consecutively, because of mechanical design limitations. %herefore
the time to access a given data location varies significantly depending on its physical
location.
J. Re$d On' Memo! 7ROM8 4 =ead-only memory is a class of storage medium used in
computers and other electronic devices. 'ata stored in =4? cannot be modified, or can be
modified only slowly or with difficulty, so it is mainly used to distribute firmware software
that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to need frequent updates#.In its
strictest sense, =4? refers only to mask =4? the oldest type of solid state =4?#, which
is fabricated with the desired data permanently stored in it, and thus can never be modified.
'espite the simplicity, speed and economies of scale of mask =4?, field-programmability
often make reprogrammable memories more fle)ible and ine)pensive. As of J""&, actual
=4? circuitry is therefore mainly used for applications such as microcode, and similar
structures, on various kinds of processors.
Se.ond$! %to!$/e
Secondary storage also known as e)ternal memory or au)iliary storage#, differs from primary
storage in that it is not directly accessible by the -/0. %he computer usually uses its input2output
channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in
primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered downBit is
non-volatile. /er unit, it is typically also two orders of magnitude less e)pensive than primary
storage. ?odern computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more secondary storage
than primary storage and data are kept for a longer time there.
In modern computers, hard disk drives are usually used as secondary storage. %he time taken to
access a given byte of information stored on a hard disk is typically a few thousandths of a second,
or milliseconds. 8y contrast, the time taken to access a given byte of information stored in random-
access memory is measured in billionths of a second, or nanoseconds. %his illustrates the significant
access-time difference which distinguishes solid-state memory from rotating magnetic storage
devices$ hard disks are typically about a million times slower than memory. =otating optical storage
devices, such as -' and '7' drives, have even longer access times. ,ith disk drives, once the
disk read2write head reaches the proper placement and the data of interest rotates under it,
subsequent data on the track are very fast to access. %o reduce the seek time and rotational latencyL
data are transferred to and from disks in large contiguous blocks.
T0e% o( Se.ond$! Sto!$/e
)" H$!d di%: d!i;e:4 A hard disk drive <''# is a data storage device used for storing and
retrieving digital information using rapidly rotating disks platters# coated with magnetic
material. An <'' retains its data even when powered off. 'ata is read in a random-access
manner, meaning individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any order rather than
sequentially. An <'' consists of one or more rigid KhardK# rapidly rotating disks platters#
with magnetic heads arranged on a moving actuator arm to read and write data to the
surfaces.
1" M$/neti. Di%:%:4 ?agnetic disks are coated with a magnetic material such as iron o)ide.
%here are two types$ hard disks made of rigid aluminium or glass, and removable diskettes
made of fle)ible plastic. In !9:A the first magnetic hard drive <'# was invented at I8?L
consisting of :" J!-inch :@-cm# disks, it had a storage capacity of : megabytes. %he
primary computer storage device. 3ike tape, it is magnetically recorded and can be re-
recorded over and over. 'isks are rotating platters with a mechanical arm that moves a
read2write head between the outer and inner edges of the platterIs surface. It can take as long
as one second to find a location on a floppy disk to as little as a couple of milliseconds on a
fast hard disk.
O((4'ine %to!$/e
4ff-line storage is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of
a processing unit. %he medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device, and
then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator
before a computer can access it again. 0nlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without human
interaction.
4ff-line storage is used to transfer information, since the detached medium can be easily physically
transported. Additionally, in case a disaster, for e)ample a fire, destroys the original data, a medium
in a remote location will probably be unaffected, enabling disaster recovery. 4ff-line storage
increases general information security, since it is physically inaccessible from a computer, and data
confidentiality or integrity cannot be affected by computer-based attack techniques. Also, if the
information stored for archival purposes is rarely accessed, off-line storage is less e)pensive than
tertiary storage. In modern personal computers, most secondary and tertiary storage media are also
used for off-line storage. 4ptical discs and flash memory devices are most popular, and to much
lesser e)tent removable hard disk drives. In enterprise uses, magnetic tape is predominant. 4lder
e)amples are floppy disks, Mip disks, or punched cards.
INPUT AND OUTPUT DE3ICES
An input device is an electromechanical device that allows the user to feed information into the
computer for analysis, storage and give commands to the computer. 'ata and instructions are
entered into computers memory through an input device. It captures information and translates into
the form that can be processed and used by other parts of computer
An output device converts machine readable information into human readable form. %he basic
functioning of output device is +ust the opposite of input device ,that is data is fed into the computer
system through input device while output is taken out from the computer through output device
<owever output which comes from -/0 is in the form of digital signals. %he output devices display
the processed information by converting them into graphical, alphanumeric or audio visual form.
In computing, input2output or I24 is the communication between an information processing system
such as a computer# and the outside world, possibly a human or another information processing
system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent
from it. %he term can also be used as part of an actionL to Kperform I24K is to perform an input or
output operation. I24 devices are used by a person or other system# to communicate with a
computer. 6or instance, a keyboard or a mouse may be an input device for a computer, while
monitors and printers are considered output devices for a computer. 'evices for communication
between computers, such as modems and network cards, typically serve for both input and output.
INPUT DE3ICES$-
!. 6ebo$!d%:4 A IkeyboardI is a human interface device which is represented as a layout of
buttons. 5ach button, or key, can be used to either input a linguistic character to a computer,
or to call upon a particular function of the computer. %raditional keyboards use spring-based
buttons, though newer variations employ virtual keys, or even pro+ected keyboards.
J. Pointin/ de;i.e%:4 A pointing device is any human interface device that allows a user to
input spatial data to a computer. In the case of mice and touchpad, this is usually achieved
by detecting movement across a physical surface. Analog devices, such as @' mice,
+oysticks, or pointing sticks, function by reporting their angle of deflection. ?ovements of
the pointing device are echoed on the screen by movements of the pointer, creating a simple,
intuitive way to navigate a computerIs *0I. %ypes of /ointing 'evices
Mou%e$- A mouse is a small handheld device pushed over a hori.ontal surface. A mouse
moves the graphical pointer by being slid across a smooth surface. %he conventional
roller-ball mouse uses a ball to create this action$ the ball is in contact with two small
shafts that are set at right angles to each other. As the ball moves these shafts rotate, and
the rotation is measured by sensors within the mouse. %he distance and direction
information from the sensors is then transmitted to the computer, and the computer
moves the graphical pointer on the screen by following the movements of the mouse.
Another common mouse is the optical mouse. %his device is very similar to the
conventional mouse but uses visible or infrared light instead of a roller-ball to detect the
changes in position.
T!$.:b$''$- A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball housed in a socket
containing sensors to detect rotation of the ball about two a)is, similar to an upside-
down mouse$ as the user rolls the ball with a thumb, fingers, or palm the pointer on the
screen will also move. %racker balls are commonly used on -A' workstations for ease
of use, where there may be no desk space on which to use a mouse. Some are able to clip
onto the side of the keyboard and have buttons with the same functionality as mouse
buttons.NJO %here are also wireless trackballs which offer a wider range of ergonomic
positions to the user.
Jo%ti.:$- A +oystick is a device that moves in all directions and controls the movement
of the cursor. %he +oystick offers three types of control$ digital, glide and direct. 'igital
control allows movement in a limited of directions such as up, down, left and right.
*lide and direct control allows movement in all directions.
Li/#t Pen$- A light pen is a hand held electro-optical pointing device which when
touched to or aimed closely at a connected computer monitor, will allow the computer to
determine where on the that screen the pen is aimed. It facilitates drawing images and
selects ob+ects on the display screen by directly pointing to the ob+ects with the pen. It is
a pen like device, which is connected to the machine by a cable.
@. Tou.# S.!een$- A touch Screen is a special kind of display screen device which placed on
the computer monitor in order to allow the direct selection or activation of the computer
when somebody touches the screen. 5ssentially, it registers the input when a finger or other
ob+ect is touched to the screen. %ouch screen is used when information has to be accessed
with minimum effort.
;. S.$nne!%$-%here are a number of situations when some information is available on the
paper and is needed on the computer disk for further manipulation. %he Simplest way would
be to take the photograph directly from source and convert it into a form that can be saved
on the disk. A scanner scans the image and transforms the image to AS-II codes and
graphics. %hese can be edited, manipulated, combined and then printed. Scanners use a light
beam to scan the input data.
OUTPUT DE3ICES
)" P!inte!$- In computing, a printer is a peripheral which makes a representation of an
electronic document on physical media. Individual printers are designed to support local and
network users at the same time. Some printers can print documents stored on memory cards
or from digital cameras and scanners. -onsumer and some commercial printers are designed
for low-volume, short-turnaround print +obsL requiring virtually no setup time to achieve a
hard copy of a given document. <owever, printers are generally slow devices @" pages per
minute is considered fast, and many ine)pensive consumer printers are far slower than that#,
and the cost per page is actually relatively high. <owever, this is offset by the on-demand
convenience and pro+ect management costs being more controllable compared to an out-
sourced solution. %he printing press remains the machine of choice for high-volume,
professional publishing. <owever, as printers have improved in quality and performance,
many +obs which used to be done by professional print shops are now done by users on local
printersL see desktop publishing. 3ocal printers are also increasingly taking over the process
of photofinishing as digital photo printers become commonplace.
T0e% o( P!inte!%$-
Dot M$t!i< P!inte!%$-'ot matri) printer is the oldest printing technology and it prints one
character at a time. 0sually dot matri) printer can print any shape of character, which a user
can specify. %his allows the printer to print many special characters, different si.es of print,
and enables it to print graphics such as charts and graph. %he speed of dot matri) printers is
measured in characters per second. ?ost dot matri) printers offer different speeds depending
on the quantity of the print desired. %he speed can vary from about J"" to over :"" cps.
D$i% =#ee' P!inte!%$-%he ma+or drawback of dot matri) printer is that sometimes one can
see the pattern of dots that make up each character, making it look unprofessional. If you
need a printer that can reduce professional letter quantity documents, you need a daisy
wheel printer. It is named so because the print head of this printer of this printer resembles a
daisy flower, with the printing arms that appear like the petals of the flower.
D!um P!inte!%$-'rum printer is line printer, It can print a line in a a single operation.
*enerally line printer is used because of its speed as its uses special tractor fed paper with
pre punched holes along each side. %his arrangement allows a continuous high speed
printing. Its printing speed varies from !:" lines to J:"" lines per minute with 9A to !A"
characters on a !: inch line.
In: >et 0!inte!%$- A type of printer that works by spraying ioni.ed ink at a sheet of paper.
?agneti.ed plates in the inkIs path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. Ink-+et
printers are capable of producing high quality print approaching that produced by laser
printers. A typical ink-+et printer provides a resolution of @"" dots per inch, although some
newer models offer higher resolutions. In general, the price of ink-+et printers is lower than
that of laser printers. <owever, they are also considerably slower. Another drawback of ink-
+et printers is that they require a special type of ink that is apt to smudge on ine)pensive
copier paper.
L$%e! P!inte!$- 3aser printing is an electrostatic digital printing process that rapidly
produces high quality te)t and graphics by passing a laser beam over a charged drum to
define a differentially charged image. %he drum then selectively collects charged toner and
transfers the image to paper, which is then heated to permanently fi) the image. As with
digital photocopiers and multifunction printers ?6/s#, laser printers employ a )erographic
printing process, but differ from analog photocopiers in that the image is produced by the
direct scanning of the medium across the printerIs photoreceptor. <ence, it proves to be a
much faster process compared to the latter.
1" P'otte!$-%he plotter is a computer printer for printing vector graphics. In the past, plotters
were used in applications such as computer-aided design, though they have generally been
replaced with wide-format conventional printers. A plotter gives a hard copy of the output. It
draws pictures on paper using a pen. /lotters are used to print designs of ships and
machines, plans for buildings and so on.
*" Com0ute! Monito!$- A monitor or a display is an electronic visual display for computers.
%he monitor comprises the display device, circuitry and an enclosure. %he display device in
modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display %6%-3-'# thin
panel, while older monitors use a cathode ray tube -=%# about as deep as the screen si.e.
4riginally, computer monitors were used for data processing while television receivers were
used for entertainment. 6rom the !9>"s onwards, computers and their monitors# have been
used for both data processing and entertainment, while televisions have implemented some
computer functionality. %he common aspect ratio of televisions, and then computer
monitors, has also changed from ;$@ to !A$9 and !A$!"#.
T0e% o( Com0ute! Monito!%:4
C$t#ode R$ Tube 7CRT8 Monito!%$-(owadays, most computer monitors are based on
-athode =ay %ube technology. %he basic operation of these tubes is similar to that of a
in television sets. A beam of electrons cathode rays# emitted by an electron gun, passes
through focusing and deflection systems that direct the beam toward specified positions
on the phosphor Ecoated screen. %he phosphor then emits a small spot of light at each
position contacted by beam. ,hen the electron beam strikes the phosphors, it continues
to glow briefly. %his condition is known as persistence.
Li?uid C!%t$' Di%0'$ Monito!% 7LCD8$- A liquid-crystal display 3-'# is a flat
panel display, electronic visual display, or video display that uses the light modulating
properties of liquid crystals. 3iquid crystals do not emit light directly. 3-'s are
available to display arbitrary images as in a general-purpose computer display# or fi)ed
images which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and &-segment
displays as in a digital clock. %hey use the same basic technology, e)cept that arbitrary
images are made up of a large number of small pi)els, while other displays have larger
elements.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
A 0!o/!$mmin/ '$n/u$/e is a computer language programmers use to develop applications,
scripts, or other set of instructions for a computer to e)ecute.
It is a vocabulary and set of grammatical rules for instructing a computer to perform specific tasks.
%he term programming language usually refers to high-level languages, such as 8ASI-, -, -PP,
-4843, 64=%=A(, Ada, and /ascal. 5ach language has a unique set of keywords words that it
understands# and a special synta) for organi.ing program instructions.
<igh-level programming languages, while simple compared to human languages, are more comple)
than the languages the computer actually understands, called machine languages. 5ach different
type of -/0 has its own unique machine language.
3ying between machine languages and high-level languages are languages called assembly
languages. Assembly languages are similar to machine languages, but they are much easier to
program in because they allow a programmer to substitute names for numbers. ?achine languages
consist of numbers only.
3ying above high-level languages are languages called fourth-generation languages usually
abbreviated 4GL#. ;*3s are far removed from machine languages and represent the class of
computer languages closest to human languages.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
/rogramming languages are classified as shown in figure below$
)8 Lo& Le;e' L$n/u$/e
%his language is closed to -/0 built-in instructions set. It has many machine dependant
features. 3ow-3evel languages are of following types$
!# ?achine 3anguage
J# Assembly language
18 M$.#ine L$n/u$/e% 7) GL8
?achine languages are the most basic of languages. %hey consist of strings of numbers and
are defined by hardware design. A computer understands only its native machine language E
the commands in its instruction set. %hese commands instruct the computer to perform
elementary operations such as loading, storing, adding, and subtracting. 0ltimately, machine
code consists entirely of "s and !s of the binary number system.
4p-code 4perand Address
Ad;$nt$/e% o( M$.#ine '$n/u$/e%
?achine languages do not require any translator as it is already in machine language.
-omputers can e)ecute the programs written in machine language very fast because
the computer can accept machine code as it is and can start directly e)ecuting it.
A programmer can use the storage and other capabilities of machine fully as he may
know about everything of machine.
Di%$d;$nt$/e% o( M$.#ine L$n/u$/e%
'ifficult to understand
/rogrammer has to =emember all ?achine -odes =elated to 7arious 4perations
/rogrammer has to keep track to the address in use
/rogrammer has to know all about the machine to be used
/rograms are not portable
*8 A%%emb' L$n/u$/e% 71 GL8
?achine languages consist entirely of numbers and are almost impossible for humans to
read and write. Assembly languages have the same structure and set of commands as
machine languages, but they enable a programmer to use names instead of numbers.
5ach type of -/0 has its own machine language and assembly language, so an assembly
language program written for one type of -/0 wonIt run on another. In the early days of
programming, all programs were written in assembly language. (ow, most programs are
written in a high-level language such as 64=%=A( or -. /rogrammers still use assembly
language when speed is essential or when they need to perform an operation that isnIt
possible in a high-level language.
Ad;$nt$/e% o( A%%emb' L$n/u$/e%
5asier to 0nderstand and 0se
5asier to 3ocate and correct 5rrors
5asier to ?odify
(o ,orry about Addresses
5asily =eloadable
5fficiency of ?achine 3anguage
Di%$d;$nt$/e% o( A%%emb' '$n/u$/e%
?achine 'ependent
Qnowledge of <ardware =equired
?achine 3evel -oding
28 Hi/#4Le;e' L$n/u$/e% 7*GL8
A programming language such as -, 64=%=A(, or /ascal that enables a programmer to
write programs that is more or less independent of a particular type of computer. Such
languages are considered high-level because they are closer to human languages and further
from machine languages. In contrast, assembly languages are considered low-level because
they are very close to machine languages.
%he main advantage of high-level languages over low-level languages is that they are easier
to read, write, and maintain. 0ltimately, programs written in a high-level language must be
translated into machine language by a compiler or interpreter. %he first high-level
programming languages were designed in the !9:"s. (ow there are do.ens of different
languages, including Ada, Algol, 8ASI-, -4843, -, -PP, 64=%=A(, 3IS/, /ascal, and
/rolog.
Ad;$nt$/e% o( Hi/#4Le;e' L$n/u$/e%
?achine Independence
5asier to 3earn and 0se
6ewer 5rrors
3ower /rograms /reparation -ost
8etter 'ocumentation
5asier to ?aintain
Di%$d;$nt$/e% o( Hi/#4Le;e' L$n/u$/e%
3ower 5fficiency
3ess 6le)ibility
-8 Fou!t# Gene!$tion L$n/u$/e% 72GL8
A (ou!t#4/ene!$tion 0!o/!$mmin/ '$n/u$/e !9&"s-!99"# abbreviated 2GL# is a
programming language or programming environment designed with a specific purpose in
mind, such as the development of commercial business software. In the history of computer
science, the ;*3 followed the @*3 in an upward trend toward higher abstraction and
statement power. %he ;*3 was followed by efforts to define and use a :*3.
%he natural-language, block-structured mode of the third-generation programming
languages improved the process of software development. <owever, @*3 development
methods can be slow and error-prone. It became clear that some applications could be
developed more rapidly by adding a higher-level programming language and methodology
which would generate the equivalent of very complicated @*3 instructions with fewer
errors. In some senses, software engineering arose to handle @*3 development. ;*3 and
:*3 pro+ects are more oriented toward problem solving and systems engineering.
C#$!$.te!i%ti.% o( 2GL
!# P!e.i%e4N$tu!e: %he ;*3s are very precise in nature, which means programs
written in these languages need very number of instructions. A !"" lines programs
written in - language can be replaced by program of about : to !" lines using the
;*3.
J# Non4P!o.edu!$': 3ike all non-procedural languages, the written in these languages
need either no or very less number of procedural steps. <ence, it is quite simple to
write programs in these languages.
@# St!u.tu!e Inde0endent: %he programs written in ;*3s are structure independent
which means instruction may be written in any order. %his eliminates the need of
writing instructions in sequential order, as is the case with most of the high level
languages.
Com0onent% o( 2GL
!# A data dictionary J# Duery languages like
SD3
@# A report generator
;# A database management
system '8?S#
:# Statistical analysis tools A# 6inancial analysis tools
&# 'ecision support tools ># *raphics manipulator 9# Screen generator
!"# ?enu !!# 'ialogue generator !J# ,ord processor
!@# Spreadsheet !;# -ommunication
interfaces
C$te/o!ie% o( 2GL
Duery 3anguages
=eport *enerators
Application *enerators
Ad;$nt$/e% o( 2/'%
3ess %ime -onsuming
/rovided 3ogic to /rogrammer
Automatic %ype -hecking
Automatic (ature
Di%$d;$nt$/e% o( 2/'%
3engthy
Infle)ible
-annot 'irectly 0tili.e /ower
,8 Fi(t# Gene!$tion L$n/u$/e% 7-GL8
A fifth generation programming# language :*3# is a grouping of programming languages
build on the premise that a problem can be solved, and an application built to solve it, by
providing constraints to the program constraint-based programming#, rather than specifying
algorithmically how the problem is to be solved imperative programming#.
In essence, the programming language is used to denote the properties, or logic, of a
solution, rather than how it is reached. ?ost constraint-based and logic programming
languages are :*3s. A common misconception about :*3s pertains to the practice of some
;*3 vendors to denote their products as :*3s, when in essence the products are evolved
and enhanced ;*3 tools.
SYSTEM AND APPLICATION SOFT=ARE
%he term software and hardware are frequently used in conte)t with computers.
H$!d&$!e is the term given to the machinery itself and to various individual pieces of equipment.
It refers to the physical devices of the computer system. %hus, the input, storage, processing,
control, and the output devices are hardware. ,hen the hardware components are linked together,
they constitute an effective working unit called a computer installation.
So(t&$!e or the program can be defined as the complete set of written instruction written by the
programmer which enables the computer to obtain the solution of a problem with or without the
data. %he term software refers to the set of computer programs, procedures and associated
documents such as flow charts, manuals etc. %he software can be referred to as collection of
programs whose ob+ective is to enhance the capability of the hardware machine.
It is important to note that a computer cannot do anything on its own. It must be instructed to do a
desired +ob thus it is necessary to specify a sequence of instructions that a computer must perform to
solve a problem. Such a sequence of instructions written in a language that can be understood by the
computer is called a computer program. It is the program that controls the activity of the processing
by the computer and computer performs precisely what the program wants it to do.
SYSTEM SOFT=ARE:
%he system software consists of all programs, languages and the documentation supplied by the
manufacturer along with the computer. %hey are also known as the system packages as they are a
set of one or more programs designed to control the operation of a computer system. %his software
perform essential support functions and consists of programs to start up the computer, read, and
store and e)ecute the application programs.
%hey are general programs written to act as interface between the hardware, application programs
and the user and facilitate the use of computer system. %hey control all the operations, required to
move the data in and out of the computer and all the steps in e)ecuting an application program. In
general system software support the running of other software, communication with the peripheral
devices, support the development of other types of software and monitor the use of various
hardware resources such as -/0, memory, peripherals etc.
%he system software can be broadly classified into the following categories$
$8 O0e!$tin/ %%tem: An o0e!$tin/ %%tem OS# is a collection of software that
manages computer hardware resources and provides common services for computer
programs. %he operating system is an essential component of the system software in a
computer system. Application programs usually require an operating system to function.
5)amples of computer operating systems
Mi.!o%o(t =indo&% 5 - /- and I8? compatible operating system. ?icrosoft ,indows
is the most commonly found and used operating system.
A00'e M$. OS - Apple computer operating system. %he only Apple computer operating
system.
Ubuntu Linu< - A popular variant of 3inu) used with /- and I8? compatible
computers.
Goo/'e And!oid - operating system used with Android compatible phones.
iOS - 4perating system used with the Apple i/hone.
Need o( o0e!$tin/ %%tem
5asy interaction between the human R computer.
Starting computer operation automatically when power in turned on.
3oading R scheduling users program.
-ontrolling input R output.
-ontrolling program e)ecution.
?anaging use of main memory.
/roviding security to users program.
Com0onent% o( o0e!$tin/ %%tem
%he operating system comprises a set of software packages that can be used to manage interactions
with the hardware. %he following elements are generally included in this set of software$
%he :e!ne', which represents the operating systemIs basic functions such as
management of memory, processes, files, main inputs2outputs and communication
functionality.
%he shell, allowing communication with the operating system via a control language,
letting the user control the peripherals without knowing the characteristics of the
hardware used, management of physical addresses, etc.
%he file system, allowing files to be recorded in a tree structure.
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
4perating system is large and comple) software consisting of several components. 5ach component
of the operating system has its own set of defined inputs and outputs. 'ifferent components of 4S
perform specific tasks to provide the overall functionality of the operating system. ?ain functions
of the operating system are as follows$
)" P!o.e%% M$n$/ementB %he process management activities handled by the 4S are$
!. control access to shared resources like file, memory, I24 and -/0,
J. control e)ecution of applications,
@. create, e)ecute and delete a process system process or user process#,
;. cancel or resume a process
:. schedule a process, and
A. Synchroni.ation, communication and deadlock handling for processes.
1" Memo! M$n$/ementB %he activities of memory management handled by 4S are$
!. Allocate memory,
J. 6ree memory,
@. =e-allocate memory to a program when a used block is freed, and
;. Qeep track of memory usage.
*" Fi'e M$n$/ementB %he file management tasks include$
!. -reate and delete both files and directories,
J. /rovide access to files,
@. Allocate space for files,
;. Qeep back-up of files, and
:. Secure files.
2" De;i.e M$n$/ementB %he device management tasks handled by 4S are$
!. 4pen, close and write device drivers, and
J. -ommunicate, control and monitor the device driver.
-" P!ote.tion $nd Se.u!itB 4S protects the resources of system. 0ser authentication, file
attributes like read, write, encryption, and back-up of data are used by 4S to provide basic
protection.
," U%e! Inte!($.e or Comm$nd Inte!0!ete!B 4perating system provides an interface
between the computer user and the computer hardware. %he user interface is a set of
commands or a graphical user interface via which the user interacts with the applications
and the hardware.
7b8 T!$n%'$to!%$ A -omputer understands instructions in machine code i.e. in the form of "Cs and
!Cs#. It is difficult to write computer program directly in the machine code. %oday, mostly the
programs are written in high level languages i.e. -, -PP, Sava, 8ASI- /AS-A3 etc.
%he program written in high level language must be translated into machine code with the help of
translator or language processor# before running on the computer. 5very language has its own
language %ranslator program. %herefore, language translator is defined as$
F%he special translator system software that is used to translate the
program written in high level language or assembly language# into
machine code is called language %ranslator or language processorG.
TYPES OF LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS:4
%he language processors are divided into three types.
-ompiler
Interpreter
Assembler
Com0i'e!:4
%he language translator program that translates the complete source program into machine code as a
whole is called compiler. %he - and -PP compilers are best e)amples are compilers. %he program
translated into ob+ect code successfully if it is free of errors. If there are any errors in the source
code, the compiler specifies the errors at the end of compilation. %he errors must be removed before
the compiler can successfully compile the source code. %he ob+ect program can be e)ecuted a
number of times without translating it again.
Inte!0!ete!:4
%he language translator program that translates the source code into machine code statement by
statement is called interpreter. It translates one statement of source program into machine code and
e)ecutes it immediately before translating the ne)t statement. If there is an error in the statement,
the interpreter terminates its translating process at that statement. It also displays an error message.
%he *,8ASI- is an e)ample of an interpreter program. %he main advantage of interpreter is that it
makes easier to detect and correct errors in the source program.
It is a time consuming process of translating and e)ecuting statements one by one. 5ach time the
program is run, the source code id translated again. 6or this purpose you must have a translator
program Interpreter# permanently in your computer.
A%%emb'e!:4
%he language translator program that translates the program written in assembly language into
machine code is called Assembler. An assembler performs the translation process in similar way as
compiler. 8ut assembler is the translator program for assembly language a low level programming
language#, while a compiler is the translator program for high level programming language.
PROCESS OF SOFT=ARE DE3ELOPMENT
Alternatively referred to as software life cycle and software development phases, the software
development process is a set of steps that a software program goes through when it is developed. In
the picture to the right, is a waterfall type approach to software development and an e)ample of the
steps taken in the phases of software development.
%he basic steps involved in software development are as below$
Dom$in An$'%i%
o %he first step in attempting to design a new piece of software, whether it is an
addition to e)isting software, a new application, a new subsystem or a whole new
system, is what is generally referred to as F'omain AnalysisG.
So(t&$!e E'ement% An$'%i%:
o %he most important task in creating a software product is e)tracting the
requirements. -ustomers typically have an abstract idea of what the#C want as an end
result, but not what software should do. Incomplete, ambiguous, for even
contradictory requirements are recogni.ed by skilled and e)perienced software
engineers at this point. 6requently demonstrating live code may help reduce the risk
that the requirements are incorrect.
Re?ui!ement% An$'%i%
o 5)tracting the requirements of a desired software product is the first task in creating
it. ,hile customers probably believe they know what the software is to do, it may
require skill and e)perience in software engineering to recogni.e incomplete,
ambiguous or contradictory requirements.
S0e.i(i.$tion
o Specification is the task of precisely describing the software to be written, in a
mathematically rigorous way. In practice, most successful specifications are written
to understand and fine-tune applications that were already well-developed, although
safety-critical software systems are often carefully specified prior to application
development. Specifications are most important for e)ternal interfaces that must
remain stable.
So(t&$!e $!.#ite.tu!e
o %he architecture of a software system refers to an abstract representation of that
system. Architecture is concerned with making sure the software system will meet
the requirements of the product, as well as ensuring that future requirements can be
addressed.
Im0'ement$tion
o =educing a design to code may be the most obvious part of the software engineering
+ob, but it is not necessarily the largest portion.
Te%tin/
o %esting of parts of software, especially where code by two different engineers must
work together falls to the software engineer.
Do.ument$tion
o An important task is documenting the internal design of software for the purpose of
future maintenance and enhancement.
7I8 T!$inin/ $nd Su00o!t
!. A large percentage of software pro+ects fail because the developers fail to reali.e that
it doesnIt matter how much time and planning a development team puts into creating
software if nobody in an organi.ation ends up using it. /eople are occasionally
resistant to change and avoid venturing into an unfamiliar area, so as a part of the
deployment phase, itCs very important to have training classes for the most
enthusiastic software users build e)citement and confidence#, shifting the training
towards the neutral users intermi)ed with the avid supporters, and finally incorporate
the rest of the organi.ation into adopting the new software. 0sers will have lots of
questions and software problems which lead to the ne)t phase of software.
M$inten$n.e
o ?aintaining and enhancing software to cope with newly discovered problems or new
requirements can take far more time than the initial development of the software. (ot
only may it be necessary to add code that does not fit the original design but +ust
determining how software works at some point after it is completed may require
significant effort by a software engineer. About A"T of all software engineering
work is maintenance, but this statistic can be misleading.
APPLICATION SOFT=ARES:
%hese are the programs employed by the user to perform some specific functions. %hese softwares
are required to make the computer useful for the people. %he term application software describes
programs that help people accomplish their specific tasks. %here are different kinds of application
software such as commercial software, scientific software, financial packages, *ames, multimedia
software.
TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFT=ARE
%he Application software is divided into two main categories$
!# -ustom-built software
J# /ackaged software
Cu%tom4bui't %o(t&$!e
%he software that is developed for a particular customer or organi.ation is called custom-built
software. It is also known as customi.ed software.
P$.:$/ed So(t&$!e
%he software that is developed for sale to the general public is called packaged software. /ackaged
software is used to solve some common problem of many people or users.
%he application software can be broadly classified into following general categories as discussed
below$
,ord processing software
Spreadsheets
'atabase management software
*raphics, multimedia and presentation software
5ntertainment and education software
-ommunication software.
=o!d 0!o.e%%in/ %o(t&$!e:
%he word processing software is considered as a computeri.ed version of a typewriter, these
programs are actually far more capable than their mechanical predecessors. ?ost word processors
allow user to make changes and corrections to the te)t easily.
S0!e$d%#eet%:
Spreadsheets software displays a large grid of columns and rows and user can view one portion at a
time. %he areas where columns and rows meet are called cells. 0sers can put te)t, numbers or
formulas into cells to create a worksheet. 0ser can input different numbers into spreadsheets to
generate graphics and charts to illustrate the relationships more emphatically.
D$t$b$%e m$n$/ement %o(t&$!e:
'atabase management software assists in organi.ing the data and provides tools for performing
manipulations on the data such as adding, deleting or modifying the records that meet specified
criteria.
G!$0#i.@ mu'timedi$ $nd 0!e%ent$tion $00'i.$tion%:
*raphic programs are those programs that manipulate the images to any e)tent. 0ser can draw
illustrations from the scratch, using the electronic pointing device such as mouse or light pen or
pencil or brush.
Ente!t$inment $nd edu.$tion %o(t&$!e:
5ntertainment programs include tutorials, games and simulations that are used to learn new
software using simulation concepts. %hey are also used to teach small children using the humorous
e)amples and provide them with options where they can learn by doing and thus gain much faster.
Communi.$tion %o(t&$!e:
-ommunication software is used to connect the computers so that they can share information and
resources. %hey use modems, the hardware devices used for sending the data across the telephone
lines.
COMPUTER NET=OR6
,hen you have two or more computers connected to each other, you have a network. %he purpose
of a network is to enable the sharing of files and information between multiple systems. %he
Internet could be described as a global network of networks. -omputer networks can be connected
through cables, such as 5thernet cables or phone lines, or wirelessly, using wireless networking
cards that send and receive data through the air.
%he purpose of a computer communications network is to allow moving information from one point
to another inside the network. %he information could be stored on a device, such as a personal
computer in the networkL it could be generated live outside the network, such as speech, or could be
generated by a process on another piece of information, such as automatic sales transactions at the
end of a business day. %he device does not necessarily have to be a computerL it could be a hard
disk, a camera or even a printer on the network. 'ue to a large variety of information to be moved,
and due to the fact that each type of information has its own conditions for intelligibility, the
computer network has evolved into a highly comple) system. Speciali.ed knowledge from many
areas of science and engineering goes into the design of networks. It is practically impossible for a
single area of science or engineering to be entirely responsible for the design of all the components.
%herefore, a study of computer networks branches into many areas as we go up from fundamentals
to the advanced levels.
TYPES OF NET=OR6S
LAN 4 Lo.$' A!e$ Net&o!:
A 3A( connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building,
school, or home usually contains a single 3A(, though sometimes one building will contain a few
small 3A(s perhaps one per room#, and occasionally a 3A( will span a group of nearby buildings.
In %-/2I/ networking, a 3A( is often but not always implemented as a single I/ subnet.
A 3A( is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices, usually within an
office building or home.
1 3A(Cs enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be
needed by multiple users
1 Is limited in si.e, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no more than a mile
1 Is fast, with speeds from !" ?bps to !" *bps
1 =equires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device
1 <as lower cost compared to ?A(Cs or ,A(Cs
Ad;$nt$/e% o( LAN
1 Speed
1 -ost
1 Security
1 5-mail
1 =esource Sharing
Di%$d;$nt$/e% o( LAN
1 5)pensive %o Install
1 =equires Administrative %ime
1 6ile Server ?ay 6ail
1 -ables ?ay 8reak
=AN 4 =ide A!e$ Net&o!:
As the term implies, a ,A( spans a large physical distance. %he Internet is the largest ,A(,
spanning the 5arth.
A ,A( is a geographically-dispersed collection of 3A(s. A network device called a router
connects 3A(s to a ,A(. In I/ networking, the router maintains both a 3A( address and a ,A(
address.
A ,A( differs from a 3A( in several important ways. ?ost ,A(s like the Internet# are not
owned by any one organi.ation but rather e)ist under collective or distributed ownership and
management. ,A(s tend to use technology like A%?, 6rame =elay and H.J: for connectivity over
the longer distances.
1 ,A( covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of the
world.
1 A ,A( is two or more 3A(s connected together. %he 3A(s can be many miles
apart.
1 %o cover great distances, ,A(s may transmit data over leased high-speed phone
lines or wireless links such as satellites.
MAN 4 Met!o0o'it$n A!e$ Net&o!:
?etropolitan Area (etworks are not commonly used these days, they are used to create
communication between systems in an entire city. <ence a ?etropolitan Area (etwork area falls
between the si.es 3ocal Area (etworks, and ,ide Area (etworks. ?etropolitan Area (etworks are
used by city specific businesses such as the (ew York %imes in the state of (ew York.
1 A metropolitan area network ?A(# is a large computer network that usually spans
a city or a large campus.
1 A ?A( is optimi.ed for a larger geographical area than a 3A(, ranging from
several blocks of buildings to entire cities.
1 A ?A( might be owned and operated by a single organi.ation, but it usually will be
used by many individuals and organi.ations.
TOPOLOGIES
%opology refers to the shape of a network, or the networkIs layout. <ow different nodes in a
network are connected to each other and how they communicate is determined by the networkIs
topology. %opologies are either physical or logical. %he shape of the cabling layout used to link
devices is called the physical topology of the network. %he physical topology of a network is
determined by the capabilities of the network access devices and media, the level of control or fault
tolerance desired, and the cost associated with cabling or telecommunications circuits. %he logical
topology, in contrast, is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data
passes through the network from one device to the ne)t without regard to the physical
interconnection of the devices.
TYPES OF TOPOLOGIES:
Bu% to0o'o/: A network topology in which all nodes i.e., stations, are connected together
by a single bus. All devices are connected to a central cable, called the bus or backbone.
Me%# to0o'o/: A network topology in which there are at least J nodes with J or more
paths between them. 'evices are connected with many redundant interconnections between
network nodes. In a true mesh topology every node has a connection to every other node in
the network.
Rin/ to0o'o/: A network topology in which every node has e)actly two branches
connected to it. All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop, so
that each device is connected directly to J other devices, one on either side of it.
St$! to0o'o/: A network topology in which peripheral nodes are connected to a central
node, which rebroadcasts all transmissions, received from any peripheral node to all
peripherals nodes on the network, including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may
thus communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node
only.
T!ee to0o'o/: A network topology that, from purely topologic viewpoint, resembles an
interconnection of star networks in that individual peripheral nodes are required to transmit
to and receive from one other node only.
PHYSICAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA"
?eans by which a communication signal is carried from one system to another for e)ample,
twisted-pair wire, co a)ial cable, fiber-optics cable# and wireless links for e)ample, satellite,
microwave and radio and infrared systems# is T!$n%mi%%ion Medi$
%here are two t0e% o( t!$n%mi%%ion medi$:
*uided
0nguided
GUIDED TRANSMISSION$ media uses a cabling system that guides the data signals along a
specific path. %he data signals are bound by the F-ablingG system. *uided ?edia is also known as
8ound media. -abling is meant in a generic sense in the previous sentence and is not meant to be
interpreted as upper wire cabling only.
T&i%ted P$i!
/air of twisted conductors
%wisting reduces interference two parallel wires constitute a simple antennaL a twisted pair
does not.#
-heap medium
-ommonly used for communications within buildings and in telephone networks
/roduced in unshielded 0%/# and shielded S%/# forms, and in different performance
categories.
-ables may hold hundreds of pairs. (eighbour pairs typically have different twist lengths to
reduce crosstalk.
Co$<i$' C$b'e
/air of conductors separated by insulation
4ffers longer distances and better speeds than twisted pair, due to better shielding.
0sed for cable %7 and local-area networks. <ad been widely used in telephone systems, but
optical fibre is now assuming this task.
O0ti.$' Fib!e
%hree components$ light source, transmission system, and a detector
%he detector generates an electric pulse when hit by light
!-a pulse of lightL "-missing pulse of light.
optical rays travel in glass or plastic core
,hen light move from one medium to another it bend at the boundary. %he amount of
bending depends on the properties of the media.
3ight at shallow angles propagate along the fibre, and those that are less than critical angle
are absorbed in the +acket
%he cladding is a glass or plastic with properties that differ from those of the core
0sed in long distance communication, in locations having small amount of space, and with
reduction in price is starting to get also to 3A(s.
(ot affected by e)ternal electromagnetic fields, and do not radiate energy. <ence, providing
high degree of security from eavesdropping.
/rovide for multimode of propagation at different angles of reflections. -ause signal
elements to spread out in time, which limits the rate in which data can be accurately
received.
=eduction of the radius of the core implies less reflected angles. Single mode is achieved
with sufficient small radius.
A multimode graded inde) transmission is obtained by varying the inde) of reflection of the
core to improve on the multi mode option without resolving to the cost of single mode.
Inde) of reflectionUspeed in vacuum 2 speed in medium.#
! *bps is the current limitation, with the bottle neck in the conversion from electrical to
optical signals. 3arge improvements are e)pected.
UNGUIDED MEDIA is the wireless media. It simply transports electromagnetic waves without
using any physical conductor. Signals are normally broadcast through the air and thus are available
to anyone who has the device capable of receiving them.
R$dio &$;e%:4
It has frequency between !" Q <. to! * <.. =adio waves has the following types.
Short waves
7<6 7ery <igh 6requency#
0<6 0ltra <igh 6requency#
Mi.!o &$;e%:
?icro waves travels at high frequency than radio waves and provide through put as a wireless
network media. ?icro wave transmission requires the sender to be inside of the receiver.
6ollowing are the types of ?icro waves.
!. V %errestrial ?icro waves
J. V Satellite ?icro waves
In(!$!ed
Infrared frequencies are +ust below visible light. %hese high frequencies allow high sped data
transmission. %his technology is similar to the use of a remote control for a %7. Infrared
transmission can be affected by ob+ects obstructing sender or receiver. %hese transmissions fall into
two categories.
)" /oint to point
1" 8roadcast
NET=OR6 COMMUNICATION DE3ICES
)" Re0e$te!% $nd #ub%
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network signal, cleans it of unnecessary
noise, and regenerates it. %he signal is retransmitted at a higher power level, or to the other
side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In
most twisted pair 5thernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer
than !"" meters. A !e0e$te! &it# mu'ti0'e 0o!t% i% :no&n $% $ #ub" =epeaters work on the
physical layer of the 4SI model. =epeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the
signal. %his can cause a propagation delay which can affect network performance. As a
result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row,
e.g., the 5thernet :-;-@ rule.
1" B!id/e%
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer layer J# of
the 4SI model to form a single network. 8ridges broadcast to all ports e)cept the port on
which the broadcast was received. <owever, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all
ports, as hubs do. Instead, bridges learn which ?A- addresses are reachable through
specific ports. 4nce the bridge associates a port with an address, it will send traffic for that
address to that port only.
8ridges learn the association of ports and addresses by e)amining the source address of
frames that it sees on various ports. 4nce a frame arrives through a port, the bridge assumes
that the ?A- address is associated with that port and stores its source address. %he first time
a bridge sees a previously unknown destination address, the bridge will forward the frame to
all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.
*" S&it.#e%
A network switch is a device that forwards and filters 4SI layer
J datagrams between ports based on the ?A- addresses in the packets. A switch is distinct
from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the communication
rather than all ports connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself as
a broadcast domain. Switches make decisions about where to forward frames based on ?A-
addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices,
and cascading additional switches. ?ulti-layer switches are capable of routing based on
layer @ addressing or additional logical levels. %he term switch is often used loosely to
include devices such as routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic
based on load or based on application content e.g., a ,eb 0=3 identifier#.
2" Route!%
A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing
the routing information included in the packet or datagram Internet protocol information
from layer @#. %he routing information is often processed in con+unction with the routing
table or forwarding table#. A router uses its routing table to determine where to forward
packets. A destination in a routing table can include a KnullK interface, also known as the
Kblack holeK interface because data can go into it, however, no further processing is done for
said data.#
-" Modem%
?odems ?4dulator-'5?odulator# are used to connect network nodes via wire not
originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. %o do this one or more
frequencies are modulated by the digital signal to produce an analog signal that can be
tailored to give the required properties for transmission. ?odems are commonly used for
telephone lines, using a 'igital Subscriber 3ine technology.
," Fi!e&$''%
A firewall is a network device for controlling network security and access rules. 6irewalls
are typically configured to re+ect access requests from unrecogni.ed sources while allowing
actions from recogni.ed ones. %he vital role firewalls play in network security grows in
parallel with the constant increase in cyber attacks.
NET=OR6 PROTOCOLS
%-/2I/ is a very popular network protocol used in con+unction with the Internet. %o establish a link
between two computers on the internet, it is required to frame certain rules and regulations so that
the data communication between different computers.
%-/2I/ is divided into two set of protocols$
!. TCP$ %ransmission -ontrol /rotocol %-/# is a connection-oriented reliable protocol. It
provides a reliable transport service between pairs of processes e)ecuting on 5nd System
5S# using the network layer service provided by I/ protocol.
It is the general protocol suite of the InternetL encompassing protocols for network activities
such as datagram delivery and acknowledgement and protocols for user activity such as
remote login %elnet# and file transfer protocol 6%/#.
TCP P$.:et Fo!m$t
%he following descriptions summari.e the %-/ packet fields.
)" Sou!.e 0o!t $nd De%tin$tion Po!t$ Identified points at which upper-layer source and
destination processes receive %-/ services.
1" Se?uen.e Numbe!$ 0sually specifies the number assigned to the first byte of data in the
current message. In the connection-establishment phase, this field also can be used to
identify an initial sequence number to be used in an upcoming transmission.
*" A.:no&'ed/ement Numbe!$ -ontains the sequence number of the ne)t byte of data the
sender of the packet e)pects to receive.
2" D$t$ O((%et$ Indicates the number of @J-bit words in the %-/ header.
-" Re%e!;ed$ =emains reserved for future use.
," F'$/%$ -arries a variety of control information, including the SY( and A-Q bits used for
connection establishment, and the 6I( bit used for connection termination.
5" =indo&$ Specifies the si.e of the senderCs receiving window that is, the buffer space
available for incoming data#.
1" Inte!net P!oto.o' 7IP8: provides all of the InternetCs data transport services. 5very other
Internet protocol is ultimately either layered a top Internet protocol, or used to support
Internet /rotocol from below.
Internet protocol is a datagram-oriented protocol, treating each packet independently. Also
Internet /rotocol makes no attempt to determine if packets reach their destination or to take
corrective action if they do not.
Internet protocol provides several services as$
!. Addressing
J. 6ragmentation
@. /acket timeouts
IP P$.:et Fo!m$t
An I/ /acket contains several types of information$
!. 7ersion$ Indicates the version of I/ currently used.
J. I/ <eader 3ength I<3#$ Indicates the datagram header length in @J-bit words.
@. %otal 3ength$ Specifies the length, in bytes, of the entire I/ packet, including the data and
header.
;. /rotocol$ Indicates which upper-layer protocol receives incoming packets after I/ processing
is complete.
:. <eader -hecksum$ <elps ensure I/ header integrity.
A. Source Address$ Specifies the sending node.
&. 'estination Address$ Specifies the receiving node.
>. 4ptions$ Allows I/ to support various options, such as security.
9. 'ata$ -ontains upper-layer information.
ORGANISATIONAL SCOPE
(etworks are typically managed by the organi.ations that own them. /rivate enterprise networks
may use a combination of intranets and e)tranets. %hey may also provide network access to the
Internet, which has no single owner and permits virtually unlimited global connectivity.
Int!$net%
An int!$net is a set of networks that are under the control of a single administrative entity.%he
intranet uses the IP protocol and I/-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications.
%he administrative entity limits use of the intranet to its authori.ed users. ?ost commonly, an
intranet is the internal 3A( of an organi.ation. A large intranet will typically have at least one web
server to provide users with organi.ational information.
E<t!$net
An e)tranet is a network that is also under the administrative control of a single organi.ation, but
supports a limited connection to a specific e)ternal network. 6or e)ample, an organi.ation may
provide access to some aspects of its intranet to share data with its business partners or customers.
%hese other entities are not necessarily trusted from a security standpoint. (etwork connection to an
e)tranet is often, but not always, implemented via ,A( technology.
Inte!net
%he Inte!net is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet
protocol suite %-/2I/# to serve several billion users worldwide. It is a network of networks that
consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to
global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking
technologies. %he Internet carries an e)tensive range of information resources and services, such as
the inter-linked hyperte)t documents of the ,orld ,ide ,eb ,,,#, the infrastructure to support
email, and peer-to-peer networks.
=o!'d =ide =eb
?any people use the terms Internet and ,orld ,ide ,eb, or +ust the ,eb, interchangeably,
but the two terms are not synonymous. %he ,orld ,ide ,eb is a global set
of documents, images and other resources, logically interrelated by hyperlinks and
referenced with 0niform =esource Identifiers0=Is#. 0=Is symbolically identify
services, servers, and other databases, and the documents and resources that they can
provide. <yperte)t %ransfer /rotocol <%%/# is the main access protocol of the ,orld ,ide
,eb, but it is only one of the hundreds of communication protocols used on the
Internet. ,eb services also use <%%/ to allow software systems to communicate in order to
share and e)change business logic and data. ,orld ,ide ,eb browser software, such as
?icrosoftIs Internet 5)plorer, ?o.illa 6irefo), 4pera, AppleIs Safari, and *oogle -hrome,
lets users navigate from one web page to another via hyperlinks embedded in the
documents.
Fi'e T!$n%(e! P!oto.o' FTP# is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from
one host to another host over a %-/-based network, such as the Internet. 6%/ is built on
a client-server architecture and uses separate control and data connections between the client
and the server. 6%/ users may authenticate themselves using a clear-te)t sign-in protocol,
normally in the form of a username and password, but can connect anonymously if the
server is configured to allow it. 6or secure transmission that hides encrypts# the username
and password, and encrypts the content,
E'e.t!oni. m$i', most commonly referred to as em$i' or e4m$i' since c. !99@, is a method
of e)changing digital messages from an author to one or more recipients. ?odern email
operates across the Internet or other computer networks. Some early email systems required
that the author and the recipient both be online at the same time, in common with instant
messaging. %odayIs email systems are based on a store-and-forward model.
5mail servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. (either the users nor their
computers are required to be online simultaneouslyL they need connect only briefly, typically
to a mail server, for as long as it takes to send or receive messages.
Te'net is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a
bidirectional interactive te)t-oriented communication facility using a
virtual terminal connection. 0ser data is interspersed in-band with %elnet control
information in an >-bit byte oriented data connection over the %ransmission -ontrol
/rotocol %-/#.
On'ine .#$t may refer to any kind of communication over the Internet that offers a real-
time transmission of te)t messages from sender to receiver. -hat messages are generally
short in order to enable other participants to respond quickly. %hereby, a feeling similar to a
spoken conversation is created, which distinguishes chatting from other te)t-based online
communication forms such as Internet forums and email. 4nline chat may address point-to-
point communications as well as multicast communications from one sender to many
receivers and voice and video chat, or may be a feature of a web conferencing service.