Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the

Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south and Israel to
the southwest. A country of fertile plains, high mountains and deserts, it is home to diverse ethnic and
religious groups, including Arab Alawites, Arab Sunnis, Arab Christians, Armenians, Assyrians, Druze,
Kurds and Turks. Arab Sunnis make up the majority of the population.
In English, the name "Syria" was formerly synonymous with the Levant (known in Arabic as al-Sham)
while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the
Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, among the
oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a
provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.
The modern Syrian state was established after the First World War as a French mandate, and
represented the largest Arab state to emerge from the formerly Ottoman-ruled Arab Levant. It gained
independence in April 1946, as a parliamentary republic. The post-independence period was
tumultuous, and a large number of military coups and coup attempts shook the country in the period
19491971. Between 1958 and 1961, Syria entered a brief union with Egypt, which was terminated by a
military coup. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most
constitutional protections for citizens, and its system of government is considered to be non-
democratic.[6] Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-
Assad, who was in office from 1970 to 2000.
Syria is a member of one international organization other than the United Nations, the Non-Aligned
Movement; it is currently suspended from the Arab League[8] and the Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation,[9] and self-suspended from the Union for the Mediterranean.[10] Since March 2011, Syria
has been embroiled in civil war in the wake of uprisings (considered an extension of the Arab Spring, the
mass movement of revolutions and protests in the Arab world) against Assad and the neo-Ba'athist
government. An alternative government was formed by the opposition umbrella group, the Syrian
National Coalition, in March 2012. Representatives of this government were subsequently invited to
take up Syria's seat at the Arab League.[11]
Syria is formally a unitary republic. The constitution adopted in 2012 effectively transformed Syria into a
semi-presidential republic due to the constitutional right for individuals to be elected which do not form
part of the National Progressive Front.[68] The President is Head of State and the Prime Minister is Head
of Government.[69] The legislature, the Peoples Council is the body responsible for passing laws,
approving government appropriations and debating policy.[70] In the event of a vote of no confidence
by a simple majority, the Prime Minister is required to tender the resignation of their government to the
President.[71]
The executive branch consists of the president, two vice presidents, the prime minister, and the Council
of Ministers (cabinet). The constitution requires the president to be a Muslim[72] but does not make
Islam the state religion.
The constitution gives the president the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and state of
emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's
Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military
personnel.[73] According to the 2012 constitution, the president is elected by Syrian citizens in a direct
election.
Syria's legislative branch is the unicameral People's Council. Under the previous constitution, Syria did
not hold multi-party elections for the legislature,[73] with two thirds of the seats automatically allocated
to the ruling coalition.[74] On 7 May 2012, Syria held its first elections in which parties outside the ruling
coalition could take part. Seven new political parties took part in the elections, of which Popular Front
for Change and Liberation was the largest opposition party. The armed anti-government rebels,
however, chose not to field candidates and called on their supporters to boycott the elections.
The President is the Secretary-General of the party, and the leader of the National Progressive Front
governing coalition. Outside of the coalition are 14 illegal Kurdish political parties.[75]
Syria's judicial branches include the Supreme Constitutional Court, the High Judicial Council, the Court of
Cassation, and the State Security Courts. Islamic jurisprudence is a main source of legislation and Syria's
judicial system has elements of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws. Syria has three levels of courts:
courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. Religious
courts handle questions of personal and family law.[73] The Supreme State Security Court (SSSC) was
abolished by President Bashar al-Assad by legislative decree No. 53 on 21 April 2011.[76]
The Personal Status Law 59 of 1953 (amended by Law 34 of 1975) is essentially a codified sharia.[77]
Article 3(2) of the 1973 constitution declares Islamic jurisprudence a main source of legislation. The
Code of Personal Status is applied to Muslims by sharia courts.[78]
As a result of the ongoing civil war, various alternative governments were formed, including the Syrian
Interim Government, the Democratic Union Party and localised regions governed by sharia law.
Representatives of the Syrian Interim government were invited to take up Syria's seat at the Arab
League on 28 March 2013 and[11] was recognised as the "sole representative of the Syrian people" by
several nations including the United States, United Kingdom and France.[79][80][81]
Human rights
The situation for human rights in Syria has long been a significant concern among independent
organizations such as Human Rights Watch, who in 2010 referred to the country's record as "among the
worst in the world."[82] Freedom House ranked Syria "Not Free" in its annual Freedom in the World
survey.[83]
The authorities are accused of arresting democracy and human rights activists, censoring websites,
detaining bloggers, and imposing travel bans. Arbitrary detention, torture, and disappearances are
widespread.[84] Although Syria's constitution guarantees gender equality, critics say that personal
statutes laws and the penal code discriminate against women and girls. Moreover, it also grants leniency
for so-called 'Honour killing'.[84] As of 9 November 2011 during the uprising against President Bashar al-
Assad, the United Nations reported that of the over 3500 total deaths, over 250 deaths were children as
young as 2 years old, and that boys as young as 11 years old have been gang raped by security services
officers.[85][86] People opposing President Assad's rule claim that more than 200, mostly civilians, were
massacred and about 300 injured in Hama in shelling by the Government forces on 12 July 2012.[87]
In August 2013 the government was suspected of using chemical weapons against its civilians. US
Secretary of State John Kerry said it was "undeniable" that chemical weapons had been used in the
country and that President Bashar al-Assad's forces had committed a "moral obscenity" against his own
people. "Make no mistake," Kerry said. "President Obama believes there must be accountability for
those who would use the world's most heinous weapon against the world's most vulnerable people.
Nothing today is more serious, and nothing is receiving more serious scrutiny".[88]
The Emergency Law, effectively suspending most constitutional protections, was in effect from 1963
until 21 April 2011.[76] It was justified by the government in the light of the continuing war with Israel
over the Golan Heights.
Foreign relations
Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbors, and securing the return of the
Golan Heights, are the primary goals of President Bashar al-Assad's foreign policy. At many points in its
history, Syria has seen virulent tension with its geographically cultural neighbors, such as Turkey, Israel,
Iraq, and Lebanon. Syria enjoyed an improvement in relations with several of the states in its region in
the 21st century, prior to the Arab Spring and the Syrian civil war.
Since the ongoing civil war of 2011, and associated killings and human rights abuses, Syria has been
increasingly isolated from the countries in the region, and the wider international community.
Diplomatic relations have been severed with several countries including: Britain, Canada, France, Italy,
Germany, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, the United States, Belgium, Spain, and the Gulf States.[92]
From the Arab league, Syria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with Algeria, Egypt, Iraq,
Lebanon, Sudan and Yemen. Syria's violence against civilians has also seen it suspended from the Arab
League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 2012. Syria continues to foster good relations
with her traditional allies, Iran, China, Venezuela and Russia, who are among the few countries which
have supported the Syrian government in its conflict with the Syrian opposition.
Syria considers the Hatay Province of Turkey as part of its own territory.[93]
Israel unilaterally annexed the Golan Heights in 1981, although the Syrian government continues to
demand the return of this territory.
The Syrian occupation of Lebanon began in 1976 as a result of the civil war and ended in April 2006 in
response to domestic and international pressure after the assassination of former Lebanese Prime
Minister, Rafik Hariri.
Economy
Syria is classified by the World Bank as a "lower middle income country."[98] Syria remains dependent
on the oil and agriculture sectors.[99] The oil sector provides about 40% of export earnings.[99] The
agriculture sector contributes to about 20% of GDP and 20% of employment. Oil reserves are expected
to decrease in the coming years and Syria has already become a net oil importer.[99] Since the civil war
began, the economy shrank by 35%, and the Syrian pound has fallen to one-sixth of its prewar
value.[100] The government increasingly relies on credit from Iran, Russia and China.[100]
The economy is highly regulated by the government, which has increased subsidies and tightened trade
controls to assuage protesters and protect foreign currency reserves.[101] Long-run economic
constraints include foreign trade barriers, declining oil production, high unemployment, rising budget
deficits, and increasing pressure on water supplies caused by heavy use in agriculture, rapid population
growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution.[101] The UNDP announced in 2005 that 30% of the
Syrian population lives in poverty and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.[32]
Syria's main exports include crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk
of Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy
machinery. Earnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's
most important sources of foreign exchange.[32]
Syrias share in global exports has eroded gradually since 2001.[102] The real per capita GDP growth was
just 2.5% per year in the 20002008 period.[102] Unemployment is high at above 10%. Poverty rates
have increased from 11% in 2004 to 12.3% in 2007.[102]
Political instability poses a significant threat to future economic development.[103] Foreign investment
is constrained by violence, government restrictions, economic sanctions, and international isolation.
Syrias economy also remains hobbled by state bureaucracy, falling oil production, rising budget deficits,
and inflation.[103]
Prior to the civil war in 2011, the government hoped to attract new investment in the tourism, natural
gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture. The
government began to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but those reforms
were slow and ad hoc, and have been completely reversed since the outbreak of conflict in 2011.[104]
As of 2012, because of the ongoing Syrian civil war, the value of Syria's overall exports has been slashed
by two thirds, from the figure of $12 billion USD in 2010 to only $4 billion USD in 2012.[105] Syria's GDP
declined by over 3% in 2011,[106] and is expected to further decline by 20% in 2012.[107]
As of 2012, Syria's oil and tourism industries in particular have been devastated, with US$5 billion lost to
the ongoing conflict of the civil war.[105] Reconstruction needed because of the ongoing civil war will
cost as much as $10 billion USD.[105] Sanctions have sapped the government's finance. US and
European Union bans on oil imports, which went into effect in 2012, are estimated to cost Syria about
$400 million a month.[108]
Revenues from tourism have dropped dramatically, with hotel occupancy rates falling from 90% before
the war to less than 15% in May 2012.[109] Around 40% of all employees in the tourism sector have lost
their jobs since the beginning of the war.[109]
Demographics
According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and
Immigrants, Syria hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately
1,852,300. The vast majority of this population was from Iraq (1,300,000), but sizeable populations from
the former Palestine (543,400) and Somalia (5,200) also lived in the country.[113]
More than 7 million Syrians have been displaced,[61] and more than 2.1 million Syrians fled the country
and became refugees since the outbreak of civil war in March 2011.[114]