Heat Exchanger

7/14/2014 Heat Exchanger
http://www.real-world-physics-problems.com/heat-exchanger.html 1/32
Heat Exchanger

Automobile Radiator. Source: Wikipedia via B Wrigley
The heat exchanger is a very important device used in many real world
applications in which heat must be transferred from one medium to
another. In many cases, the two mediums are separated by a solid wall,
although in some cases the two mediums are in direct contact with each
other, so that mixing occurs. For example, in some applications steam is
injected into water in order to heat it up.
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Some common applications where a heat exchanger is used are:
refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating, and power plants, to name a
few. There are of course many more.
There is a large variety of heat exchanger configurations, but most can be
categorized into one of three types. The three types are: Parallel-flow or
counterflow configuration, cross-flow configuration, and shell-and-tube
configuration.
Parallel flow and counterflow configurations are shown in the two figures
below. Both figures show a simple concentric tube arrangement in which
one of the fluids flows on the inner tube and the other fluid flows in the
annular gap (between the tubes). The figures show the hot fluid as being
inside the inner tube, and the cold fluid as being inside the annular gap. In
the parallel flow configuration both the hot and cold fluids flow in the same
direction. In the counterflow configuration the fluids flow in opposite
directions. These will be discussed in more detail later.

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Heat transfer is usually better when a flow moves across tubes than along
their length. Hence, cross-flow is often the preferred flow direction, and
tends to be better than parallel flow or counterflow configurations. Cross
flow configurations are shown in the three figures below. The first figure
shows cross flow over an unfinned array of tubes. The second and third
figures show cross flow over a finned array of tubes, with square fins and
circular fins (as shown). The purpose of fins is to increase heat transfer
between the hot and cold mediums. This will be discussed in more detail
later.


Shell-and-tube configurations are shown in the three figures below. One of
the fluids flows through the inside of the shell and the other fluid flows
through tubes passing through the inside of the shell, thereby enabling
heat transfer between the two fluids. Baffles are added to enhance the
convection coefficient, which increases heat transfer between the two
fluids. The baffles serve to induce turbulent mixing and a cross-flow
component, both of which increase the convection coefficient. The first
figure shows one shell pass and two tube passes. The second figure shows
two shell passes and four tube passes. The third figure shows a more
detailed drawing of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass
and one tube pass.


Source: Wikipedia via H Padleckas
In the next section we will explain how fins are used to increase the heat
transfer in a heat exchanger, thus boosting its effectiveness.
Increasing Heat Transfer In Heat Exchangers Using Fins
A fin can be thought of as an extension of a surface. It adds additional
surface area, which enables additional heat flow to or from the medium the
fin is in contact with, by way of convection. To illustrate in quantitative
terms the usefulness of a fin consider the following schematic showing a
pin fin protruding out of a base surface at surface temperature T
b
. A
differential element of width dx is shown in orange. It will be necessary to
consider this element for the analysis that follows, which uses calculus.

Where:
A
b
is the area of the pin fin at its base
L is the length of the fin (in the x-direction)
T
is the temperature of the ambient environment (assumed constant

everywhere)
h is the convection coefficient between the fin and the ambient
environment (assumed constant)
A
c
(x) is the cross-sectional area of the fin at position x
dA
s
is the surface area around the perimeter of the differential element, at
position x
dq
conv
is the heat flow rate from the surface area around the perimeter of
the differential element, by convection, at position x
q(x) is the heat flow rate into the element at position x, by conduction
q(x+dx) is the heat flow rate out of the element at position x+dx, by
conduction
Assume steady state heat flow where the energy that enters the
differential element equals the energy that exits the differential element.
This is a valid assumption for steady state operating conditions.
We can write the energy balance as

The left side of the above equation is the heat energy entering the
differential element. The right side of the above equation is the heat
energy exiting the differential element.
By Newtons law of cooling,

where T(x) is the fin temperature at position x.
Substitute the above equation into equation (1). We get

Rearrange the above equation to give

Divide both sides of the above equation by dx. We get

For dx0 this becomes

From Fouriers law,

where k is the thermal conductivity of the fin material (assumed constant
throughout the material).
Substitute the above equation into equation (2), and simplify. This gives
us the final general differential equation for one-dimensional steady state
heat transfer from an extended surface (given below). Using this equation
we can solve for the temperature distribution T(x) given some set of
boundary conditions.

Note that although h and k are treated here as constant, this is not
necessarily the case. But it is a reasonable simplification.
To get an idea of the degree to which a fin can increase heat transfer
let's assume the pin fin discussed here is of constant cross-sectional area,
where A
c
(x) = A
c
. Then, dA
c
(x)/dx = 0 in the above equation, and
dA
s
(x)/dx = P, where P is the perimeter (with A
s
(x) = Px). The above
equation then becomes

Since the above is a second order differential equation, we need two
boundary conditions in terms of x to solve it. We can set the first
boundary condition as T(0) = T
b
. For the second boundary condition we
can assume negligible heat transfer at the tip, at x = L, so that q(L) = 0.
This is a good assumption for a long fin, relative to its width, since the
longer the fin is, the closer its tip temperature is to the ambient
temperature T
, which means that the temperature gradient T(x) at the

tip approaches zero. By Fourier's law this means that the heat flow out of
the tip approaches zero.
Thus, Fouriers law at x = L gives

so that

We can now solve equation (4) for the temperature distribution T(x). With
this temperature distribution known we can solve for the heat transfer
rate q
f
at the base of the fin (at x = 0).
By Fouriers law,

Hence, solving for T(x) and substituting into the above equation we get

where

and

Note that equation (5) represents the heat transfer from the base of the
surface (with area A
b
= A
c
) to which the fin is attached (at x = 0). In the
absence of the fin the heat transfer rate from the base is simply q
b
where

To see how much the fin increases heat transfer calculate the following
ratio:

which becomes

To illustrate by example, assume the pin fin is circular so that P = d,
where d is the pin fin diameter. Set d = 0.01 m, k = 180 W/m.K, h = 50
W/m
2
K, and L = 0.1 m.
We get

Given this high ratio, it's clearly very useful to add fins to increase heat
transfer from a surface. The alternative way to increase heat transfer is
by increasing h and/or decreasing T
which is not always practical.

Hence, adding fins makes more sense. For example, radiators (as shown in
the first picture on this page) have many fins since it is the only way to
enable the high rate of thermal energy exchange with the air. Note that
despite the name, radiators generally transfer the bulk of their heat (with
some medium, such as air) via convection, not by thermal radiation, so a
more accurate name for them would be "convectors". In fact, heat
exchangers in general transfer the bulk of their heat via convection, and
radiation heat transfer is usually negligible in comparison.
Note that the heat transfer rate q
f
increases for increasing k. This
physically means that the temperature of the fin is closer to the base
temperature T
b
, along its length. In practical terms this means we want k
as high as possible. Also, note that beyond a certain point, increases in L
do not significantly increase the rate of heat transfer q
f
. This is because
the farther you are along the fin, the closer the fin temperature T(x) is to
T
, which of course means a lower convective heat transfer rate from the
fin to the environment (by Newton's law of cooling).
Fins are especially important for situations where the convecting medium is
air or some gas (with lower h) and the surface area of the object that
needs to lose (or gain) heat is (relatively) small. In this case fins will
greatly aid in the transfer of heat to or from the object. If the convecting
medium is a fluid, such as water, then h will generally be much higher and
fins may not be necessary.
Also note that T
b
can be either greater than or less than T
. The
mathematics of the solution does not change for either case. It just
means that heat flows out of, or into the fin (respectively).
Fins can have a variety of shapes. For example, they can be pin fins
protruding from a surface (as just described), or annular fins around a tube
used to enhance heat flow into or out of the fluid flowing through the
tube. The figure below illustrates such a fin.

If fins are attached to a wall with a metallurgical or adhesive joint, a
significant thermal contact resistance may exist at the interface. This can
be accounted for by a fin correction factor, discussed in a later section on
the overall heat transfer coefficient.
Next, we will analyze the parallel flow heat exchanger for steady state
flow. Steady state flow is a valid assumption for steady operating
conditions and temperatures.
Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
The figure below shows a schematic of a parallel-flow heat exchanger
along with temperature distribution for the hot and cold fluids. We treat
the heat exchanger as insulated around the outside so that the only heat
transfer is between the two fluids.
As one would expect, the cold fluid (bottom curve) heats up and the hot
fluid (top curve) cools down.

Where:
T
hi
is the temperature of the hot fluid at the inlet
T
ci
is the temperature of the cold fluid at the inlet
T
ho
is the temperature of the hot fluid at the outlet
T
co
is the temperature of the cold fluid at the outlet
T
h
(x) is the temperature of the hot fluid at position x (left side of
differential element 1. This differential element, of length dx and enclosed
by dashed lines, is a control volume that is fixed in space)
T
h
(x+dx) is the temperature of the hot fluid at position x+dx (right side of
differential element 1)
T
c
(x) is the temperature of the cold fluid at position x (left side of
T
c
(x+dx) is the temperature of the cold fluid at position x+dx (right side of
dA
s
is the differential area between differential elements 1 and 2. This
differential area is located on the heat transfer surface (a wall) separating
the hot and cold fluid streams.
dq is the heat flow rate between differential fluid elements 1 and 2
Assume steady state heat flow where the energy that enters the top
differential element equals the energy that exits this element. We can
write the energy balance as

The left side of the above equation is the energy entering the differential
element. The right side of the above equation is the energy exiting the
differential element.
Rewrite the above equation so that it becomes

By the First law of thermodynamics the left side of the above equation can
be expressed as

Where:
dm
h
/dt is the mass flow rate of the top (hot) fluid
i
h
(x) is the fluid enthalpy entering the left side of the differential element,
and i
h
(x+dx) is the fluid enthalpy leaving the right side of the differential
element. In the above equation thermal conduction along the axial (x)
direction can be assumed negligible, and potential and kinetic energy
changes are also assumed negligible.
If we assume constant specific heat c
ph
for the fluid in the top differential
element, and express the change in enthalpy (i
h
(x)i
h
(x+dx)) as c
ph
multiplied by the temperature difference across the differential element
(T
h
(x)T
h
(x+dx)), the above expression then becomes

Note that we are treating c
ph
as constant, although it can vary as a
result of temperature variations in the fluid. In this case it is reasonable to
use an average value based on the average temperature of the hot fluid
between the inlet and outlet.
Also note that T
h
(x) is the mean (average) temperature across the cross-
section of the channel (at position x), for the top fluid. It is necessary to
make this distinction because in real flows the temperature can vary
across the cross-section.
Similarly, we can also apply an energy balance to the bottom differential
element. Following the same procedure as before, we get

Where:
dm
c
/dt is the mass flow rate of the bottom (cold) fluid
c
pc
is the specific heat of the fluid in the bottom differential element. We
treat it as constant, although it can vary as a result of temperature
variations in the fluid. In this case it is reasonable to use an average value
based on the average temperature of the cold fluid between the inlet and
outlet.
From Newtons law of cooling

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient between the top and
bottom fluid. Due to variations in fluid properties and flow conditions, U
may vary over the flow length. However, in many applications such
variations are not significant and one can reasonably assume a constant,
and average value of U.
Combining equations (6)-(8) and using calculus to solve for q we get

Where:
T
1
= T
hi
T
ci

T
2
= T
ho
T
co

A
s
is the total area of the heat transfer surface. For example, if the length
of the heat transfer surface is L (in the horizontal x direction) and its
depth into the page is b then A
s
= Lxb.
By direct observation, the above equation tells us that q is directly
proportional to U and A
s
. This makes sense since increasing U decreases
the resistance to heat transfer thereby enabling a higher q. And increasing
A
s
increases the heat transfer surface area which also allows for a higher
q.
It is worth noting that the total heat transfer rate q out of the top (hot)
fluid must also equal the total heat transfer rate into the bottom (cold)
fluid. Hence,

The two equations above can be used in addition to equation (9) to solve
a problem involving parallel flow heat exchangers. The above two
equations also apply for a counterflow heat exchanger. Note that
numerical iteration may be necessary in equation (9) for cases where
unknown inlet and/or outlet temperature(s) need to be solved for.
However, with computers this is easy to do.
By direct observation, the above two equations tell us that q is directly
proportional to dm/dt and c
p
. This makes sense since increasing dm/dt
increases the rate of transport of energy thereby enabling a higher q. And
a greater c
p
means that the medium can "hold" more energy per unit mass
and per unit of temperature, which also allows for a higher q.
It follows that, for a given q, a higher product (dm/dt)c
p
for the (hot or
cold) fluid means a lower temperature difference between inlet and outlet
for that fluid. And a lower product (dm/dt)c
p
for the (hot or cold) fluid
means a higher temperature difference between inlet and outlet for that
fluid.
Counterflow Heat Exchanger
The figure below shows a schematic of a counterflow heat exchanger
along with temperature distribution for the hot and cold fluids. Once again,
we treat the heat exchanger as insulated around the outside so that the
only heat transfer is between the two fluids.
As one would expect, the cold fluid (bottom curve) heats up and the hot
fluid (top curve) cools down.

The same steps are followed to derive q for a counterflow heat exchanger
as for a parallel flow heat exchanger. The only difference is that equation
(7) does not have a negative sign. Equation (9) is the same as before, but
with the following variables now defined differently, as follows:
T
1
= T
hi
T
co

T
2
= T
ho
T
ci

Note that a counterflow heat exchanger is more efficient than a parallel
flow heat exchanger. It takes a smaller heat transfer surface area A
s
to
achieve the same heat transfer rate q as a parallel flow heat exchanger,
with all else being equal. But despite this there may be advantages to
using a parallel flow heat exchanger instead of a counterflow exchanger,
such as when we wish to limit the amount of heat transfer between two
fluid streams.
Also note that in a counterflow heat exchanger T
co
can be greater than
T
ho
, but not for a parallel flow heat exchanger.
In principle, the maximum possible heat exchange would be achieved with
a counterflow heat exhanger of infinite length. In such a heat exchanger
the maximum possible temperature difference achieved (by one of the
fluids) would be equal to T
hi
T
ci
. For example, the cold fluid would be
heated to the inlet temperature of the hot fluid, or the hot fluid would be
cooled to the inlet temperature of the cold fluid. The maximum possible
temperature difference will occur for the (hot or cold) fluid with the lowest
product (dm/dt)c
p
. It will be this fluid which experiences the greatest
temperature change between inlet and outlet. Therefore, with known inlet
temperatures for both fluids, the maximum possible heat transfer rate for a
counterflow heat exchanger is given by q
max
= C
min
(T
hi
T
ci
), where C
min
is the minimum of the product (dm/dt)c
p
for either the hot or cold fluid. By
conservation of energy, the fluid with the greater product (dm/dt)c
p
will
also experience the same rate of heat transfer q
max
, but it will have a
lower temperature difference between inlet and outlet since the product
(dm/dt)c
p
is larger. Thus, it is easiest to calculate the maximum rate of
heat transfer (q
max
) for the (hot or cold) fluid which experiences the
greatest possible temperature difference between inlet and outlet (T
hi
T
ci
), which in turn must correspond to the fluid with the smallest product
(dm/dt)c
p
.
Knowing q
max
can be useful in making design decisions since it tells you
how close your heat exchanger design is to delivering its theoretical
maximum rate of heat transfer, and this in turn tells you how much
improvement is possible. Keep in mind that the maximum rate of heat
transfer (q
max
, as given above) applies to any heat exchanger (not just a
counterflow heat exchanger).
For a parallel flow or counterflow heat exchanger, if one of the (hot or
cold) fluid streams is condensing or evaporating, its temperature will
remain approximately constant between inlet and outlet. This constant
temperature can then be applied to the equations as T
ci
= T
co
(for the
cold fluid) or T
hi
= T
ho
(for the hot fluid). These temperatures (along with
other known variables) can then be substituted into equation (9) and one
of the two equations shown below (which were given previously). The
equation to use is the equation associated with the fluid that is not
condensing or evaporating. Equation (9) and this one other equation can
then be used to solve the problem. (Note that the convection coefficient
for the condensing or evaporating fluid will need to be determined given its
(known) condensation or evaporation temperature, and this convection
coefficient will be one of the variables used to calculate the overall heat
transfer coefficient, which is discussed next).

The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
The overall heat transfer coefficient U is straightforward to calculate for
steady state flow. To illustrate, consider the figure below which shows a
fluid flowing through an (unfinned) tube.

Where:
h
i
is the internal convection coefficient
h
o
is the external convection coefficient
T
m1
is the mean temperature of the fluid flowing inside the tube, at the
entrance. Note that this mean temperature is the average temperature of
the fluid over the cross-sectional area
T
m2
is the mean temperature of the fluid flowing inside the tube, at the
exit
T
is the ambient temperature outside the tube (assumed constant

everywhere)
R
i
is the inside radius of the tube
R
o
is the outside radius of the tube
L is the tube length
The U value for the tube heat transfer can be calculated from the
following equation:

where A can either be equal to A
i
or A
o
, where A
i
= 2R
i
L and A
o
= 2R
o
L.
The value of A can be chosen arbitrarily since the product UA will not
change as a result.
Also,

where k is the thermal conductivity of the tube (a cylinder).
Equation (10) comes from the fact that energy flow is constant (steady
state) through the different mediums located between the tube fluid and
the ambient. To show this, consider the schematic shown below. For
visualization purposes let's imagine we have an imaginary differential strip
(of thickness dx, in the x-direction) wrapping around the tube at some
position x along the tube length. At this position x, heat flows outward in
the radial direction through the strip at a rate dq(x). (Note that axial heat
conduction (in the x direction) is assumed negligible).

We can write the following heat rate equations:

Where:
T
m
(x) is the mean fluid temperature at position x
T
s1
(x) is the inner wall temperature at position x
T
s2
(x) is the outer wall temperature at position x
dA
i
is the area on the inside tube wall, at the location of the differential
strip, where dA
i
= 2R
i
dx
dA
o
is the area on the outside tube wall, at the location of the differential
strip, where dA
o
= 2R
o
dx
dq
1
is the heat flow (through the differential strip) between the fluid (at
mean temperature T
m
(x)) and the inner tube wall (at temperature T
s1
(x))
dq
2
is the heat flow through the tube wall (through the differential strip),
with inner wall temperature T
s1
(x) and outer tube wall temperature T
s2
(x)
dq
3
is the heat flow (through the differential strip) between the outer tube
wall (at temperature T
s2
(x)) and the ambient (at temperature T
)
For steady state heat flow,

where dq(x) is the heat flow through the differential strip at position x.
Thus we can write

and U is defined as the overall heat transfer coefficient, which allows the
heat flow rate to be expressed in a convenient and compact way, as given
by equation (11).
Note that dA is chosen arbitrarily as either dA
i
or dA
o
. The above equation
is a mathematical result of dq
1
= dq
2
= dq
3
.
U is a constant, independent of position x, in the above equation. To see
this rewrite the above equation as

Since h
i
, h
o
, dA/dA
i
, dAR
w
, and dA/dA
o
are all constants then U is a
constant. As a result, the calculation of U from the above equation gives
the same result as calculating U from Equation (10), so its consistent.
Note that equation (11) has the same form as equation (8) (with q =
q(x)). Also, the energy balance for the fluid flow remains the same here as
in equations (6) or (7). And since the ambient temperature is treated as
constant here we can use equation (9) for the overall heat transfer q
provided that we treat one of the fluid streams as having constant
temperature throughout. Therefore, we can set T
hi
= T
ho
= T
. Thus,

Where:
T
1
= T
T
ci

T
2
= T
T
co

A positive value of q means that heat is flowing into the tube, and a
negative value of q means that heat is flowing out of the tube.
For the case of a tube with fins on the inside and/or outside we can still
use equation (10) but with a correction factor now included which
corrects for the presence of the fins (and any contact resistance, as
mentioned earlier). Thus,

Where:
i
is the correction factor for the inside surface of the tube, and
o
is the
correction factor for the outside surface of the tube. This correction
factor is between 0 and 1. For an unfinned surface = 1.
The area on the inside of the tube (fin area plus exposed base) is equal to
A
i
. The area on the outside of the tube (fin area plus exposed base) is
equal to A
o
.
Once again, A can be chosen to be either the total surface area on the
inside surface (A
i
) or on the outside surface (A
o
). The choice does not
matter since the product UA is constant. Note that if we choose A on a
side on which fins are present, then A is the total surface area comprised
of the surface area all around the fins plus the surface area of the
exposed base (between the fins).
The correction factors can be found for a variety of finned surfaces
(based on their shape, size, spacing, thickness, etc.) and is given in
analysis books on heat exchangers, such as Compact Heat Exchangers, by
Kays and London. This book is a good reference for those wanting to
design or analyze finned heat exchangers. To purchase this book, click on
the image link below. You will be taken to the Amazon website, where you
can make your purchase.
Compact Heat
Exchangers
W. M. Kays, A. L. ...
Best Pri ce $38.95
or Buy New $66.36
Pri vacy Informati on
Finally, we can add fouling factors to the above equation which accounts
for deposits accumulating on the inner and outer surfaces, over time.
These deposits can be a result of fluid impurities, rust, or chemical
reactions between the fluid and wall material. The modified equation
accounting for fouling factors then becomes

where R
fi
''
is the fouling factor on the inside tube surface and R
fo
''
is the
fouling factor on the outside tube surface. Typical fouling factor values
are given in the section on Fouling Resistance in this heat transfer
textbook available for free online, written by John H. Lienhard (IV and V),
from the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, and
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (respectively). This is also a good
reference for heat exchangers and heat transfer theory. I used this book
as a reference when creating this page.
Since the heat transfer q is directly proportional to the product UA (from
equation 12) one would wish to maximize UA in order to maximize the rate
of heat transfer.
Looking at the above equation you can only maximize UA by minimizing the
above equation (1/UA). This can be done by making all the terms on the
right side as small as possible (while still meeting heat exchanger design
requirements). The magnitude of the above equation is limited by the
largest term on the right side of the equation, whatever it works out to be
(based on the parameters of the problem). So it makes sense to keep all
terms as small as possible, which means keeping the fouling factors and R
w
as small as possible, and using fins on the inside of the tube, if practical
(such as aligned with the flow direction) and the outside of the tube, in
order to increase the products
i
h
i
A
i
and
o
h
o
A
o
, which results in
increased product UA.
For example, lets say the fouling factors and R
w
are small enough to be
neglected, and lets say
i
h
i
A
i
= X and
o
h
o
A
o
= 5X, in which the outside
tube surface is finned and the inside tube surface is unfinned (which is
why
o
h
o
A
o
is larger).
Now, substitute
i
h
i
A
i
= X and
o
h
o
A
o
= 5X into the above equation and
we get UA
1
(5/6)X
Now lets say that we add fins to the inside tube surface as well so that
i
h
i
A
i
and
o
h
o
A
o
are comparable in magnitude so that
i
h
i
A
i

o
h
o
A
o
5X
Now, substitute
i
h
i
A
i
=
o
h
o
A
o
= 5X into the above equation and we get
UA
2
(5/2)X
UA
2
/UA
1
= 3, which is clearly a large improvement in heat transfer by
making both surfaces finned.
Estimating The Convection Coefficient h
Estimating the convection coefficient for a variety of geometries, fluid
types, and flow conditions, is a difficult problem, and is by no means
simple to explain in brief terms. For this reason it is best to refer to
dedicated sections in books that explain in detail how to estimate
convection coefficients for different configurations, along with associated
pressure drop for the fluid streams. For standard finned surfaces one may
refer to the book Compact Heat Exchangers listed above, to find the
convection coefficients. For unfinned surfaces one may refer to the
sections on convective heat transfer, as explained in the heat transfer
textbook (in PDF format, linked to above). Alternatively, you may prefer to
reference a heat transfer book directly which also gives convection
coefficient estimates for unfinned surfaces. A good book for this is
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5
th
Edition, by Incropera and
Dewitt. The relevant sections in this book are on internal and external
flow, and boiling and condensation. The fourth edition of this book was a
very useful reference that I used when creating this page. To purchase
this book, click on the image link below. You will be taken to the Amazon
website, where you can make your purchase.
Fundamental s of Heat
and Mass Transf...
Frank P. Incropera...
Best Pri ce $7.74
or Buy New
Pri vacy Informati on
Some typical values of the convection coefficient h are:
Free convection for gases: 2-25 W/m
2
K
Free convection for liquids: 50-1000 W/m
2
K
Forced convection for gases: 25-250 W/m
2
K
Forced convection for liquids: 50-20,000 W/m
2
K
Convection with phase change (boiling or condensation): 2500-100,000
W/m
2
K
The reference for the above values is from: Fundamentals of Heat and
Mass Transfer, Fourth Edition, page 8, by Incropera and Dewitt, 1996.
Example Problem For Counterflow Heat Exchanger
We are given a counterflow heat exchanger with the following known
values:
c
pc
= 4200 J/kg.K
c
ph
= 1000 J/kg.K
dm
c
/dt = 1 kg/s
dm
h
/dt = 1.7 kg/s
T
ci
= 40 degrees Celsius
T
hi
= 280 degrees Celsius
A
s
= 0.7 m
2
(heat transfer surface area)
R
w
= 4.0 x 10
-5
K/W (wall thermal resistance)
h
c
= 1000 W/m
2
K (convection coefficient for cold fluid)
h
h
= 250 W/m
2
K (convection coefficient for hot fluid)
Assume that the heat transfer surface area on the cold and hot side are
approximately equal.
Find the outlet temperature of the hot and cold fluid and the rate of heat
transfer (q) between them.
Solution
There are three unknowns to solve for. They are T
co
, T
ho
, and q. We need
three equations to solve for these three unknowns.
The first equation to use represents the heat transfer rate (q) into the
cold fluid: q = (dm
c
/dt)c
pc
(T
co
T
ci
)
The second equation to use represents the heat transfer rate (q) out of
the hot fluid. This is equal to the heat transfer rate into the cold fluid. The
equation is: q = (dm
h
/dt)c
ph
(T
hi
T
ho
)
The third equation to use is given by equation (9), with the following
variables defined as follows for a counterflow heat exchanger:
T
1
= T
hi
T
co

T
2
= T
ho
T
ci

To calculate U we can use equation (10). With h
i
h
c
and h
o
h
h
this
gives a value of U = 198.89 W/m
2
K.
Solving numerically, we get T
co
= 47.5 degrees C, T
ho
= 261.4 degrees C,
and q = 31590 W.
Heat Exchanger Design
To choose a suitable heat exchanger for a certain application requires a
level of knowledge and experience. The information presented here along
with the books referenced here is certainly a good start. When designing
or choosing a heat exchanger there is no single "correct" solution.
Different types of heat exchangers can work equally well. The Wikipedia
page contains good general information on different heat exchanger types.
There are different ways to optimize heat exchanger design. Part of the
optimization usually requires that the tube wall thickness be as small as
possible (while still being strong enough), and the thermal conductivity of
the tube material be as high as possible. This ensures that the thermal
resistance of the tube wall is as low as possible which aids in heat
transfer. Also, we wish to keep the pressure drop of the hot and cold fluid
streams between inlet and outlet as small as possible. However, to
increase the rate of heat exchange between the two streams we must
increase the convection coefficient (h), by either adding fins, increasing
surface roughness, increasing tube length and/or decreasing tube
diameter. But this unavoidably increases the pressure drop and
consequently increases the pump power requirements to overcome the
flow resistance associated with this pressure drop. Hence, good heat
exchanger design must be a tradeoff between pressure drop and good
heat exchange. In some cases, such as for shell-and-tube heat
exchangers, it may be possible to minimize pressure drop by appropriately
selecting one of the fluids to flow inside the shell, and the other to flow in
the tubes.
Given the inherent mathematical complexity of heat exchanger design
(such as estimating convection coefficients for complex flow patterns), it
is often necessary to use heat exchanger software to aid in the design
process, and to do so in a time efficient way. This is evident when one
considers all the different design parameters to be evaluated when coming
up with a "best" design. Some examples of common design parameters to
be taken into account are:
Flow rate of both fluid streams
Inlet and outlet temperatures of both streams
Operating pressure of both streams
Allowable pressure drop of both streams
Fouling resistance for both streams
Physical properties of both streams
Type and configuration of heat exchanger
Tube sizes, number of tubes, number of baffles (if applicable), baffle
size, baffle spacing
Number of fins (if applicable), fin size, fin spacing, and the fan or blower
power necessary to force air (or another medium) through the fins
Material types used in the heat exchanger
Size limitations
Others, depending on design requirements
Clearly, heat exchanger design is a multivariable problem which does not
usually lend itself to a simple solution. Several design iterations may be
necessary before settling on a good design.

I went through my own heat exchanger design efforts when building a
homemade air conditioner some time ago. It was a fun project which gave
me a good practical understanding of how heat exchangers work. My first
build attempt is shown in the two pictures below.

heat transfer fluids
enesoon.com.cn/en
Solar heat transfer fluid For
chemical heat treatment fields

The picture above shows the inside of the unit. Air blows through the
annular space and around a cold ice-water filled metal pail, causing the air
to cool down before exiting through a hole at the top. Temperature
measurements revealed that the air came out about 2.5 degrees Celsius
cooler than it was going in. The heat exchange taking place is between
the ice-water and the air. Naturally I want the heat exchange to be as
high as possible so that the air comes out as cool as possible. So the task
of figuring out how to do this is a heat exchanger problem.
For my second attempt I added vertical wooden rods in the flow stream
which helped to induce turbulent mixing which boosted heat transfer
between the ice-water and air stream. This is shown in the picture below.
The result was that the air came out about 3 degrees Celsius cooler,
which is a slight improvement.

Not being satisfied with the result I decided to change the design
completely. In this design (shown below) I made a U-shaped channel,
which worked much better. Temperature measurements revealed that the
exiting air was about 10 degrees Celsius cooler than it was going in, which
is a great improvement over the earlier design.

The picture above shows the U-shaped channel I made out of thin
aluminum sheet, wood, and lots of silicone sealant around the edges so
that water doesn't leak in when immersed in the ice-water. The channel
has about a 1.8 cm gap through which the air flows. The width of the
channel is 25 cm, and the length of the channel (i.e. the flow length along
the U-shape) is about 60 cm. The U-shaped channel sits in a cooler of
ice-water and the fan sits on top of the duct which has a hole in it so
that the fan sits in snugly.
However, the household fan has difficulty blowing air through the narrow
and long gap of the U-channel. The greatly improved heat transfer (and
increased cooling of the air) resulting from the narrower and longer gap
means that significant back pressure is created, which results in the fan
having a much harder time pushing the air through the channel. The fan
speed has to be set at the highest setting to get a decent rate of air flow
through the channel. This is the tradeoff mentioned earlier between
greater pressure drop and the increased heat transfer that results.
Physically speaking, the fan must overcome the resistance to air flow
associated with the pressure drop caused by the narrow and long gap the
air must travel through. In this case it would be better to use a blower of
some sort which is designed to push air in the presence of back pressure.
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7/14/2014 Heat Exchanger

is the temperature of the ambient environment (assumed constant

, which means that the temperature gradient T(x) at the

which is not always practical.

is the ambient temperature outside the tube (assumed constant

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