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Igor Cherny
Marketing 450
Professor Matthews
Business Honors Ad Hoc Research Assignment

The Melody of Marketing: Neuropsychology of Music
and the Adolescent Consumer Market

ABSTRACT
Adolescence is considered to be the critical period when individuals explore and develop
their musical tastes. It is the music of this period that people tend to be nostalgic about in
adulthood. Part of the reason has to do with the social and emotional turbulence associated with
the teenage years, which leads adolescents to rely on music as a vehicle for creating social bonds,
expressing identity, and regulating mood. The other reason is rooted in neuroscience. The
adolescent brain is extremely active in forming new neural connections, accounting for the
increased influence of external experiences during this period. Moreover, the hippocampus,
which is integral to memory storage and retrieval, is particularly receptive to experiences we
encounter during periods that are emotionally charged (as in adolescence), and is more likely to
instill those in our long-term memory. This paper will delve into the social and psychological
roles music plays for adolescents, and based on this understanding, offer ways for marketers to
harness the power of music to reach the adolescent consumer market.
INTRODUCTION
Music is an intrinsically human element, even predating language as a form of
communication and a way of creating social bonds. The effect of music on emotion and social
interaction cannot be understated. Indeed, some of our most intimate moments rely on music to
enhance our experiences. Weddings, funerals, prayer, sporting events, romantic occasions, and
virtually all forms of dance are accompanied by music that seeks to deepen the emotional and
social experience of those hearing it.
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The group for whom music is perhaps most significant is adolescents. Adolescents look to
music to fulfill their individual and social needs. In 2001, 94 percent reported being interested in
music (a higher percentage than sports even) (Bjurstrom & Wennhall, 1991, as cited in North,
Hargreaves, & ONeill, 2000). Adolescents interact with music at a greater level than perhaps
any other age group, actively engaging in listening, sharing, creating, performing, and
consuming music. Between 7
th
and 12
th
grade, American adolescents average 10,500 hours of
elected listening to pop music (David, 1985, as cited in North et al. 2000).
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Studies reveal that
adolescents spend from two and a half to four hours listening to music each day (Lyle &
Hoffman, 1972, as cited in North & Hargreaves 1999). Beyond merely listening to music, 70
percent of the adolescents reported currently playing or having played an instrument in the past
(North et al., 2000). Moreover, people under the age of 20 buy 22 percent of all CDs (Leonhard,
2005) and 70 percent of popular music recordings (Brake, 1985, as cited in Arnett 1985) making
adolescents the single largest group of prospective music consumers (Leonhard 98). Beyond
any level of doubt, music plays an exceedingly important role in adolescents lives. When trying
to sell to adolescent consumers, therefore, marketers have in music an extraordinary tool with
which to influence adolescents buying decisions.
What is it about the way the human brain processes music that enables music to have so
powerful an effect on our emotions, social interactions, and consumption? Why are adolescents
predisposed to respond so strongly to music? By exploring the answers to these questions, this
paper seeks to inform marketers of the ways in which music can be effectively harnessed to
reach the adolescent consumer market.

1
10,000 hours of practice is required to be a world-class expert in anything (Levitin 197).
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NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF MUSIC
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Like other phenomena in psychology, the way humans process and respond to music can be
better understood by looking at the influences of nature and nurturethat is, how the physiology
of the brain and our upbringing coalesce to impact the way we engage with music.
Our ability to perceive music has evolved over millions of years of evolution and interaction
with the environment. One of the most exquisite characteristics of music is that processing it
involves nearly every region of the brain. Specific regions process the structural elements in
music (i.e. pitch, rhythm, melody, loudness, harmony, tempo, and meter), while other regions
coordinate our response as it pertains to emotion, cognition, and movement. Just the emotional
response to music involves at least three regions of the brain (Levitin 271). Acquiring a
comprehensive understanding of this process is too ambitious of an endeavor for this paper. It is
worthwhile, however, to delineate, in basic terms, what causes some of the emotional reactions
to music.
Why emotional reactions? Consumer research studies have shown that the emotional
responses evoked by music are among the primary factors influencing consumer behavior and
attitude in response to music (Alpert & Alpert, 2000). In this way, understanding how music
produces affective responses in people is important for marketers ability to use music when
selling to consumers (specifically adolescents, as is the focus of this paper). I will begin by
explaining the neuropsychology behind our responses to music.
First off, not all sound is music, and not all music evokes an emotional response from the
listener. What we perceive as sound is merely the vibration of air molecules at various
frequencies (Levitin 22). These frequencies, in turn, represent what is termed pitch. Each note

2
Dr. Levitins book, This is Your Brain on Music, provided much of the substance for this section and is
credited for inspiring this paper.
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corresponds to a particular pitch. The relations in notes (i.e. pitch) are what ultimately define
music.
Pitch is the first thing the brain processes when we hear a sound. It is one of the most
decisive elements affecting our emotional response to music (Levitin 26). Our ability to
distinguish between different pitches enables us to appreciate music. This ability stems from
human physiology, and specifically the basilar membrane in the inner ear. The basilar membrane
contains hair cells that function in a way like the notes on a piano keyboard: the hair cells in the
inner earlike the notes on a pianocorrespond to different frequencies, firing only when those
frequencies are encountered. This factor accounts for why certain sounds can sound pleasant to
some people and not to others (241). This incredible feature of the brain further determines the
ability of a particular instrument to influence our emotions.
Instrumentation is important in determining the range of emotions that can be conveyed.
While the piano has the largest range of pitches, other instruments are limited to a certain subset
of pitches they can produce, which influences the range of emotions their music can evoke. This
is illustrated by the effect of low versus high pitches. A single high note can convey excitement,
while a single low note can evoke sadness (Levitin 26; Bruner, 1990). By extension, an
instrument that is limited to producing high notes (a piccolo, for instance) is predisposed to
evoking happy, animated emotions, while an instrument such as a tuba tends to communicate
more grave and solemn emotions.
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Of course, instruments playing simultaneously have the
ability to produce more nuanced range of emotions.
For many songs, it is not just the absolute pitch (high or low), but the relations in pitch that
are most memorable. The relation in pitch is referred to as melody. The dorsal temporal lobes just
behind the ears are attuned to the distances between pitches, while overall melody is processed

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It is not yet understood why certain pitches have particular emotional effects, only that they do.
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by the cerebral cortex, the higher-level region inside the brain (Levitin 263). Familiar music has
been shown to activate both these regions and the hippocampusa structure in the center of the
brain crucial for memory encoding and retrieval. Melodies are particularly significant in our
ability to recognize music because even when nearly all other elements are manipulated or
changedkey, timbre, pitches, volume, tempo, rhythmwe are still able to recognize a piece of
music by virtue of its relation in pitches. For some songs, it only takes two or three notes for us
to identify what piece it is. The variety of ways McDonalds presents its jingle is an example of
how melody can preserve the identity of a piece of music in our heads even when all else
changes.
There are also downsides to our ability to identify songs by melody, as when a song gets
irritably stuck in our heads (what scientists call ear worms). The best explanation thus far for this
phenomenon is that neural circuits representing a song get stuck in playback mode (Levitin
155). This is more likely to happen to people for whom music is more important than less, and
with simple songs than with complex ones (155; Beaman & Williams, 2010).
While melody can at times distract our thoughts, rhythm will control our bodies. Rhythm
refers to relations in note lengths; its what we tap our foot to. Processing rhythm is one of the
many functions of the cerebellumthe most primitive part of the human brain (Levitin 263).
Our reaction to rhythm in music, therefore, is a reflection of our ancient roots, when the
cerebellum was the primary region of the brain that processed music.
This evolutionary element helps to account for the development in our musical tastes. The
music of our distant ancestors was heavily rhythmic (Levitin 263). As our brains evolved, so did
our tastes in music. With the development of the cerebral cortex, melody began playing an
increasingly important role in the music many people liked. Nevertheless, our receptiveness to
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rhythm has not waned and continues to move us. Thus, the most rhythmic types of musicrock,
metal, and hip-hopare the most popular genres in the world, and have been for the last twenty
years (Levitin 263). Their rise in popularity corresponds to the decline in the popularity of
classical music. Composition of contemporary classical music (within the last forty years) is
mostly limited either to universities and conservatories or for film. While the latter sounds more
like what we think of as classical music (i.e. like Rachmaninoff, Gershwin, etc.), it is hardly
ever the subject of directed listening. The former type is difficult for the average listener
because it pushes the boundaries of tonality (263). The reality is that it is rarely performed by
symphony orchestras and the public is hardly aware it even exists. As fewer and fewer people are
exposed to the newest classical music, it becomes more difficult for them to appreciate it and
will result in it eventually fading away. In a sense, by indulging our love of rhythm, at the
expense of classical music, it might seem as though were de-evolving in our musical tastes.
How notes group rhythmically is determined by their loudness. Loudness is represented by
the amplitude (height) of the sound waves. Amplitude is measured in decibels (dB). Some
landmark dB levels include a typical conversation in a room (75 dB), a classical music concert
(100 dB), a rock concert (120 dB), and the threshold of pain (126 dB) (Levitin 71). Loudness
greatly contributes to the sensations and emotions we feel from music. Indeed, playing the same
melody at different volumes can convey very different meanings. One of the signature elements
underlying the thrill of rock concerts is their loudness. The reason could have to do with the fact
that loud music is known to saturate the auditory system, causing neurons to fire at their
maximum rate. This could lead to a qualitatively different brain state from one during normal
volumes (71).
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Beyond the effects of the structural elements in music, the physical development of our brain
as we age further influences the music we come to like. In a way, the music were exposed to
over the course of our upbringing (prior to adulthood, while the brain is developing) is hardwired
into our neural circuits and becomes the music we prefer in the future (Levitin 233). The process
of enculturation and formation of musical preference begins in the womb. Studies have revealed
that music can be perceived as early as the latter stages of embryonic development, with infant
ears becoming fully functioning four months before birth. In fact, newborns will even prefer the
music they heard during this stage (227). All things being equal, however, infants will prefer
quicker music to slower music, and consonance over dissonance (which are, interestingly,
processed in separate parts of the brain) (227).
Young children will start showing preference for the music of their culture by around age
two. This is the same time they begin to develop specialized speech processing (Levitin 230).
The music children initially gravitate towards is relatively simple
4
because their brains
specifically the cingulate gyrus and the orbitofrontal regionsare not sufficiently developed to
enable them to filter out unwanted or distracting stimuli.
5
Indeed, the frontal lobes and the
anterior cingulatea structure just behind the frontal lobes that directs attentionare not fully
formed in children, leading to an inability to pay attention to several things at once; children
show difficulty attending to one stimulus when distracters are present (230).
As they grow older and the attention systems in their brains develop, children prefer
increasingly complex music. There appears to be a direct positive correlation between the
complexity of an artistic work and how much we like it (Levitin 234). Complexity, of course, is a

4
Simple, here, refers to music that has clearly defined themesand chord progressions that resolve in
direct and easily predictable ways (Levitin 230).
5
This further accounts for the powerful effect commercials have on children, who are not able to filter
and discriminate as easily the information they receive from different sources.
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very subjective notion, but it speaks to the importance of expectations in the formation of our
preferences for a piece of music. If a song is too predictable, the brain bores of it. Our
expectations for a piece of music are based on the cognitive schemas we form. Schemas refer to
the frameworks the brain creates within which it places the elements that are common to multiple
situations (115). Schemas are, in other words, extensions of our memory and they determine
what is familiar to us. Things become familiar to us the more often we think about themthe
more we cue the memory associated with that thing. These cues activate the retrieval and
recollection circuits in our memory banks. The more we activate these circuits, the easier it
becomes to access the memories associated with them. In theory, if we only had the right cues,
we could access any past experience (165). This concept implies that the schemas we form
around pleasing musical experiences enable similar experiences in the future to be pleasing to us
as well (117).
We automatically form schemas about everything, including music. Infants begin forming
musical schemas in the womb, and by age five theyve learned to recognize chord progressions
in the music of their culture (Levitin 117). The schemas our brain forms for music encompass
numerous factors that shape our expectations, including genres, rhythms, phrase structure, song
length, style, chord progression, and timbre. In a social sense, our musical schemas might even
include the values we associate with the people who listen to certain kinds of music. While this
doesnt necessarily mean we can identity these elements in the music we hear, the schemas do
subconsciously shape our expectations when it comes to music. These expectations help
determine how we engage with different songs.
Adults are more likely to remember the music they heard during their teenage years. This is
because adolescence tends to be marked by more emotional experiences and emotional
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experiences are more deeply ingrained into our memory banks. The hippocampus has been
shown to be particularly active during emotionally charged timesthat is, when the emotional
center in our brainsthe amygdalais active (Levitin 167).
The teenage period of music listening is most significant from a neurological sense because
this is when individuals begin to take a real interest in exploring their musical preferences before
their solidification just prior to adulthood. More accurately, while there isnt exactly a cutoff
point for acquiring new tastes in music, people have more or less settled on their tastes by the
age of 18 or 20. This has to do with myelination and the pace at which our brains form new
neural connections. Myelin is a fatty substance that coats the axons, speeding up synaptic
transmission (Levitin 233). In general, the younger we are, the more rapidly our brains form
new neural connections. The rapidity with which we form new neural connections enables us to
learn easier (our schemas expand at a faster rate). Following adolescence, myelination of the
whole brain is complete (generally by age twenty) and the speed of neural connection formation
slows down. As a result, we increasingly come to prefer the things that are most familiar, while
becoming less open to new experiences. The new music that we listen to becomes incorporated
into the schemas of the music we were listening to during adolescence (233). Thus, adolescence
is the critical period when we solidify our tastes in music (231; North & Hargreaves, 1995, as
cited in North et al. 2000).
In these ways, the brain directly processes and responds to specific structural elements in
music, including pitch, timbre, melody, rhythm, and loudness. Manipulating these elements can
provoke different affective responses. Moreover, through adolescence, brain development with
age is associated with an increase in the rate at which we learn and adjust to external stimuli. The
schemas our brain forms to contextualize our experiences and perceptions are expanding during
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this time, enabling external stimuli to be encoded into memory more easily during adolescence.
Once adulthood hits (around age 20), the rate of neural connection formation slows down,
resulting in, more or less, the solidification of our musical preferences to the extent that the new
music we hear becomes associated with the music we heard during the critical period of
adolescence. Having delineated some of the neurological conditions that affect the way
adolescents engage with music, the next section will discuss some of the social and emotional
functions that music plays for adolescents.
ROLE OF MUSIC FOR ADOLESCENTS
Earlier last year, a horrible tragedy took place at the fraternity where I live. My fraternity
brothers and I were in a state of shock over what happened and had difficulty comprehending the
incident. As if out of habit, I gravitated towards the piano in our living room, and began playing
a piece that was very personal for me, and that enabled me to convey the range of emotions I was
feeling. By way of powerful, exuberant chords, suspenseful themes, and soft, calm melodies, this
piece by Chopin had somehow managed to embody the array of emotions I was feeling
emotions otherwise difficult to articulate.
As an avid piano player, I have come to appreciate the value of music as an effective tool for
self-expression. I have been playing for around eleven years, and have grown increasingly reliant
on playing music (especially classical) as a means of relieving stress, coping with sadness or
anxiety, or conveying excitement. Similarly, adolescents have been turning to music to satisfy
their personal and social needs.
Adolescence presents a time of developmental challenges as we transition from childhood to
adulthood. During adolescence, we thirst for new experiences as we set out to find our own
identity. Music becomes a central part of this endeavor as we discover that it is extraordinarily
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effective as a vehicle for expressing our emotions and values. There is a song we listen to when
were sad, a song for when were excited, and maybe even a song that we fall asleep to. There
are songs that embody our love to party, our attitude towards school, and our experience in
relationships. Moreover, we seek out peers who share our values and emotions. The music we
listen to thus becomes a mark of personal and group identity and distinction (Levitin 232).
There is a sea of literature dealing with the issue of the importance of music to adolescents.
What follows is a brief overview of what some of the researchers have concluded.
In general, music appears to serve a dual purpose for adolescents: individual and social.
Broadly speaking, music functions at the individual level by assisting in mood regulation, which
could include helping adolescents cope, relieve tension, distract from worries, pass time, and
relieve boredom. Musics social function plays a crucial role in the way adolescents connect with
peers and express their identity. Despite these functions, adolescents often do not have specific
goals in mind when they engage with music. Although adolescents rely on music to fulfill their
various individual and social needs, music for them is not a goal in itself. That is, they indulge
their penchant for music more at the intuitive level (as something they just feel like doing), rather
than at the conscious and deliberate one.
Adolescents need for mood regulationconsidered the primary reason for music
consumption (Christoneson & Roberts, 1998)arises out of the emotional unrest engendered by
the developmental challenges adolescents face (Saarikallio & Erkkil, 2007). Through mood
regulation, adolescents endeavor to modify or maintain the occurrence, duration, and intensity of
negative and positive moods (Saarikallio & Erkkil, 2007). Moods, as separate from emotions,
are longer in duration and lack a specific cause (Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Gross, 1998, as cited in
Saarikallio & Erkkil 2007).
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Musics role in adolescents mood regulation is reflective of their need for control. First, for
music to be effective in adolescent mood regulation it needs be entirely voluntary; the volume
and kind of music should be adolescents own choice. This condition in itself is enough for the
musical activity to improve adolescents mood and make them feel better (Saarikallio & Erkkil,
2007). Second, adolescents rely on music to feel that theyre in control of themselves. That is,
music for them plays an instrumental (no pun intended) role in regulating their own moods and
emotions. For instance, adolescents will play peaceful music to calm down, or more animated
music to get energized for an upcoming party. It is worth clarifying that the need for self-control
is an implicit goal for adolescents and that they frame it in terms of something they feel like
doing, rather than something they should do (Saarikallio & Erkkil, 2007).
Adolescents could pursue this need for control through music with music being either in the
background or as the focal point of their activities. Having music playing in the background
while theyre on the computer, doing homework, washing dishes, playing sports, or engaging in
practically any other activity, enables adolescents to alleviate boredom, pass time, boost energy
levels, and improve positive feelings. Adolescents use music to build energy before going out
with friends or in the mornings before school. They also use music to recuperate after a busy day
or to relax before going to sleep. Furthermore, background music helps adolescents to feel
empowered for the moment and broadens their imaginations by prompting them to daydream and
to reflect on past experiences, goals, ambitions, and relationships. For instance, Arnett (1991, as
cited in Arnett 1995: 523) describes heavy metal fans, who are inspired by the music and by
their admiration for heavy metal stars to express an intention to pursue a career in music
themselves. In this way, adolescents are immersed in music virtually all the time, reinforcing
their reliance on it as a mood regulator.
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Music as the focal point of adolescents activities is associated with deeper emotional
experiences. Adolescents in generaland adolescent boys in particulartend to be higher in
sensation seeking than adults (Arnett, 1995: 523). Indeed, adolescents crave the thrills, the
change in energy levels, and the singing and dancing and movement that music inspires. In some
instances, adolescents would turn up the volume so that they could feel the music throughout
their bodies (Saarikallio & Erkkil, 2007). Listening to their favorite songs and the voice of a
singer particularly contributes to adolescents aesthetic enjoyment of music. Such strong
sensations evoked by music are most keenly felt when adolescents are by themselves, so they
could concentrate on the emotional experience created by the music without distractions (though
similar experiences from concerts and parties also take place). In a survey of 2,465 13-14 year-
olds in Britain, North et al. (2000) reported that 60 percent of adolescents normally listen to
music in solitude, as compared to 25 percent who normally listen with friends. Thus,
entertainment, revival, and the experience of strong sensations are important reasons that
adolescents listen to music.
Apart from using music to pass time and to enhance positive emotions, adolescents depend
on music to distract them from negative mood states. When adolescents feel sad or troubled, they
find solace in music by identifying with the artist or the song lyrics, which help them to clarify
their emotions. They take comfort in the connection they feel with the songwriter, who sings
about issues adolescents feel they can relate to, and who they therefore see as someone who
understands their emotions and can advise them on their personal issues (Saarikallio and Erkkil,
2007; Raviv, Bar-Tal, Raviv, & Ben-Horin, 1996, as cited in Miranda & Cael 2009). Moreover,
when they feel angry, irritated, or sad, adolescents tend to prefer listening to peaceful or cheerful
music. At other times, they seek to vent their frustrations through music. Findings by Saarikallio
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and Erkkil (2007) report that the vicarious release of negative emotion through music initially
sustains negative feelings in adolescents, but by providing a channel for them to be released,
eventually leads to improvement in adolescents overall happiness and wellbeing (99). In these
ways, music provides a crucial function in adolescents mood regulation.
Beyond musics function at the individual level, it plays an extraordinary role at the social
level as well. As mentioned earlier, the social function of music is important in adolescents
endeavors to connect with peers and to express their identity. Identity formation refers to the
cultivation of a conception of ones values, abilities, and hopes for the future (Arnett, 1995:
522). Through sharing musical tastes and experiences, adolescents are able to become a part of
musical subcultures, which provide a range of social cognitions, attitudes, values, cultural
symbols, interests, identities, behavioral codes, sources of knowledge, role models, and a sense
of belonging with peers (Miranda & Claes, 2009: 216). North et al. (2000) conceptualize music
as operating somewhat like a badge for adolescents, which they use to express their values,
attitudes, and opinions. Adolescents further rely on this badge to assess others attitudes and
values, and judge them accordingly.
Adolescents generally tend to favor peers who share their musical tastes. Pop and classical
music are two particularly divisive genres with respect to the values they are perceived to
represent. In their study on The Importance of Music to Adolescents, North et al. report some of
the values implied by the two genres. Regardless of gender, the majority of adolescents surveyed
consider playing or listening to classical music to be associated with a desire to please parents or
teachers. Playing or listening to pop music, on the contrary, was perceived to represent a desire
to enjoy the music; to be creative/use their imagination; to relieve boredom; to help get through
difficult times; to be trendy/cool; to relieve tension/stress; to create an image for him/herself; to
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please friends; and to reduce loneliness (2000: 263). Indeed, a large portion of the adolescents
in North et al.s study (2000) expressed a preference for dance music. As another popular genre,
rock music is often tied to fun, putting responsibility on hold, enjoying the moment, and being
dramatic and outrageous with no apology (Snow, 1987: 327, as cited in Arnett, 1995). In these
ways, adolescents associate certain styles of music with particular values and beliefs. These
values and beliefs are used, in a cyclical manner, to formulate their tastes in music based on the
impressions they perceive that others will have of particular musical styles.
Gender also appears to be a significant factor accounting for the role of music for
adolescents. Adolescent girls generally have more positive attitudes towards music than boys, are
more likely to play musical instruments, and attend more concerts (Crowther & Durkin, 1982, as
cited in North et al. 2000). Indeed, while males appear to pay closer attention to the external
impression created by listening and playing music, girls tend to be more interested in meeting
their emotional needs through music (North et al., 2000). Gender distinctions further account for
differences in the importance of music to adolescents relative to other activities. While a
significant proportion of boys and girls prefer engaging with music to virtually all other indoor
activities, boys report that they might rather play computer games, while girls state that they
would rather go shopping (North et al., 2000). Moreover, girls and boys seem to prefer different
instruments, with girls being more inclined to play the flute, piano, and violin, and boys showing
a preference for drums, guitar, and the trumpet (ONeill & Boulton, 1996, as cited in North et al.
2000). Preference for different styles of music further implies different stereotypical notions
based on gender. Girls who express a preference for classical music are considered to be more
attractive and intelligent by males, as opposed to girls preferring heavy metal (Zillmann &
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Bhatia, 1989, as cited in North et al. 2000). Gender is thus a significant factor in determining the
role of music for adolescents.
One remarkable trend is that music has the same function for teens across cultures. The
studies relied upon for this paper involved French Canadians, British, Chinese, Brazilian,
Finnish, and French adolescents, most of whom attested to the powerful effects of music on their
emotions and spoke to the significant role music played in their individual and social domains
(Boer & Fischer, 2010).
It is clear that music fulfills a crucial function for adolescents at both the individual and
social levels, and when its either in the background, or the focal point of their activities. Music
fulfills adolescents need for control. Adolescents rely on music for mood regulation as well as to
connect with peers and to express their identity. Indeed, adolescents are very particular about the
type of music they need to prompt certain moods, based on their desired energy levels and the
specific function of the music at the particular time. Adolescents further rely on music to
communicate their values and emotions to others, and, in turn, to judge others based on the
music they listen to. Gender differences appear to influence the way adolescents respond to
music, as well.
In addition, it is important to clarify here some of the primary connections between
adolescents neurological development and how music functions in their lives. The first section
described the powerful effects that rhythm and loudness can exert on individuals. The section
that succeeded it noted that adolescents enjoy music that has a strong rhythm to ita rhythm that
they could dance to. Thus, pop, rock, rap, and soul were some of the most liked genres among
adolescents (North et al., 2000). Adolescents further reported enjoying the experience of
listening to particularly loud music, which they could feel throughout their bodies. Adolescent
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boys especially seemed to enjoy the physiological sensations produced by music. The gender
differences observed in the role of music for adolescents do not appear to have a neurological
basis, indicating they might be accounted for by sociological forces. The next section integrates
the previous two sections and addresses with the application of music in marketing to adolescent
consumers.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MARKETING TO ADOLESCENTS
Adolescent consumers have been the subjects of an increasing number of consumer research
studies seeking to figure out how to tap into adolescents growing spending power. Teens
represent an increasing segment of the consumer market. Their income (from jobs, allowances,
parents, and gifts) will increase 3.5 percent annually, raising the aggregate teen income to $9.1
billion in 2011 (Brown & Washton, 2008). In addition, just as adolescence is the critical period
for forming ones musical tastes, it is also considered to be the critical period for acquiring ones
purchasing patterns (Moschis & Moore, 1983, as cited in Darley & Johnson 2001). Indeed,
adolescence is the time when many individuals are given freer reign by their parents to spend
money on themselves. With this development, they begin to solidify their brand loyalty (Peter &
Olson, 1990, as cited in Darley & Johnson 2001), offering them another opportunity to express
their values and identitythis time through consumption.
Similarly, music is increasingly becoming recognized as an important stimulus affecting
consumer behavior. Studies have shown that music has the potential to influence consumers
purchase decisions and perceptions of particular brands by evoking emotional responses that
consumers come to associate with brands and their shopping experiences (Alpert & Alpert,
1990). Background music reportedly influences the speed at which people shop, consumers
patience, as well as service and product quality perceptions (Babin and Harris, 2011; Kellaris,
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Cox, & Cox, 1993a; Kellaris, & Rice, 1993b; Bruner, 1990). Marketers can use music in a
variety of different venues and channels, including television, stores, radio and Internet. Having
considered the neuropsychology behind the way we process music, as well as the social and
personal functions of music for adolescents, the implications for marketing to adolescents will
now bediscussed.
For adolescents, the presence of music in stores is generally better than its absence. The
presence of music is necessary for fostering a safe environment for adolescents, particularly
when the music is used for diversion, and to distract them from unpleasant thoughts and feelings.
In silence their minds easily wander. Music prompts adolescents to think of more positive things
(Saarikallio & Erkkil, 2007). The shopping experience, as well, is an opportunity for
adolescents to be immersed in an exciting and fun and active atmosphere. They can connect with
their peers and express their identity by what they buy. Thus, by improving adolescents overall
mood, playing music in stores could, in turn, prompt adolescents to see products in a more
positive light, to feel less price-related inhibitions, and ultimately to have a more pleasant
shopping experience.
Music should, above all, seek to improve adolescents moods. Even if adolescents are not
cognitively involved with the product, they will be more likely to remember the product itself
(Hettena & Ballif, 1981) and to associate it with more positive thoughts if the music
accompanying it produces a positive affective response. Peaceful and cheerful music (Saarikallio
& Erkkil, 2007), popular music (Yalch & Spangenberg, 1988, as cited in Bruner, 1990), as well
as dance music (North et al., 2000) have been generally found to prompt positive affective
responses. The dance music especially appeals to adolescents preference for rhythmic music
(Levitin 263).
Cherny 19
The association between the music in marketing and the products being marketed can be
more effectively instilled in adolescents memory through reliance on specific auditory cues
(melody, rhythm, pitch, timbre, etc.). As mentioned earlier, adolescence is characterized by
emotional and developmental challenges. Adolescents are rapidly forming new neural
connections, at the same time as they try to deal with mood changes and identity formation. This
enhances the effect of external emotional stimuli, making them more likely to be instilled in
adolescents memory banks. Auditory cueswhich are directly incorporated into adolescents
musical schemashelp to active the memories associated with them (Stewart & Furse, 1986, as
cited in Bruner 1990; Levitin 165). This increases recall and comprehension of the product
(Stewart & Furse 1986, as cited in Bruner, 1990). One caveat to this point, however, is that the
repeated exposure to the same auditory cues might neutralize the complexity perceived in the
music, possibly leading to a decline in the musics appeal as it becomes more repetitive (Bruner,
1990).
Given the tendency among adolescents to ascribe particular values to certain types of music
(Bakagiannis & Tarrant, 2006), marketers should be mindful of the values adolescents associate
with the music they employ. Specifically, the values adolescents perceive in the music should be
congruent with the values the marketers want to convey about their product. For instance, the
antipathy among parents to heavy metal music may lead some adolescents to associate heavy
metal music with rebelliousness (Carpentier, Knobloch, & Zillmann, 2003; Bleich, Zillmann, &
Weaver, 1991). A store playing heavy metal music, therefore, would convey to these adolescents
that it represents this value. The effectiveness of this music-value congruency also depends on
the type of products sold in the store and how the adolescents identify with them (Kellaris et al.,
1993a). Playing heavy metal might be appropriate for a store like Monsters of Rock because the
Cherny 20
products it sells are generally consistent with the rebelliousness value (i.e. tattoos, piercings, and
tobacco). Heavy metal would not, however, be appropriate for Sees Candies because (unless
ones parents are vehemently opposed to chocolate), adolescents will not identify candy with
rebelliousness.
In another example, North et al.s study (2000) reported adolescents displaying a negative
attitude towards classical music, perceiving it as a servile attempt to please teachers and parents.
Classical music could thus be used by marketers in an ironic sense (i.e. in the background for a
commercial that is obviously not servile, like a preview for Jackass the movie) or to create an
association with a competitor (i.e. if Apple wanted to portray Microsoft as being boring and
traditional). Associating it with the product being marketed, however, would foster antipathy
towards the product by adolescents due to the negative values they ascribe to classical music.
Pop music, on the other hand, was linked to more positive values, including the aesthetic
enjoyment of music, creativity, reducing boredom, and connecting with friends. Playing it,
therefore, would generally elicit a positive response from adolescents. In this way, marketers
should be mindful of the ways in which adolescents perceive the music they use, such that they
play music that embodies the values they want adolescents to perceive them as having.
Music will have a greater effect on adolescents when it is associated with a product that
provides greater hedonic value for them (relative to functional). Music has already been found to
be particularly effective on consumers when the products under consideration provide greater
hedonic value and when consumers are less cognitively involved with the product (Bruner, 1990;
Alpert & Alpert, 1990). This correlation is greater among adolescents, however, by virtue of
their increased reliance on music to create a positive affect, which is tied to their hedonic
motivation (Saarikallio & Erkkil, 2007). Thus, music is likely to enhance the emotional
Cherny 21
experience adolescents feel in the store when it is used to market products that provide greater
hedonic value.
CONCLUSION
This paper has shown that by understanding the neuropsychology of music, along with the
emotional and social factors underlying the role of music for adolescents, marketers are better
able to harness music in their endeavors to reach the adolescent consumer market. Indeed, the
exceeding importance of music to adolescents makes it a crucial variable in marketing to
adolescent consumers.
Marketers can more effectively utilize music to reach the adolescent consumer market in
numerous ways, only a subset of which was presented in this paper. For one, the mere presence
of music appears to produce positive affective responses among adolescents, with peaceful,
cheerful, popular, and dance music are generally considered to be the most effective types for
doing so. The positive affective reaction such music prompts is more likely to leave adolescents
with a more positive impression of the product being marketed. Auditory cues further assist with
the recall and comprehension of the ads message, though they might account for a decline in the
musics aesthetic appeal. Moreover, adolescents ascribe particular values to music, which they
attribute to the products using that music to market them. Finally, affective responses to music
are likely to be augmented for products that provide greater hedonic value and require less
cognitive involvement.
The emotional, psychological, and social functions of music for adolescents should continue
to be studied by researchers as they apply to the effective use of music in marketing to the
adolescent consumer market. Moreover, the link between the psychology of music and the
Cherny 22
psychology of shopping in adolescence should also be investigated more closely to discover any
parallels that would further suggest more effective marketing strategies.
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