HYDRAULICS

Hydraulics: The subject of hydraulics may be defined as that branch of

engineering science, which deals with water (at rest or at motion). The subject
of fluid mechanics may be defined as the mechanics of fluids (including water).
Properties of liquids: Ordinarily, there is no difficulty in distinguishing a liquid
from a solid or a gas. A solid has a definite shape, which it retains, until
some eternal force is applied to alter it. On the contrary, a liquid ta!es the
shape of a "essel, into which it is poured. On the other hand, a gas
completely fills up the "essel which contains it.
#. Density: The density of a liquid may be defined as the mass per unit
"olume at a standard temperature and pressure. The "ariation in the density
of water, with the "ariation of pressure and temperature, is so small, that
for all practical proposes it is generally neglected. $t is !nown as mass
density or specific mass of the liquid. %ass density is usually denoted by
rho (p).
&. Specific weight of water: The specific weight (briefly written as sp. wt.)
of a liquid may be defined as the weight per unit "olume, at the standard
temperature and pressure. The "ariation in the specific weight of water,
with the "ariation of pressure and temperature, is also so small, that for all
practical purposes, it is generally neglected. $t is also !nown as weight
density and is usually denoted by w. The specific weight of water is ta!en
as #''' liters (
!
or "### $g %
!
or " g % c
!
. $n )$ units the specific
weight of water is ta!en as &'(" $)%
!
.
*. Specific gra*ity of water: The specific gra"ity of a liquid may be defined
as the ratio of its specific weight to that of a standard substance at a
standard temperature. +or liquids, pure water is ta!en as a standard
substance and at , -. the specific gra"ity of water, in the calculation of
#
.ydraulics, +luid mechanics and .ydraulic machines, is ta$en as unity.
As it is a ratio, hence it has no unit.
,. Copressi+ility of liquid: The compressibility of a liquid may be defined
as the "ariation in its "olume, with the "ariation of pressure. The "ariation
in the "olume of water, with the "ariation for pressure, is so small that for
all practical purposes it is neglected.
/. Surface tension of water: $t is the property, which enables it to resist
tensile stress. $t is due to the cohesion between the molecules at the surface
of a liquid. 0hen a glass tube of small diameter is dipped in water, the
water rises up in the tube with an upward conca"e surface. 1ut when the
same tube is dipped in mercury, the mercury depresses down in the tube
with an upward con"e surface. As a result of surface tension, the liquid
surface has a tendency to reduce its surface as small as possible. That is
why the falling drops of rain water become sphere. This property of surface
tension is utili2ed in the manufacturing of lead shots. The molten lead is
made to pass through a sie"e from a high tower, and allowed to fall into
water. The molten lead particles, while descending assume a spherical
shape and solidify in this form, before falling into the water.
3. ,iscosity: 4iscosity is a measure of the resistance to flow or the internal
friction of oil ( fluid. .ea"y oil has high "iscosity, light oil has low
"iscosity and medium oil has medium "iscosity. The "iscosity of oil is
usually specified as the time in seconds that it ta!es for a gi"en amount of
the oil to flow by gra"ity through a standard si2ed orifice at a gi"en
temperature. 4iscosity is in"ersely proportional to temperature. $t
decreases as the temperature rises, and increases as it falls. That is why the
lighter oil is recommended for automobile engines in winter than in
summer. $t also eplains why engines are so hard to start in "ery cold
weather. The "iscosity of an engine lubricating oils should be just
sufficient to ensure hydrodynamic lubrication. $f it is more than this "alue,
&
it will in"ol"e higher power losses due to the increased oil resistance. The
"iscosity is measured by "iscometer. These are #. )aybolt uni"ersal
"iscometer &. 5edwood "iscometer *. 6ngler "iscometer ,. 1arbey
"iscometer. The unit of "iscosity is gi"en as 7seconds saybolt7 or 7seconds
redwood7. Temperature is also specified with the "iscosity.
8. Capillarity of water:
-luid pressure: 0hene"er a liquid is contained in a "essel, it eerts force at the
points on the sides and bottom of the container. This force per unit area is
called pressure. Thus the intensity of pressure p 9 :( a. the direction of this
pressure is always at right angles to the surface, with which the fluid is at
rest, comes in contact.
Pressure head: the pressure at the base of a container containing liquid is the
weight of the liquid. : 9 wh. This equation shows that the intensity of pressure
at any point, in a liquid, is proportional to its depth, from the surface.
Pascal.s law: $t states, 7The intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is
the same in all directions7.
#. Atospheric pressure: $t has been found that the air possesses some
weight. )ubsequently, it was also thought that the air due to its weight
must eert some pressure on the surface of the earth. )ince the air is
compressible, its density is different at different heights. The density for
air has also been found to "ary from time to time due to the changes in its
temperature and humidity. $t is thus ob"ious, that due to these difficulties,
the atmospheric pressure cannot be calculated, as is done in the case of
liquids. .owe"er, it is measured by the height of the column of liquid that
it can support. Atmospheric pressure at sea le"el is #.'* !g(cm
&
. $t can
*
also be epressed as #'.* m of water, in terms of equi"alent water column
or 83 cm of mercury in terms of mercury column.
&. /auge pressure: $t is the pressure, measured with the help of a pressure
measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is ta!en as
datum. Or in other words, the atmospheric pressure on the gauge scale is
mar!ed as 2ero. ;enerally, this pressure is abo"e the atmospheric
pressure.
*. A+solute pressure: $t is the pressure equal to the algebraic sum of
atmospheric and gauge pressures. $t may be noted that if the gauge
pressure is minus (as in the case of "acuum or suctions), the absolute
pressure will be atmospheric pressure minus gauge pressure, e.g. if the
absolute pressure at any point is #.'/' !g( cm
&
and the atmospheric
pressure is #.'* !g( cm
&
. Then the gauge pressure at that point is #./'<
#.'*9 '.,8 !g( cm
&
.
Pressure easuring instruent0
#. Pie1oeter tu+e: $t is the simplest form of manometer, used for
measuring, moderate pressures. $t consists of a tube, open at one end to
the atmosphere, in which the liquid can rise freely without o"erflow. The
height, to which the liquid rises up in the tube, gi"es the pressure head
directly. $f the pressure of a liquid flowing in a pipe is to be found out, the
pie2ometer tube is connected to the pipe. A pie2ometer tube is also not
suitable for measuring negati"e pressure= as in such a case the air will
enter in the pipe through the tube.
&. 2anoeter: A manometer is an impro"ed from of a pie2ometer tube. 0ith
the help of a manometer, we can measure comparati"ely high pressures
and negati"e pressures also. +ollowing are the few types of manometers.
*. Siple anoeter: $s used for measuring high as well as negati"e
pressures. The liquid used in the bent tube or simple manometer is,
,
generally, mercury which is #*.3 times hea"ier than water. .ence it is
suitable for measuring high pressure also.
,. 2icroanoeter: $t is a modified form of manometer, in which cross
sectional area of one of the limbs (say left limb) is made much larger
(about #'' times) than that of the other limb. A micromanometer is used
for measuring low pressures= where accuracy is of much importance.
Though there are many types of micrometers, yet the following two types
are important. #. 4ertical tube micromanometer &. $nclined tube
micromanometer.
/. Differential anoeter: $t is a de"ice used for measuring the difference
of pressures, between two points in a pipe, or in two different pipes.
3. In*erted differential anoeter: $t is particular type of differential
manometer, in which an in"erted ><tube is used. $t is used for measuring
difference of low pressures, where accuracy is the prime consideration. $t
consists of an in"erted ><tube, containing a light liquid whose ends are
connected to the point whose difference of pressures to be found out.
8. 2echanical gauges: 0hene"er a "ery high fluid pressure is to be
measured, a mechanical gauge is best suited for the purpose. A mechanical
gauge is also used for the measurement of pressure in boilers or other
pipes, where tube gauges cannot be con"eniently used. These are:
#. 1ourdon?s tube pressure gauge
&. diaphragm pressure gauge
*. @ead weight pressure gauge.
Centre of pressure: The intensity of pressure, on an immersed surface is not
uniform, but increases with depth. As the pressure is greater o"er the lower
portion of the figure, therefore the resultant pressure,
/
Hydrostatics: The term hydrostatics means the study of pressure, eerted by a
liquid at rest. $t has been obser"ed that the direction of such a pressure is always
at right angles to the surface, on which it acts.
3otal pressure: The total pressure, on an immersed surface may be defined as
the total pressure eerted by the liquid on it.
Centre of pressure: The point, through which the resultant pressure acts, is
!nown as centre of pressure and always epressed in terms of depth from the
liquid surface.
Hydro$ineatics0 The subject of hydro!inematics deals with the study of
"elocity and acceleration of the liquid particles without ta!ing into
consideration of any force or energy.
Rate of discharge: The quantity of a liquid, flowing per second through a
section, of a pipe or a channel, is !nown as the rate of discharge or simply
discharge. $t is generally denoted by 4 5 a'v 9 area "elocity.
$n actual practice the "elocity of a liquid is maimum at the centre of a pipe and
is minimum near the walls. +or al calculations in hydraulics, the a"erage
"elocity of flow at a section is ta!en.
%otion of fluid particles:
#. Lagrangian ethod: $t deals with the study of flow pattern of the
indi"idual particles. $n this method, the path traced by the particle under
consideration with the passage of time is studied in detail.
&. 6ulerian ethod: $t deals with the study of flow pattern of all the
particles simultaneously at one section. $n this method, the paths traced by all
the particles at one section and one time are studied in detail.
3ypes of flow lines: 0hene"er a fluid is in motion, its innumerable particles
mo"e along certain lines depending upon the conditions of flow. Though there
are many types of flow lines, yet the following are important from the subject
point of "iew.
3
Path lines: The path followed by a fluid particle in motion is called a path line.
Thus the path line shows the direction of a particle, for a certain period of time
or between two gi"en sections.
Strea lines: The imaginary line drawn in the fluid, in such a way that the
tangent to which at any point gi"es the direction of motion at the point, is called
stream line. Thus the stream line shows the direction of motion of a number of
particles at the same time.
Strea tu+e: An element of fluid, bounded by a number of stream lines, which
confine the flow, is called stream tube. As there is no mo"ement of fluid across
a stream line, therefore no fluid can enter or lea"e the stream tube ecept at the
ends. $t is thus ob"ious that a stream tube beha"es li!e a solid tube.
Strea$ lines or filaent lines: The instantaneous pictures of the position of all
fluid particles, which ha"e passed through a gi"en point at some pre"ious time,
is called strea! lines or filament lines. +or eample, the line formed by smo!e
particles ejected from a no22le is a strea! line.
-low net: $f we draw stream lines and potential lines for a flow, the pattern
obtained by the intersection of the two sets of lines is called flow net. $t helps in
depicting and analy2ing the beha"iour of irrotational flow. $t will be interesting
to !now, that certain flow phenomenon which can not be easily analysed by
mathematical means may be analysed and studied by drawing flow nets. A flow
net may be constructed by drawing a system of stream lines between the
boundaries by judgement and then a system of equipotential lines, so as to form
a square mesh net.
Unifor flow: A flow, in which the "elocities of liquid particles at all sections
of the pipe or channel are equal, is called a uniform flow. This term is generally
applied to flow channels.
)on unifor flow: A flow, in which the "elocities of liquid particles at all
sections of the pipe or channel are not equal, is called a non<uniform flow.
8
Strealine flow: A flow, in which the "elocity of liquid particle has a definite
path and the paths of indi"idual particles do not cross each other, is called a
streamline flow.
3ur+ulent flow: A flow, in which each liquid particle does not ha"e a definite
path, and the paths of indi"idual particles also cross each other, is called a
turbulent flow.
Steady flow: A flow, in which the quantity of liquid flowing per second is
constant, is called a steady flow. A steady flow may be uniform or non<uniform.
Unsteady flow: A flow, in which the quantity of liquid flowing per second is
not constant, is called unsteady flow.
Copressi+le flow: A flow, in which the "olume and thus the density of the
flowing fluid changes during the flow, is called a compressible flow. All the
gases are, generally, considered to ha"e compressible flows.
Incopressi+le flow: A flow, in which the "olume and thus the density of the
flowing fluid do not change during the flow, is called an incompressible flow.
All the liquids are, generally, considered to ha"e incompressible flow.
Rotational flow: A flow, in which the fluid particles also rotate about their own
aes, while flowing, is called a rotational flow.
Irrotational flow: A flow, in which the fluid particles do not rotate about their
own aes, and retain their original orientations, called an irrotational flow.
7ne8diensional flow: A flow, whose streamline may be represented by a
straight line, is called one<dimensional flow. $t is because of the reason that a
straight streamline, being a mathematical line, possesses one dimension only.
3wo diensional flow: A flow, whose streamlines may be represented by a
cur"e, is called a two dimensional flow. $t is because of the reason that a sa
cur"ed streamline will be along any two mutually perpendicular directions.
3hree diensional flow: A flow, whose streamlines may be represented in
space i.e., along three mutually perpendicular directions, is called three
dimensional flow.
A
Strea function: $t is a function, which describes the form of pattern of flow,
or in other words it is the discharge per unit thic!ness.
6nergy of a liquid in otion
The energy, in general, may be defined as the capacity to do wor!. Though the
energy eists in many forms, yet the following are important.
Potential energy: $t is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by "irtue of its
position. $f a liquid particle is B meters abo"e the hori2ontal datum the potential
energy of the particle will be B meter<!ilogram per !g of the liquid. :otential
head of the liquid, at that point will be B meters of the liquid.
9inetic energy of a liquid particle in motion: it is the energy, possessed by a
liquid particle, by "irtue of its motion or "elocity. $f a liquid particle is flowing
with a mean "elocity of " meters per second, then the !inetic energy of the
particle will be "&(&gm!g per !g of the liquid. 4elocity head of the liquid, at
that "elocity, will be "&(&g meters of the liquid.
Pressure energy of a liquid particle in otion: $t is the energy, possessed by a
liquid particle, by "irtue of its eisting pressure. $f a liquid particle is under a
pressure of p !g per square meter, then the pressure energy of the particle will
be p(w m!g per !g of the liquid, where w is the sp. weight of the liquid.
:ressure head of the liquid under that pressure will be p(w meters of the liquid.
3otal energy of a liquid particle in otion: The total energy of a liquid
particle, in motion, is the sum of its potential energy, !inetic energy and
pressure energy, thus total energy, 6 9B C"&(&g C p(w m!g of liquid.
3otal head of a liquid particle in otion: The total head of a liquid particle in
motion is the sum of its potential head, !inetic head and pressure head. thus
total head, . 9B C "&(&g C p(w m of liquid.
:ernoulli.s equation: $t states, 7+or a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in
a continuous stream, the total energy of a particle remains the same= while the
D
particle mo"es from on e point to another.7 This statement is based on the
assumption that there are no losses due to friction in the pipe.
Thus B C"&(&g C p(w 9 constant
6uler.s equation for otion: The 6uler?s equation for steady flow on an ideal
fluid along a streamline is based on the Eewton?s second law of motion. The
integration of the equation gi"es 1ernoulli?s equation in the form of energy per
unit weight of the flowing fluid. $t is based on the following assumptions:
#. The fluid in non<"iscous (i.e., the friction losses are 2ero)
&. The fluid is homogeneous and incompressible (i.e., mass density of the
fluid is constant.)
*. The flow is continuous, steady and along the streamline.
,. The "elocity of flow is uniform o"er the section.
/. Eo energy or force, ecept gra"ity and pressure forces, is in"ol"ed in the
flow.
,enturieter: $t is an apparatus, for finding out the discharge of a liquid
flowing in a pipe. A "enturimeter, in its simplest form, consists of the following
three parts. -on"ergent cone, throat and di"ergent cone.
7rifice eter: $t is used to measure the discharge in a pipe. And orifice meter,
in its simplest form, consists of a plate ha"ing a sharp edged circular hole
!nown as an orifice. This plate is fied inside a pipe. A mercury manometer is
inserted to !now the difference of pressures between the pipe and the throat.
(i.e. the orifice)
Pitot tu+e: A pitot tube is an instrument to determine the "elocity of flow at the
required point in a pipe or a stream. $n its simplest form, a pitot tube consists of
a glass tube bent through D' degree. The lower end of the tube faces the
direction of the flow. The liquid rises up in the tube due to the pressure eerted
by the flowing liquid. 1y measuring the rise of liquid in the tube, we can find
out the "elocity of the liquid flow.
#'
7rifice: An opening, in a "essel, through which the liquid flows out, is !nown
as an orifice. This hole or opening is called an orifice, so long as the le"el of the
liquid on the upstream side is abo"e the top of the orifice. The usual purpose of
an orifice is the measurement of flow.
,ena contracta: $t has been obser"ed that the jet after lea"ing the orifice gets
contracted. The maimum contraction ta!es place at a section slightly on the
downstream side of the orifice, where the jet is more or less hori2ontal. )uch a
section is !nown as "ena contracta.
Hydraulic coefficients
The following four coefficients are !nown as hydraulic coefficients or
orifice coefficients:
#. Coefficient of contraction: The ratio of area of the jet, at "ena contracta,
to the area of the orifice is !nown as coefficient of contraction. Thus, -c
9 area of jet at "ena contracta ( area of orifice. The "alue "aries slightly
with the a"ailable head of the liquid, si2e and shape of the orifice.
A"erage "alue is about '.3,.
&. Coefficient of *elocity: The ratio of actual "elocity of the jet, at "ena
contracta, to the theoretical "elocity is !nown as coefficient of "elocity.
Thus, -" 9actual "elocity of "ena contracta (theoretical "elocity. The
difference between the "elocities is due to friction of the orifice. $t lies
between .D/D to .DD,. An a"erage "alue of -" is about .D8.
*. Coefficient of discharge: The ratio of a actual discharge through an
orifice to the theoretical discharge, is !nown as coefficient of discharge.
Thus, -
d
9 actual discharge( theoretical discharge 9-
"
-
c
. an a"erage
"alue is about .3&.
##
#. Coefficient of resistance: The ratio of loss of head in the orifice to the
head of water a"ailable at the eit of the orifice is !nown as coefficient of
resistance. Thus -r 9 loss of head in the orifice( head of water. This ta!es
place because the walls of the orifice offer some resistance to the liquid, as
it comes out. The coefficient of resistance is generally neglected, while
sol"ing numerical problems.
6qui*alent si1e of a pipe: )ometimes a compound pipe is required to be
replaced by a pipe of a uniform diameter and of the same length as that of the
compound pipe= such that the loss of head as well as the discharge is the same in
both the cases. The new pipe of uniform diameter is called equi"alent pipe and
its diameter is called equi"alent si2e of the pipe.
)o11le: $t is a tapering mouthpiece, which is fitted to the outlet end of a pipe. A
no22le is, generally, used to ha"e a high "elocity of water, as it con"erts
pressure head into !inetic head at its outlet. A high "elocity of water is required
in fire fighting, mining and power de"elopments.
The power transmitted through the no22le is maimum when the head lost
due to friction in the pipe is equal to #(* of the total supply head.
Assuptions for the effect of *iscosity: 0hile considering the effect of
"iscosity, the following two assumptions are made.
#. 0hen a liquid is in contact with a solid boundary, the liquid particles
(immediately adjacent to the boundary) and the solid boundary does not
eit. Or in other words, if the boundary is at rest the liquid particles are
also at rest. 1ut if the boundary mo"es with some "elocity, the liquid
particles also mo"e with the same "elocity.
&. The shear stress between the two adjacent liquid layers is proportional to
the rate of shear in the direction perpendicular to the motion. Or in other
#&
words if two adjacent layers mo"e with a relati"e "elocity of ", the rate of
shear is "(y. the shear stress between the two liquid layers is also
proportional to " ( y. the shear stress between the two liquid layers is also
proportional to "(y where y is the distance between the two layers.
)ewton.s law of *iscosity: $t states, 7The shear stress on a layer of a fluid is
directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.7
>nits of "iscosity: in -.;.). units, the unit of "iscosity is poise= such that #
poise 9dyne<sec( cm&
)ometimes a small unit centipoises is also used, which is #(#''th of poise.
9ineatic *iscosity: $t is the ratio of absolute "iscosity to the density of the
liquid. $n c.g.s. units, the unit of !inematic "iscosity is sto!e. )uch that # sto!e
9 cm&(sec.
# centisto!e 9#(#''
th
of a sto!e.
Classification of fluids:
The fluids may be classified into the following four types depending upon the
presence of "iscosity.
#. Ideal fluid: A fluid, ha"ing no "iscosity, is !nown as an ideal fluid. $n
actual practice, there is hardly any fluid, as e"ery fluid has some "iscosity.
&. Real fluid: A fluid, ha"ing "iscosity, is !nown as a real fluid. $n actual
practice, all the fluids met with in engineering<science, are real fluids.
*. )ewtonian fluid: A fluid, which obeys the law of "iscosity, is termed as
Eewtonian fluid.
,. )on8)ewtonian fluid: A fluid, which does not obey the Eewton?s law of
"iscosity, is termed as non<Eewtonian fluid. Or in other words, a fluid,
whose "iscosity changes with the rate of deformation of shear strain is
!nown as a Eon<Eewtonian fluid.
#*
Classification of *iscous flows0
The "iscous flows may be classified into the following two types depending
upon the factor, whether the "iscosity is dominating or not.
Lainar flow: $t is a flow, in which the "iscosity of the fluid is dominating
o"er the inertia forces. $t is more or less a theoretical flow, which rarely comes
in contact with the engineers and is also !nown as a "iscous flow. A laminar
flow can be best understood by the hypothesis that the liquid mo"es in the form
of concentric cylinders sliding one within the other. These concentric cylinders
mo"e li!e laminae. )uch a flow ta!es place at "ery low "elocities, is !nown as
laminar flow.
3ur+ulent flow: $t is a flow, in which the inertia force is dominating o"er the
"iscosity. $t is a practical flow which comes in contact with the engineers. $n
this flow the concentric cylinders diffuse or mi with each other and the flow is
a disturbed one. )uch a flow, which ta!es place at high "elocities, is !nown as a
turbulent flow.
Critical *elocity: $t is a "elocity at which the flow changes from the laminar
flow to the turbulent flow. The critical "elocity may be further classified into the
following two types.
Lower critical *elocity: $t has been eperimentally found that when a laminar
flow changes into a turbulent flow, it does not change abruptly. 1ut it has got
some transition period between the two types of flows. Thus a "elocity, at which
the laminar flow stops = or in other words, a "elocity at which the flow enters
from laminar to transition period is !nown as a lower critical "elocity.
Upper critical *elocity: A "elocity, at which the turbulent flow starts= or in
other words, a "elocity at which the flow enters from transition period to
turbulent flow is !nown as an upper critical "elocity or higher critical "elocity.
Reynolds;s nu+er: .e found that the "alue of critical "elocity is go"erned by
the relationship between the inertia force and "iscous forces. .e deri"ed a ratio
of these two forces and found out a dimensionless number !nown as 5eynoldsFs
#,
number. Thus, 5e 9 inertia force ( "iscous forces 9 mean "elocity diameter of
pipe ( !inematic "iscosity of liquid. $f the 5eynolds number for a particular flow
is less than &''', the flow is a laminar flow. 1ut if the 5eynolds number is
between &''' and &A'', it is neither laminar flow nor turbulent flow. 1ut if the
5eynolds number eceeds &A'', the flow is a turbulent flow.
Hagen8Poiseuille law for lainar flow in pipes: 0e ha"e seen that some loss
of head ta!es place, in a laminar flow, due to "iscosity of the flowing liquid.
The equation which gi"es us the "alue of loss of head due to the "iscosity in a
laminar flow is !nown as
Hagen8Poiseuille.s law.
Lu+rication of +earings: The theory of "iscosity has been successfully applied
to the theory of lubrication of machine parts. $t has been eperienced, that
highly "iscous oil leads to a greater resistance, and thus causes a greater power
loss. On the other hand, light oil may not be able to maintain the required film
between the metal surfaces. As a result of this, the metal may come in contact
with the other, which leads to wear of the two surfaces. $t is thus ob"ious, that
the oil used for lubrication should ha"e a correct "iscosity. )ince the "iscosity of
an oil changes with temperature, that is why motorists use oil of different
"iscosities in different seasons.
2ethods for deterination of coefficient of *iscosity: The coefficient of
"iscosity of a liquid may be found out eperimentally by the following four
methods:
#. 1y capillary tube methods.
&. 1y orifice type "iscometer.
*. 1y rotating cylinder method
#/
,. 1y falling sphere method.
Copressi+le flow: $f there is more than /G change in density, the fluid is
treated as compressible fluid.
The physical properties of a gas are controlled by the following three "ariables:
#. :ressure eerted by the gas.
&. 4olume occupied by the gas.
*. Temperature of the gas.
:oyle.s law: $t states that the absolute pressure of a gi"en mass of a perfect gas
"aries in"ersely as its "olume, when the temperature remains constant. :4 9
constant.
Charles. law: $t states, 7The "olume of a gi"en mass of a perfect gas "aries
directly as its absolute temperature, when the pressure remains constant.7
/ay8lussac law: $t states, 7The absolute pressure of a gi"en mass of a perfect
gas "aries directly as its absolute temperature, when the "olume remains
constant.7
/eneral gas equation: $n actual practice, all the three "ariables i. e., pressure,
"olume and temperature change simultaneously. $n order to deal with all
practical cases, the 1oyle?s law and -harles? law are combined together, which
gi"e us the general gas equations in the following two types. :4(T 9constant or
:4 9m 5T (the "alue of 5 is &A8 H( !g I in )$ units. And &D.& !g<m(!g I.
Specific heats of a gas: The specific heat of a substance may be broadly
defined as the amount of heat required to heat a unit mass of a substance
through # degree rise in temperature. All the liquids and solids ha"e only one
#3
specific heat. 1ut a gas may ha"e any number of specific heats (say infinite.)
depending upon the conditions, under which it is heated. The two specific heats
of a gas are:
Specific heat at constant *olue: The amount of heat required to raise a unit
mass of the gas through # degree, when its "olume remains constant, is !nown
as specific heat at constant "olume and is denoted by -". therefore the heat
added to the gas, . 9m -" ( T&<T#)
Specific heat at constant pressure: The amount of heat required to raise a unit
mass of the gas through # degree, when its pressure remains constant, is !nown
as specific heat constant pressure, and is denoted by -p. Thus the heat added to
the gas, . 9 m-p (T&<T#).
5elation between specific heats: -p<-" 9 5(H
" 9 -p (-". -p 9 " 5 (H ("<#) The "alue of 5 and " depends upon the type of
gas and its temperature. The "alue of " for air at usual temperature is ta!en as
#.,.
Isotheral process: A process, in which the temperature of the wor!ing
substance, i.e., gas remains the same during its epansion or compression, is
called an isothermal process. Thus for an isothermal process,
#. there is no change in temperature, and
&. there is no change in internal energy.
An isothermal process is go"erned by 1oyle?s law, thus, the isothermal equation
of a perfect gas is gi"en by :4 9 constant. The heat absorbed by the gas during
isothermal process is equal to the wor! done by the gas. The wor! done during
an isothermal epansion is gi"en by the relation, w 9 &.* :#4# log r
#8
Adia+atic process: A process in which the wor!ing substance, i.e., gas, neither
recei"es nor gi"es out any heat to its surroundings during its epansion or
compression, is called an adiabatic process. Thus an adiabatic process:
#. Eo heat lea"es or enters the gas.
&. The temperature of the gas changes, as the wor! done is at the cost of
internal energy.
The change in internal energy is equal to the mechanical wor! done. The
adiabatic equation of a perfect gas is :4 9constant. Thus :
#
( :
&
9 (4
&
( 4
#
) ".
T
#
( T
&
9 (4
&
(4
#
) "<# T& (T# 9 ( :
&
( :
#
) "<#("
$f the adiabatic process is re"ersible, it is called an isentropic process. The
equation for isentropic process is the same as that of adiabatic process.
:ul$ odulus of a fluid: The bul! modulus of a fluid is the ratio between the
increase of pressure, and the "olumetric strain, caused by this pressure increase.
$t may be noted that this ratio is applied to liquids and gases. Thus, bul!
modulus I 9 < dp ( (d4(4).
3ypes of flow
Su+sonic flow: 0hen the %ach number is less than unity, the flow is called a
subsonic flow.
Sonic flow: 0hen the %ach number is equal to unity, the flow is called a
supersonic flow.
Supersonic flow: 0hen the %ach number is between # and 3, the flow is called
a supersonic flow.
Hypersonic flow: 0hen the %ach number is more than 3, the flow is called a
hypersonic flow.
Stagnation pressure: A point in the flow, where the "elocity of the fluid is 2ero,
is called a stagnation point= the pressure at the stagnation point is always high.
JJ The head measured by :itot tube is only the "elocity head of the flowing
stream.
#A
-low around iersed +odies: 0hen a solid body is held in the path of a
mo"ing fluid and is completely immersed in it, the body will be subjected to
some pressure or force. -on"ersely, if a body is mo"ed with a uniform "elocity
through a fluid at rest, it offers some resistance to the mo"ing body, or the body
has to eert some force to maintain its steady mo"ement. $t is thus ob"ious, that
when a submarine mo"es through the water or an aeroplane flies through the
atmosphere, its engine must supply a sufficient force not only to run it, but also
to balance the resistance offered.
)ewton.s law of resistance: $t states, 7The force eerted by a mo"ing fluid on
an immersed body is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum
due to the presence of the body.7 %athematically, : 9 wa4&(g
The abo"e law of resistance is based on the following assumptions:
#. The planes of the body are completely smooth.
&. The space around the body is completely filled with the fluid.
*. The fluid has a large number of fine particles ha"ing mass, but no
dimension.
,. The fluid particles do not eert any influence on one another.
/. The body eperiences impacts from all the particles in its path.
Drag: 0hene"er a plate is held immersed at some angle with the direction of
flow of the liquid, it is subjected to some pressure. As this pressure acts at right
angles to the plate, therefore it will ha"e some component (i) in the direction of
flow of the liquid and (ii) at right angles to the direction of flow of the liquid.
The component of this pressure, in the direction of flow of the liquid, is !nown
as drag.
Therefore, @rag 9 :@ 9 wa4& sin a ( &g 9 I@. wa4& (&g. $ts "alue depends
upon the type of plate and the angle of inclination of the plate which is
determined eperimentally.
#D
Lift: The component of this pressure at right angle to the direction of flow of
the liquid is !nown as lift.
Therefore, Kift, :K 9 wa4&cosa (&g 9 IK. wa4& ( &g. 0here, IK is a
coefficient, !nown as coefficient of lift. $ts "alue depends upon the type of plate
and the angle of inclination of the plate, which is determined eperimentally.
The resultant force on the body, 5 9 (:@& C:K& ). /
Air foil theory: The practical utility of the forces drag and lift is deri"ed in
running sea ships, submarines and aeroplanes. The coefficient of drag and
coefficient of lift depends upon the angle of inclination of the plate with the
"ertical. $n actual practice the angle of inclination depends upon the geometrical
position of the body, with respect to its motion. $n practical aeronautics, we are
always interested in airfoils, in which the resulting force is nearly perpendicular
to the direction of flow. $n this case, the lift is great and the drag is small. )ince
the lift ser"es the purpose of supporting the aeroplanes, therefore more the lift
the better it is. %oreo"er, the drag is a necessary e"il, which has to be
compensated for by the propeller thrust. $t has been eperimentally found that if
a flat plate is inclined at about < degree, the ratio of force of lift to the force of
drag is about =. $n order to increase this ratio, the plate is gi"en a light cur"ature
or camber gi"es twice the ratio of these forces than the flat plate. This ratio is
further increased by nicely rounding off the front end of the plate and pro"iding
a sharp edge to the tail of plate. $n this way it is possible to ha"e lift<drag ratio
of e"en ># or more. The abo"e theory is !nown as air foil theory.
:oundary layer separation: 0hen a body is held immersed in a flowing
liquid, a thin layer of the liquid will beha"e, as if it is fied to the boundary of
the body. 1ut if the immersed body is a cur"ed or angular one, the boundary
layer does not stic! to the whole surface of the body. The boundary layer lea"es
the surface and gets separated from it. This phenomenon is !nown as boundary
&'
layer separation. The point, where the boundary layer gets separated from the
surface of the body, is !nown as point of separation.
2agnus effect: -onsider a liquid ha"ing streamline flow from left to right. $f
we introduce a cylinder in the path of the streamlines, we shall see that the
boundary layer has adhered to the surface of the cylinder throughout. Eow let
the cylinder be rotated about its longitudinal ais. The rotating motion of the
cylinder will de"iate the streamlines. This phenomenon of de"iating the
streamlines by the rotating cylinder is !nown as %agnus effect.
Pre*ention of +oundary layer separation: The separation of boundary layer in
a turbulent flow may be pre"ented in order to ha"e the reduced drag. %any
methods ha"e been suggested to pre"ent the separation of boundary layer. 1ut
the following are important.
:oundary layer theory: The liquid in the "icinity of the surface of the body
may be di"ided into the following two portions:
A "ery thin layer of the fluid, which is in the immediate contact of the body.
This layer of the fluid beha"es li!e a thin coating, as if it is fied or glued to the
boundary of the body. )ince this thin layer of the fluid acts in such a way, as if
its inner surface is fied to the boundary of the body, therefore "elocity of the
fluid at the boundary is 2ero. )uch a thin layer of the fluid is !nown as boundary
layer.
$f we go away from the surface of the body, normal to the flow of the fluid
7:?6C3I,6 4U6S3I7)S:
#. A perfect gas is one < 0hich satisfies the relation :4 9 n5T.
&. An ideal fluid is < +rictionless and incompressible.
&#
*. An ideal flow of any fluid must fulfil < continuity equation.
,. The "elocity of fluid particle at the centre of the pipe section is <
%aimum.
/. The stress strain relation of the Eewtonian fluid is < Kinear.
3. The units of !inematic "iscosity are < m
&
(sec.
8. The units of dynamic "iscosity are < Eewton<sec( m
&
.
A. The units of surface tension are < 6nergy ( unit area. 9 Houle ( m
&
.
D. @ensity in terms of "iscosity is < @ynamic "iscosity ( Iinematic "iscosity.
#'. Eewton?s law of "iscosity relates < shear stress and rate of angular
deformation in a fluid. L 9 M du / dy
##. )$ unit of "iscosity is < #' times poise.
#&. )hear stress can ne"er occur in frictionless fluid regardless of its motion.
#*. The upper critical 5eynolds number is < About &'''.
#,. The 5eynolds number for pipe flow is gi"en by < p4@( M
#/. The 5eynolds number is defined as Re 5 inertia force % *iscous force.
#3. The 0eber number is the ratio of NNN.. $nertia forces to surface
tension and is gi"en by 4(" s(:K
#8. +roude number is useful in calculationsNNN. .ydraulic jump.
#A. The normal stress is the same in all directions at a point in fluidNNNN
when there is no motion of one layer relati"e to an adjacent layer.
#D. 0hen a "enturimeter is used in an inclined position, it will showNNN
same reading.
&'. The critical depth on a channel is gi"en byNN.. h 9"
&
(g
&#. The bul! modulus of elasticity NN.. $s larger when the fluid is more
compressible.
&&. One poise is equi"alent to NNN. # dyne sec(cm&.
&*. if a barometer carries water instead of mercury, the height of column for a
pressure equi"alent to 8/ cm of mercury will be NNN #'&' cm ( 8/
#*.3 DA#'(DA#')
&&
&,. %ass density of a liquid is gi"en byNN.. O 9mass ("olume.
&/. $n a flowing fluid, a particle may possess NNN. $nertia energy, pressure
energy, !inetic energy, ele"ation or gra"itational energy,
&3. A barometer is used to measure NN atmospheric pressure.
&8. mercury is generally used in barometer becauseNN of higher density
due to which the height of barometer is less, it has practically 2ero "apour
pressure, it shines and can be easily read, it does not stic! to the tube
walls.
&A. One atm. :ressure is equi"alent to NNNN.. #.'#*#/ #'/E(m&, 8''
mm .g, #.'#** #'/ !g(m<sec&, #.'#** #'3 gm(cm<sec&.
&D. A simple pitot tube is used to measure N. The "elocity in a flowing
stream.
*'. The flow of water in a pipe of diameter *''' mm can be measured by
NNN.. :itot tube.
*#. A fluid is a substance that NNNNN. -annot remain at rest under
action of any shear force.
*&. An ideal flow of any liquid must fulfil NNNN 1ernoulli?s equation.
**. The continuity equation N.. relates the mass rate of flow along a stream
line.
*,. The equation of continuity of flow is applicable when N.. the flow is one
dimensional, the flow is steady, the flow is compressi"e, the "elocity is
uniform o"er the cross section .
*/. One dimensional flow is N flow which neglects changes in a trans"erse
direction.
*3. >niform flow occurs when NNN at e"ery point the "elocity "ector is
identical in magnitude and direction for any gi"en instant.
*8. )teady flow occurs when N. -onditions do not change with time at any
point.
&*
*A. $f the particles of a fluid attain such "elocities that "ary from point to
point in magnitude and direction as well as from instant to instant, the
flow is said to beNN.turbulent flow.
*D. The equation of continuity of flow is based on the principle of
conser"ation of NNN mass.
,'. The general energy equation is applicable to NNNNN.. )teady flow.
,#. $f the %ach number of a flow is * the flow is !nown as N.supersonic.
,&. A control "olume refers to NN. A fied region in space.
,*. +or smooth turbulent flow the friction factor "aries as NNN.. E5#(,
,,. The pressure centre is N.. a point on the line of action of the resultant
force.
,/. The hydraulic gradient is equal to NNN. .ead loss due to friction( total
length of channel.
,3. The hydraulic mean depth of a pipe, not running full, is gi"en byNm
9r&(O<sin O)(& r O
,8. A fluid, in which resistance to deformation is independent of the shear
stress, is !nown asN.. Eewtonian fluid.
,A. )teady flow is motion in which NNNNN "elocity is independent of
time.
,D. >niform flow is motion whoseN "elocity is the same at e"ery point.
/'. The principle, 7the buoyancy is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
and the line of action is through the centroid of the displaced mass is
!nown as NNN. Archimedes principle.
/#. $f a centrifugal pump ta!es too much power, the cause may be NN.
.ea"y liquid.
/&. $n a centrifugal pump the pressure energy of water is increased because of
NNN-entrifugal force.
/*. A Iaplan turbine is suitable for NNNN.low head high discharge.
&,
/,. $nput to a reciprocating pump may be calculated from (.) head, and
discharge P m*(sec as N..0P.(8/
//. $n case of forced "orte NNN. 4elocity increases with radius.
/3. #'/ E(m& pressure is equi"alent to N. JJJ#'#
/8. The distance r from the centre of a tube of radious r' where the a"erage
"elocity occurs in laminar flow is NNNN. .8'8 r'.
/A. $n a turbulent flow in a pipe we !now the NNshear stress "aries linearly
with the flow rate.
/D. %inor loss in a piping system are NNN. +ound by using loss
coefficient.
3'. The head loss in a pipe flow can be calculated by usingNN. The @arcy
0eisbach equation.
3#. :ressure drag results from NNNN.. Occurrence of a wa!e.
3&. A surge wa"e is an eample of NNNN. >nsteady non uniform flow.
3*. The "elocity distribution in a turbulent flow in a pipe is often assumed to
NN "ary according to the #(8th power law.
3,. The parameters which determine the friction factor of turbulent flow in a
rough pipe areNN 5eynolds number and relati"e roughness.
3/. 4iscosity has dimension of NNNN. %(KT
33. 0ater turbine may be put in the decreasing order of specific
speedNNNN propeller turbine, reaction turbine, impulse turbine.
38. in .agen<:oiseuille flow of "iscous liquid, one of the following pairs of
forces stri!e a balance NNN.inertia and "iscous forces.
3A. 5eynolds number 9 inertia force ( "iscous force, weber number 9 inertia
force (surface tension force, %ach number 9 inertia force (elastic force,
+roude number 9 inertia force( gra"ity.
3D. mouthpieces are used to measure N.. 5ate of flow.
8'. The rate of flow through a "enturimeter "aries asNNN." ..
8#. Total drag on a body is the sum of NNN friction drag and "elocity drag.
&/
8&. The pressure gradient in a de"eloped turbulent flow in a hori2ontal pipe
N.. is constant.
8*. $n an isothermal atmosphere the pressure NNN.. @ecreases
eponentially with ele"ation.
8,. The "iscosity of a fluid "aries with NNN.. Temperature.
8/. The shear stress in a turbulent pipe flowNNN. $s 2ero at the centre and
increases as linearly to the wall.
83. $f the +roude number in open channel flow is equal to #, the flow is
!nown as NN streaming flow.
88. %odel analysis of aeroplanes and projectiles mo"ing at supersonic speed
are based on NN %ach number.
8A. 0ater hammer in pipes ta!es place when... flowing fluid is J J J
8D. +ind the odd man outNNNN. :ressure, unit shear stress, energy,
modulus of elasticity.
A'. A stream line NNNN is fied in space in space flow.
A#. To determine the reser"oir storage capacity for a gi"en uniform demand,
one of the following data is most usefulN mass cur"e of the flow "olume
for se"eral consecuti"e years.
A&. )tanton diagram is a plot of NNN. Kog of factor against log of
5eynolds number.
A*. @rag force is not a function of NNN mass density of the body.
A,. @ynamic "iscosity: :oise: Iinematic "iscosity: stro!e.
A/. >sing pressure :, flow rate P, diameter @, and density d, which of the
following represents a dimensionless groupO NN.. :@,(dP*
A3. As the temperature increases, the "iscosity of a gas N.. $ncreases, and
that of a liquid decreases.
A8. The locus of ele"ations that water will rise in a series of pitot tubes is
calledNN. The energy grade line.
&3
AA. The flow of a fluid in a pipe ta!es place fromNN.. .igher energy to
lower energy.
AD. 0hen the fluid is at rest, the shear stress is NNNN2ero.
D'. 1luff body NNN. )urface does not coincide with streamlines.
D#. $n a completely turbulent flow the head lossNNN..increases with the
"elocity squared.
D&. +or a supersonic flow, "elocityNNN.. $ncreases with increase in area of
flow.
D*. The maimum "elocity through a circular channel ta!es place when the
depth of flow is equal to NN .A# times the diameter.
D,. $n an open channel, under critical depth NN.. )pecific energy is
minimum.
D/. $n an open channels, under critical flow conditions, the "elocity head is
equal to NNhalf the depth of flow.
D3. a hydraulic jump is classified on the basis of initialNNN. +roude
number.
D8. $n a mied flow turbine water enters NN. 5adially and lea"es aially.
DA. A draft tube con"ertsNN. Iinetic energy into mechanical energy.
DD. :riming is required in NNNNN..centrifugal pumps.
#''. $n case the "elocity "ector at different points along a stream line remains
unchanged then the flow is termed asNN. >niform flow.
#'#. The eistence of "elocity potential in fluid indicates thatNNN
#'&. $n the case of laminar flow, the friction factor f is independent of the
relati"e roughness and is only a function of the 5eynolds number 5e. f is
equal to N. 3,( 5
#'*. $n the case of :enton wheel turbine installed in a hydraulic power plant,
the gross head a"ailable is the "ertical distance betweenN. 5eser"oir
le"el and turbine inlet.
#',. +or pumping molasses, it is preferable to employN. Open impeller pump.
&8
#'/. $n the case of a centrifugal pump, ca"itation will occur ifN. $t operates
below the minimum net positi"e suction head.
#'3. A simple pitot tube can be used to measure which of the following
quantitiesN )tatic head, @ynamic head, Total head.
#'8. +or flow through a hori2ontal pipe, the :ressure gradient dp( d in the
flow direction is N. < 4e.
#'A. 0hich of the following sets of conditions clearly apply to an ideal fluidN
non"iscous and incompressible fluid.
#'D. $n the region of the boundary layer nearest to the wall where "elocity is
not 2ero, the "iscous forcesN..are less than inertia forces.
##'. The reali2ation of "elocity potential in fluid flow indicates that the N
flow must be irrotational.
###. -hances of occurrence of ca"itation are high if the N. Kocal pressure
falls below the "apour pressure.
##&. A fully de"eloped laminar "iscous flow through a circular tube has the
ratio of maimum "elocity to a"erage "elocity asN&.
##*. The 6uler?s equations of motion for the flow of an ideal fluid is deri"ed
considering the principle of conser"ation of N. %ass and the fluid as
incompressible and in"iscid.
##,. +low separation at a solid surface ta!es place due to N decrease in
pressure along the flow direction.
##/. +or attaining a non<o"erloading characteristic in centrifugal pumpsN
bac!ward bent "anes are preferred o"er forward bent "anes.
##3. -a"itation in hydraulic machines occurs at the N.. 6it of the pump and
eit of a turbine.
##8. @uring the flow o"er a circular cylinder, the drag co<efficient drops
significantly at a critical 5eynolds number of & #' /. This is due toN.
6cessi"e momentum loss in the boundary layer.
&A
Objective Question-2:
#. $n 5ed wood "iscometer Q comparison of "iscosity is done.
&. A fluid is a substance that Q has the same shear stress at a point regardless
of its motion.
*. -entre of buoyancy is Q -entroid of displaced "olume fluid.
,. Kength of mercury column at a place at an altitude will "ary with respect
to that at ground in a Q manner first slowly and then steeply.
/. $n isentropic flow, the temperature Q cannot eceed the reser"oir
temperature.
3. 0hen power is transmitted through a considerable distance by means of
water under pressure, the maimum power is transmitted when friction
loss of head is Q one third of the total head supplied.
8. A stream line is Q +ied in space in steady flow.
A. A rotameter is a de"ice used to measure Qflow of fluids.
D. An ideal fluid Q +rictionless and incompressible.
#'. The speed of sound in a perfect gas ha"ing temperature <T, is gi"en by R
I5T.JJJ, R!5(T, where, ! 9 ratio of specific heat capacities, 5 9 ;as
constant, T 9 absolute temperature.
##. 5eynolds number for pipe flow is gi"en by Q p"@ ( S.
#&. 0ith rise in gas temperature, dynamic "iscosity of most of the gases Q
increases.
#*. The flow of water in a pipe of diameter *''' mm can be measured by Q
:itot tube.
#,. The continuity equation Q relates the mass rate of flow along a stream
line.
#/. Apparent shear forces Q can ne"er occur in frictionless fluid regardless of
its motion, can ne"er occur when the fluid is at rest, and depends upon
cohesi"e forces.
&D
#3. Of the following dimensionless parameter is Q :ressure coefficient,
+roude number, @arcy 0eisbach friction factor.
#8. 0eber number is the ratio of Q inertia forces to surface tension.
#A. One dimensional flow Q neglects changes in a trans"erse direction.
#D. )teady flow occurs when Q conditions donFt change with time at any
point.
&'. A flow in which each liquid particle has a definite path and their paths do
not cross each other is called Q )treamline flow.
&#. 6quation of continuity of fluid is applicable only when the flow is Q
steady, one dimensional, compressi"e.
&&. 1uoyant force is Q equal to the "olume of liquid displaced by the body.
&*. $n a rectangular notch, the ratio of percentage error in
discharge(measurement of head is Q *(&.
&,. -a"itations is caused by Q Kow pressure.
&/. $f the particles of a fluid attain such "elocities that "ary from point to
point in magnitude and direction as well as from instant, the flow is Q
Turbulent flow.
&3. The general energy equation is applicable to < )teady flow.
&8. $n a turbulent flow in a pipe Q shear stress *aries linearly with radius.
&A. The friction resistance in pipe is proportional to "
&
according to < +roude
number.
&D. $n laminar flow, a@iu *elocity at the centre of pipe is how many
times to the a*erage *elocity Q 3wo.
*'. :itot tube is used to measure the "elocity head of Qflowing fluid.
*#. A sharp edged obstruction o"er which the flow of a fluid ta!es place is Q
Orifice.
*&. $n equilibrium condition, fluids are not able to sustain Q )urface tension.
**. $f 4
#
and 4
&
be the "elocity at inlet and outlet, then loss of head due to
sudden enlargeent is proportional to Q A,
"
8 ,
>
B
>
.
*'
*,. The pressure coefficient may ta!e the form Q T :((U "
&
(&).
*/. +low occurring in a pipeline when a "al"e is being opened is Q >nsteady.
*3. The non dimensional number go"erning frictional resistance is Q %ach
number.
*8. Total pressure on #m #m gate immersed "ertically at a depth of & m
below the free surface will be Q #''' !g.
*A. The general equation of continuity for three dimensional flow of a
compressible fluid for steady flow is Q du(d C d"(dy C dw(d2 9 '.
*D. A large 5eynolds number is indication of Q .ighly turbulent flow.
,'. Eon uniform flow occurs when Q"elocity, depth, pressure, etc. changes
point to point in the fluid flow.
,#. $n steady flow of a fluid, the acceleration of any fluid particle is Q Bero.
,&. +or measuring flow by a "enturimeter, it should be installed in Q any
direction and in any location.
,*. +roude number is significant in Q )imultaneous motion through two
fluids where there is a surface of discontinuity, gra"ity forces, and wa"e
ma!ing effect, as with shipFs hulls.
,,. The fluid forces considered in the Ea"ier )to!es equation are Q ;ra"ity,
pressure and "iscous.
,/. The flow in "enturiflume ta!es place at Q atmospheric pressure.
,3. The depth of the centre of pressure in rectangular lamina of height h with
one side in the liquid surface is at Q &h(*.
,8. %aimum discharge o"er a broad crested weir is Q #.8# -
d
K.
*(&
.
,A. 5eynolds number is significant in Q +ull immersion or completely
enclosed flow, as with pipes, aircraft wings, no22les etc.
,D. Two dimensional flow occurs when the Q fluid particles mo"e in a plane
or parallel planes and the streamline patterns are identical in each plane.
/'. A streamline is defined as the line Q of equal "elocity in a flow.
*#
/#. %ach number is significant in Q supersonics, as with projectiles and jet
propulsion.
/&. A piece of wood ha"ing weight / !g floats in water with 3'G of its
"olume under the liquid. The specific gra"ity of wood is < .3.
/*. A piece of metal of specific gra"ity 8 floats in mercury of specific gra"ity
of #*.3. 0hat fraction of its "olume is under mercury < ./#/. ($f 4 is the
"olume of metal and is fraction under mercury, then x 4 ( 4 9 8 ( #*.3.
/,. +or an irrotational flow the equation C
>
%C @
>
D
>
%C y
>
is !nown as Q
Kaplace 6quation.
//. )eparation of flow occurs due to reduction of pressure gradient to Q the
etent such that "apour formation starts.
/3. The magnitude of water hammer depends on the Q length of pipeline,
speed at which the "al"e is closed, elastic properties of the liquid flowing
through the pipe and pipe material.
/8. %ercury is suitable for manometers because it< is generally not used in
manometers.
/A. A critical depth meter is always associated with Q .ydraulic jump.
/D. %otion of a fluid in which the fluid mass rotates without the eternal
force is !nown as Q +ree "orte motion.
3'. $n parallel pipe problems, < head losses through each pipe are added to
obtain the total head loss.
3#. The continuity equation of flow is based on the principle of conser"ation
of Q energy.
3&. A simple pitot tube is used to measure Q 4elocity is a flowing stream.
3*. A right circular cylinder open at the top is filled with liquid (specific
gra"ity #.&) and rotated about its "ertical ais at such speed that half the
liquid spills out. :ressure at the centre of the bottom is < one fourth of its
"alue when cylinder was full.
*&
3,. .ead loss in turbulent flow in pipe "aries directly as the Q square root of
"elocity.
3/. 4elocity of fluid particle at the centre fo pipe section is Q a"erage.
33. +roude number is useful in the calculation of Q 0ater .ammer.
38. .ammer blow in pipe occurs when Q +low of fluid through pipe is
gradually brought to rest by the closing the "al"e.
3A. Tranquil flow must always occur Q abo"e critical depth.
3D. The flow of any fluid, real or ideal satisfies Q EewtonFs )econd law of
motion, E 5 AF D GB du%dy and fluid cannot generate a boundary.
8'. 1oundary layer separation is caused by Q reduction of pressure gradient
to 2ero.
8#. $n laminar flow Q EewtonFs law of "iscosity applies.
8&. The purpose of surge tan! in a pipe line is to minimi2e friction losses in
pipe.
8*. An air "essel is pro"ided at the summit in a siphon Q to a"oid an
interruption in the flow.
8,. # E(m
&
pressure is equi"alent to Q # :ascal, #'
</
bar, #'
<&
!g(m sec
&
.
8/. %ach number is defined as Q it is the ratio of inertia force to pressure
force.
83. :rocess of diffusion of one liquid into other through a semi<permeable
membrane is called Q Osmosis.
88. @ynamic "iscosity of most of the gases with rise in temperature Q
@ecreases.
8A. -orrect statement: -entre of buoyancy is located at the centre of gra"ity
of the displaced liquid, +or stability of a submerged body, centre of
gra"ity of the body must lie directly below the centre of buoyancy, $f c.g.
and centre of buoyancy coincide, the submerged body must lie at neutral
equilibrium for all positions.
**
8D. To replace a compound pipe by a new pipe, the pipes will be equi"alent
when both the pipes ha"e same Q length and loss of head.
A'. if the pressure at the inlet of a pipe is D' !g(cm& and the pressure drop
o"er the pipe line is #' !g(cm&, the efficiency of transmission is Q //./G
A#. The resultant upward pressure of a fluid on a floating body is equal to the
weight of fluid displaced by the body. This definition is according to Q
1uoyancy.
A&. +ree surface of a liquid beha"es li!e a sheet and tends to contract to
smallest possible area due to the force of Q +riction.
A*. 5eynolds number for non circular cross section is Q &4.:(, V.
A,. The point in the immerse body through which the resultant pressure of the
liquid may be ta!en to act is !nown as Q %etacentre.
A/. +or pipe flows, at constant diameter, head is proportional to Q (flow)&.
A3. 4alue of coefficient of compressibility for water at ordinary pressure and
temperature is Q &#''' !g(cm*.
A8. A balloon lifting in air follows the Q Archimedes :rinciple.
AA. )urface tension Q decreases with fall in temperature.
AD. 4iscosity of water in comparison with mercury is Q .igher.
D'. .ydraulic grade line as compared to the centre line of conduit Q )hould
always abo"e.
D#. )peed of a submarine can be measured by Q :irani gauge.
D&. Thic!ness of laminar boundary layer at a distance x from the leading edge
o"er flat plate "aries as Q x.
D*. Thic!ness of turbulent boundary layer at a distance x from the leading
edge o"er a flat plate "aries as Q x
,(/
.
D,. The shear stress in a turbulent pipe flow Q is 2ero at the centre and
increased linearly to the wall.
*,
D/. The "iscosity of a fluid "aries with Q temperature and for gases it
decreases with increase in temperature. for gases it increases with
temperature.
D3. The generation capacity of worldFs largest capacity hydroelectric plant is
of the order of Q /''' %0.
D8. The turbine that cannot be installed in high plant is Q 9aplan tur+ine,
+rancis turbine (.ori2ontal), :elton wheel (hori2ontal and "ertical).
DA. A fluid is a substance that Q always mo"es when subjected to a shearing
stress.
DD. 0hen the relationship between 5eynolds number and the friction factor is
represented by a straight line, the flow is said to be Q laminar.
#''. A pie2ometer cannot be used for pressure measurement in pipes when Q
+luid in the pipe is a gas.
#'#. %ost economical section of a triangular channel is an isosceles triangle
with "erte angle of Q D' degree.
#'&. The pressure in meters of oil (specific gra"ity .A/) equi"alent to ,&./ m of
water is Q /' m.
#'*. The line traced by a single fluid particle as it mo"es o"er a period of time
is called Q :ath line.
#',. +or a gi"en cross< section area, most economical channel section has
maimum Q discharge.
#'/. A hot wire anemometer is used for the measurement of Q "elocity of gas.
#'3. @rag force on a ,':# scale model of a ship is measured to be #' E.
+orce epected on the ship will be Q 3,' !E.
#'8. The coefficient of discharge of an orifice "aries with Q 5eynoldsFs
number.
#'A. The shear stress distribution for a fluid flowing in between the parallel
plates, both at rest is Q 2ero at the mid point and "aries linearly with
distance from mid plane.
*/
#'D. +riction drag is generally larger than the pressure drag in Q +low past a
cylinder.
##'. An imaginary cur"e drawn through a flowing fluid in such a way that the
tangent to it at any point gi"es the direction of "elocity of flow at that
point is !nown as Q )tream line.
###. -apillarity is due to Q Adhesion and cohesion.
##&. The losses are maimum in Q Turbulent flow.
##*. in a "enturieter, length of di"ergent cone as compared to the length of
con"ergent cone is Q .alf.
##,. :rinciple of similitude forms the basis of Qdesigning models so that the
result can be con"erted to prototypes.
##/. $f 4 is the mean "elocity of flow, then according to @arcy<0eisbach
equation for pipe flow, energy loss o"er a length of pipe is proportional to
Q #(4.
##3. The equation of continuity holds good when the flow Q "elocity is
uniform at all the cross section. $t is based on 1ernoulliFs theorym.
##8. -a"itation will begin when Q :ressure is increased.
##A. .ead loss in turbulent flow in a pipe Q "aries in"ersely as "elocity.
##D. A bloc! of ice floating o"er water in a "essel slowly melts in it. 0ater
le"el in the "essel will Q remains same.
#&'. Total pressure on the top of a closed cylindrical "essel of radius r filled
with liquid is proportional to Q r&.
#&#. The drag coefficient for laminar flow "aries as Q 5e
<#(&
.
#&&. The magnitude of water hammer depends on Q Kength of pipe, elastic
properties of pipe material, rate of stoppage of flow.
#&*. $n )eries pipe applications< flow increases.
#&,. +or no shoc! wa"e to de"elop, when flow ta!ing place through a
con"erging di"erging tube, mach number at eit should be Q #.
*3
#&/. The "elocity distribution for flow between fied parallel plates Q is
constant o"er the cross section.
#&3. The most economical section o a rectangular channel for maimum
discharge is obtained when its depth is equal to Q the breadth .
#&8. 0hen a fluid flows in concentric circles, it is !nown as Q +ree circular
motion.
#&A. 5egion downstream from the streamline where separation ta!es place
from the boundary is !nown as Q ca"itation.
#&D. The ri"er flow during floods can be classified as Q unsteady non uniform
flow.
#*'. )eparation is caused by Q the boundary layer thic!ness reducing to 2ero.
#*#. 0a!e always occurs Q after a separation point.
#*&. $n a flow field, at the stagnation point Q Total energy is 2ero.
#**. Total drag on a body is the sum of Qfriction drag and pressure drag.
#*,. The turbulent boundary layer thic!ness "aries as Q #(/.
#*/. $n a free "orte flow the tangential "elocity is Q directly proportional to
the square of the radial distance.
#*3. The radial component of "elocity in a free "orte is Q in"ersely
proportional to the square of the radial distance.
#*8. The upper surface of the weir o"er which water flows is !nown as Q
-rest.
#*A. +ire hose is generally made of Q cylindrical shape.
#*D. -ho!ing in pipe flow implies Q negati"e flow ta!es place due to water
hammer.
#,'. +riction factor for pipes depends on Q rate of flow, fluid density, "iscosity,
pipe roughness.
#,#. $n the case of flow through parallel pipes Q head loss in each pipe is same.
#,&. To replace a pipe of diameter @ by n parallel pipes of diameter d, the
formula used is Q @( n
&(/
.
*8
#,*. :ower transmitted through a pipe is maimum when the loss of head due
to friction is Q One third of the total head supplied.
#,,. Koss of head due to friction in a pipe of uniform diameter with "iscous
flow is equal to Q #3(5e.
#,/. .ydraulic grade line for any flow system as compared to energy line is Q
1elow.
#,3. A fluid in which resistance to deformation is independent of the shear
stress, is !nown as Q Eewtonian fluid.
#,8. :ressure drag results from Q occurrence of a wa!e.
#,A. %odel analysis of aeroplanes and projectiles mo"ing at supersonic speed
are based on Q %ach number.
#,D. 1uff body surface Q does not coincide with stream line.
#/'. -entre of pressure on an inclined pane is Q below the centroid.
#/#. )eparation of flow occurs when pressure gradient Q changes abruptly.
#/&. The +riction head lost due to the flow of a "iscous fluid through a circular
pipe of length K and diameter d with a "elocity ", and pipe friction factor
f is Q , f K "
&
( d.& g.
#/*. :ressure coefficient is the ratio of pressure force to Q inertia force.
#/,. -omponent of the force of fluid on the body (which is generally inclined
to the direction of motion of the body) parallel to the direction of motion
is called Q drag.
#//. 0eber number is the ratio of $nertia force to Q )urface tension.
#/3. -ritical "elocity is Q Terminal "elocity.
#/8. The function of surge tan! is to Q 5elie"e the pipe line from ecessi"e
pressure produced by water hammer.
#/A. >nits of Iinematic "iscosity are Q m
&
(sec. it is gi"en by dynamic
"iscosity( density.
#/D. 0ith increase in pressure the bul! modulus of elasticity Q $ncreases.
#3'. .ead loss due to a sudden enlargement in a pipe is Q ("
#
< "
&
)
&
( &g. J J
*A
#3#. The metacentre is Q point of intersection of buoyant force and centre line
of body.
#3&. The loss of head due to sudden contraction is gi"en by Q
#3*. The units of dynamic or absolute "iscosity is Q Eewton<sec(m&.
#3,. A body floats in stable equilibrium Q when %etacentre is abo"e c.g.
#3/. )peed of sound in water is equal to (I is bul! modulus and p is density) Q
R!(p.
#33. 5atio between inertia forces and the square root of pressure force is
!nown as Q 6uler number.
#38. The laminar boundary layer thic!ness "aries as Q #(&.
#3A. $n a flow field, stagnation point is a point where the Q "elocity is 2ero.
#3D. 6ulerFs equation in the differential flow of motion of liquids is gi"en by Q
dp (p C g d2 C" d".
#. .yraulic jump occurs when Q flow is supercritical and adequate down
stream depth is a"ailable.
&. .ydraulic jump is used for Q reducing the energy of flow.
*. The unit of specific speed is Q 5.:.%.
,. A draft tube con"erts Q Iinetic energy into mechanical energy.
/. the .ydraulic radius is gi"en by Q area di"ided by wetted perimeter.
3. 5unning away speed of a pelton wheel is Q no load speed when go"ernor
mechanism fails.
8. :riming is required in Q -entrifugal pumps.
A. )pouting "elocity is Q ideal "elocity of jet.
D. %ultistage centrifugal pumps are used to obtain Q high head.
#'..igh specific speed of a a pump implies that it is a Q aial flow pump.
##. A plot between power generated in %0 and time is !nown as Q Koad
cur"e.
*D
#&.$n centrifugal pumps, maimum efficiency is obtained when the blades
are < 1ent bac!wards.
#*.$ndicator diagram of a reciprocating pump is a graph between Q +low "s
swept "olume.
#,.A hydraulic accumulator normally consists of < a cylinder and a ram.
#/.+or hydraulic turbines Q : 9 I E
*
.
#3.A draft tube is used with Q 5eaction turbine.
#8.Koad factor is equal to Q a"erage load o"er a certain period(maimum
load occurring during the same period.
#A.The angle of draft tube is Q less than A degree.
#D.The percentage slip for a reciprocating pump is defined as the percentage
of Q (theoretical discharge Q actual discharge) ( theoretical
discharge.
&'.Oerall efficiency of a centrifugal pump is equal to Q "olumetric efficiency
manometric efficiency mechanical efficiency.
&#.To a"oid ca"itation in centrifugal pumps Q suction pressure should be
high.
&&.5atio of wor! done on the wheel to the energy supplied to the turbine is
called Q .ydraulic efficiency.
&*.
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